KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

College Of Education Open And Distance Learning

Department Of Foundations

Module
Human Growth and Development

By
Ms. Kwagala Persis
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table Of Contents .................................................................................................................... 2

Course Outline.......................................................................................................................... 3
The Psychology Of Human Growth And Development .......................................................... 6
Factors That Influence Growth And Development .................................................................. 8
Principles Of Human Growth And Development (Piaget, Erikson ......................................... 9
Sample Questions ..................................................................................................................... 9
Theories Of Human Growth And Development .................................................................... 10
1) Behavioural/ Learning Theory (Skinner, Pavlov, Watson) ................................................... 10
2) The Cognitive Theory (Piaget Brunner, Etc) ........................................................................ 10
3) Psycho-Analytic Theory (Freud, Erikson, Etc) ..................................................................... 11
4) Humanistic Theory (Maslow, Carl Rogers, Collaizi) ........................................................... 12
Stages Of Human Development ............................................................................................. 13
Prenatal Development ............................................................................................................ 15
Review Questions................................................................................................................... 18
Personality Development ....................................................................................................... 19
Psycho-Anal Ytic/Psycho-Sexual Theory .............................................................................. 20
Sample Question .................................................................................................................... 21
Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget) .................................................................................... 22
Social Development ............................................................................................................... 27
Language Development.......................................................................................................... 30
Theories Of Language Development ..................................................................................... 30
Communication Disorders...................................................................................................... 33
Moral Development................................................................................................................ 33
Review Questions................................................................................................................... 35
Reading List ........................................................................................................................... 36

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COURSE OUTLINE
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE
This course is intended to give learners knowledge on how growth and development occurs
throughout the life span. It also enables learners to determine why the changes pattern occur and
understand the potentials and weaknesses of individuals and how best promoted or minimized
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this course unit, learners should be able to:
• Explain the key words Growth, Development and Maturation
• Discuss the factors that influence growth and development
• Outline the Principles of Human growth and development
• Discuss the Prenatal Development and stages of physical growth
• Describe Cognitive development and its impacts to teachers
• Discuss Personality development
• Explain Social development and its implications to teachers
• Discuss how Children develop Language and the theories
• Describe Moral development by Kohlberg and its implications to teachers

COURSE CONTENT
Nature and scope of human growth and development
• Basic concepts of growth, maturation and development
• Factors influencing human growth and development
Nature/hereditary factors
Nurture/Environmental factors
Will
Implications to education
Principles of human growth and development
Basic stages in human growth and development
Genetic development/ Biological foundations
Genetic Foundations
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Prenatal Development

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 Psychological issues in physical development
Implications to teachers
• Personality development by (Sigmund Freud)
• Language development and its implications
• Communication representation and language
• Language development up to adolescence, phonemes, semantic, morphemes, syntax and
pragmatic development
• Factors that influence language growth. Exposure, Gender differences, Rank of the child
in the family, Motivation and Maturation
• How the teacher can help the student develop good language skills
Cognitive Development
• Definition
• Infancy: Sensory motor
• Early Childhood
• Later Childhood
• Adolescence
• Factors influencing intellectual development and achievements
• Implications for teachers
Social Growth and Development
• Infancy
• Early Childhood
• Later Childhood
• Adolescence
• Adulthood
• Implications for the teachers
Moral Growth and development
• Morality of human acts
• Sources of Morality
• Conscience
• Kohlberg’s model of moral development: Pre-conventional, Conventional and Post-
Conventional levels

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• Evaluation of Kohlberg’s model
• Educational Implications of Moral development
MODE OF DELIVERY
• Lecture Method
• Question and Answer
• Group discussions
• Reading Assignments
• Presentations

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
• Whiteboard and makers
• Flip Charts
• LCD projectors
• CDs, DVDs and Tapes

COURSE ASSESSMENT
• Continuous Assessment Tests 20%
• Group and Individual Projects 20%
• End of Semester Exams 60%

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THE PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Introduction

This study covers the changing patterns within an individual throughout his/her lifespan. It
attempts to explore life-long changing patterns within an individual in relation to the teaching and
learning process.

Growth and development processes of an individual are quite complex, ranging between
intellectual, emotional, physical, and moral changes which have got both a direct and indirect on
one’s behaviour and performance. These behaviours are categorized by 3 major components.

1) Adaptive behaviours: these include an individual’s ability to organize stimuli into meaningful
patterns or perceivable relationships to cope with the changing environment e.g. what to we do
when the weather, location, teaching methods change? We change accordingly

2) Personal-social behavior: These are behavioral aspects that compromise one’s personal
reactions to society e.g is the individual friendly or is always alone? Does the particular individual
believe in the virtue of sharing or not?

3) Language behavior: This includes all aspects of visible and audible forms of communication
e.g. words, gestures, etc.

Key Words

Growth

This refers to the physical changes due to an increase in the individual organs or tissues or
structure, it is the progressive and continuous increase of an organism right form birth e.g. weight,
height, size, etc. It is therefore the increase in the actual biological components.

Development

This refers to the changes within the characteristics and functions of one’s body structure, organs,
and tissues. These changes are gradual, qualitative, orderly, and durable in nature.

Maturation

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This is the development to full capacity. The individuals’ organs, tissues and structure can now be
maximumly utilized by the organism. It refers to the genetic changes that result from the interaction
between the genetic make-up and the environment which leads the organism to fully utilize the
body accordingly.

Objectives Of The Study

1. To describe and explain development. Therefore, psychologists should endeavour to observe

the behaviours of people of different age groups in order to ascertain how these changes take place
over a period of time. To describe human development, the focus is on the typical (similar) patterns
of change and the individual variations (differences).

2. To explain development i.e. to assess or determine why the changes occur in that pattern and
why these differences occur e.g. why the changes occur in that pattern and why these differences
occur e.g why are the Karimojong warriors, Bakonjo short and Bakiga rough? What remedies are
available?

3. To optimize development. To apply knowledge obtained about human development in an

attempt to promote care. This is the long run promotes a healthy relationship between parents and
children, teachers and learners, and helping those who are socially disadvantaged.

4. To understand the potentials and weaknesses of individuals and how best they can be promoted
or minimized respectively.

5. To find out peoples abnormalities and why they occur.

6. To understand and analyze the role of external factors towards the individual’s growth and
development patterns.

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FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
1. Biological factors / hereditary factors

This is the same as hereditary or genetics. These are traits or characteristics that are transmitted
from generation to generation. They are usually from parents into their off springs. These factors
can be reflected in body structure, intelligence, colour, talent, etc

These qualities are determined at conception, may not easily be spotted at birth and most
importantly, heredity is not necessarily from close relatives but may involve a progression of
ancestors.

Therefore, the teacher needs to discover the background of the learner in order to provide an
environment, which will facilitate the growth of desirable qualities and limit the growth of
undesirable ones.

2. Environmental factors

These are life experiences or factors with in our life that we go through right from birth to death
e.g. conditions around our birth, how we feed, people around us, etc. a good environment facilitates
or enhances inherited traits e.g. a child who has inherited the trait of must become a good musician
if she goes through a school like Namasagali college. On the other hand, a bad environment
deters/slows down inherited e.g. wars, insecurity, poor feeding etc.

Therefore teachers should provide a healthy environment which will enhance good growth. The
teacher should make learning easy and interesting through reinforcement, humor, well-planned
lessons, and cordial teacher-student relationship.

3. Will/freedom (interactional perspectives)

The individual is given the capacity by hereditary and environmental factors to develop but the
will or the power of self-determination to choose which capacity to develop or not is paramount.
There will is the capacity or personal choice either to promote inherited trait or not e.g. in a
university, no one is forced to attend lecturers. Some students may choose to be serious. Therefore,
the will is how we organize ourselves to promote the God-Given potentials in the environment.

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Therefore the teacher should provide conditions to guide students to develop a strong will that can
enable them to positively shape their hereditary traits and overcome negative environment e.g.
through guidance and counseling.

PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT (PIAGET, ERIKSON

1) Processes of human growth and development are not uniform in all human beings

2) The processes of growth and development are orderly and continuous, however, they are gradual
and hence cannot easily be noticed, i.e. there is no sharp demarcation between these stages.

3) The processes of growth and development are directional, that is, they take a particular trend,
starting from some point and moving to another. There is external direction e.g. size, shape, etc
and internal direction of internal organs

4) The processes of growth and development are gender-related e.g. females usually develop faster
than males.

5) These processes tend to be influenced by the environment which either accelerates them or
retards them.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
Differentiate between the concepts Growth, Maturation and Development

Outline the principles of Human growth and development

Explain the three major factors that influence growth and development

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THEORIES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Various psychologists have put forward some theories or perspectives trying to explain the nature
of human beings.

1) BEHAVIOURAL/ LEARNING THEORY (Skinner, Pavlov, Watson)

According to this theory,

a) Human beings are born on a tabula rasa (empty), Therefore they become filled by the conditions
under which we live. Man is born neither good or bad, where he lives will make him what he will
be.

b) Human behavior is acquired by learning from the environment. It is based on overt or observable
behavior. They don’t judge by speculating but by observing

c) Human behavior is acquired and can be modified e.g. bad to good, good to bad.

d) Human behaviours are mechanistic (machines with various parts) that you just set in motion to
produce what you want. We need to be provoked to behave in different ways or to change

e) Learning is not found only at school. It can be informal in nature.

f) Human beings are deterministic, they are determined by circumstances and therefore should not
be blamed or credited.

g) The role of the adult is to shape the child to socially acceptable standards of behavior.

2) THE COGNITIVE THEORY (Piaget Brunner, etc)

a) Human beings are rational (objective) who can think reason and create their own reality.
Therefore they are responsible for the own action.

b) Human beings are active, competent and can construct an understanding of their society.

c) Human beings are motivated by the basic competence to solve their own problems. They have
the ability to solve problems.

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d) Behaviour is an interaction between the organism and the environment in a reciprocal manner.
They can control the environment and vice versa.

e) Human beings are born with positive tendencies e.g. curiosity, investigation, ability to
understand, etc.

f) Human behaviour/ nature is as a result of both nature and nurture factors. Some human beings
believe that human development is as a result of biological factors (nature) e.g. genetics while
others believe in the nurture (environment) influence e.g. poor feeding leading to shortness,
poverty leading to uglinessss, etc

3) PSYCHO-ANALYTIC THEORY (Freud, Erikson, etc)

a) Human beings are driven to act by motives and conflicts they experience and later on what to
express/ suppress.

b) Behaviour is a product of earlier experiences (fixation).

c) Human beings are irrational (not objective but subjective). They don’t think, reason and they
are governed by emotions, appetites and feelings ( me and me and no one else).

d) Human beings are organismic i.e. they are constantly re-directing their energy towards some
goals.

e) Behaviour is a compromise between one’s needs and the societal expectations. Sometimes we
bend our principles for the sake of society/ others.

f) Human beings are born with strong biological urges that must be satisfied e.g. hunger, thirst,
warmth, etc. These urges are of three categories;-

i) ID: This is constantly urging the person to seek immediate satisfaction e.g. Do it, go, Don’t fear,
etc.

ii) EGO. This is always trying to control the urges of the ID e.g. think twice, wait, are you sure?
Etc.

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iii) SUPEREGO. This is always trying to internalize and appreciate the values of society

4) HUMANISTIC THEORY (Maslow, Carl Rogers, Collaizi)

a)Human beings are unique and therefore, they are totally different form each other

e)Every human being is born with potentials which they try to strive to develop to the fullest

c)Human beings can make choices and priorities through their own interests, they priotize and
make choices among many options

d)Human beings are self-actualizing .They aim at attaining something

e)They are self –determining and creative and imaginative

f)They have the potential to achieve

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STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human development is the journey that humans go through from conception to old age. These
stages are not uniform and the transaction from one stage to another tends to overlap.

1. Prenatal Stage (O-Birth)

This is the period of about 9 months from conception to birth. It is a period of rapid cell
multiplication and division. It is when organ formation takes place and when most genetic
abnormalities take place.

Therefore, there is need for mothers to maintain good health status when they are expecting by
having good nutrition and balanced diet. Fathers should ensure the mother's emotional comfort
and ensure strict antenatal visits.

2. Infancy Stage(O-2years)Toddler

This is the period when the child learns to cope with the new world. Most of the activities of the
child are controlled by reflex actions. The child is completely dependent upon parents and
caretakers and the child develops a strong attachment to the parents and siblings. This is a period
of the development of locomotion skills and the child is characterized by phobic (fear) reactions
towards strange objects or environments. Most of the child's communication is through crying,
bubbling, etc and the mouth is the greatest source of satisfaction.

Therefore children need adequate care, love and affection from those around them. They also need
enough protection against external harm and also need enough company. There is need for good
nutrition and also to be understood in order for their language development to be facilitated.

3. Childhood Stage(2-12years)

a) Early childhood (2-5years).This is dominated by representational thinking

b) Middle childhood(5-9years).This is dominated by organized thinking

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c) Late childhood (9-12years). This is dominated by the development of effective skills,
social skills and intellectual skills

In the childhood stage, children are active at play, they are highly imitative of what they see or
hear, it is a period of rapid growth of body structure, muscles, skeleton, and motor development.
Children experience expanded social horizon and they start to look for their peers. They are highly
inquisitive and they ask why, what, when, etc. It is a period of language development and gender
stereo-typing and peer group norms.

Therefore children should be given adequate time to play, talk, eat and should be protected. They
should be allowed to socialize, communicate and think.

4.Dolescence Stage(12-19years)

This period marks a transition from childhood to adulthood. It is a period of biological maturation
especially secondary sexual characteristics e.g. breasts, beards, menstruation, etc. It is also a period
of crisis and identity formation. It is also a period of development of heterosexuality relationships
(strong linking to the opposite sex). It is also a period of juvenile delinquencies. They also
experience hypothetic deductive reasoning (defensive and ever ready with answers)

Therefore, teachers and parents should appreciate that these adolescents are undergoing a sensitive
period of growth and development and therefore need help other than criticizing them. They should
be given freedom to interact and should be treated with due respect. They also need constant
guidance and counseling

5. Adult Hood St Age(20-55years)

a) Early Adulthood(20-35years)

b )Middle adulthood(35-45years)

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c) Late adulthood (45-55years)

The general characteristics of this stage are:

Adults finish basic education; it is a time of assuming responsibilities i.e. socially, economically,
morally, physically, etc. The adults have acquired a variety of experiences they can learn from.
This is a time when adults are supposed to settle down and begin to care for the young ones.

6. Old Age (55 Years And Above)

This is usually termed to be retirement age from public duties. During this period, the individual
looks back at all the achievements or failures. This may either be a world of regret or fame.

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Human development starts when the male sperm visits the female egg in the process of fertilization
to form a zygote. The zygote remains in the mother's womb for about 9months. Technically, this
is the period known as gestation. During fertilization, the zygote acquires certain substances known
as chromosomes. The zygote has got 23 parts of these chromosomes. 220f these are responsible
for the development of the different body parts and they are technically known as autosomes. The
remaining pair is responsible for the development of the reproductive system. They are referred to
as sex¬ chromosomes. The autosomes are similar in all humans but the sex chromosomes are
similar in only females (XX) and they are different in males (XY).

The sex chromosomes are responsible for the sex/gender of the child. If the male sex cell (sperm)
that fertilizes the ovum with the X chromosome is X, then the product will be XX and the gender
would be a girl. But if the male sex cell that fertilizes is Y, the product will be XY (hence a boy).
The chromosomes carry chemical-like materials called genes. These are responsible for genetic
qualities transmitted from parents to off springs. These genes can either be dominant or recessive.
Scientifically, the mechanism of inheriting genes from parents is called genotype whereas the
mechanism that explains the influence of inheritance (the physical appearance of the organism
with regard to the inherited traits) is called phenotype.

STAGES OF PRENATALSTAGE

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 1. Germinal Stage (O-2weeks)

This is the zygote/ovum stage. The zygote divides itself into two cells through the process of
mitosis. By the time the zygote reaches the uterus (4-5days after fertilization) it is a cluster of about
500 cells known as a blastocyst. The inner part of this becomes the embryo.

2. EMBRYONIC STAGE (2-8weeks)

At this stage, the embryo develops into a protection sac known as the amniotic sac, from where
three layers develop namely the outer layer(ectoderm), middle layer(mesoderm" and inner(
endoderm). The outer layer develops into the sensory, skin, brain, and spinal code systems. The
middle layer develops into circulatory and skeletal systems. The inner layer develops into the
digestive and respiratory systems. This is the period where the major body organs begin to form
and the activity is known as organogenesis. This is the most critical period of prenatal
development, prone to genetical and developmental abnormalities. This is the most critical period
of prenatal development, prone to genetical and developmental abnormalities outside the uterus.
The mother experiences labour pains to facilitate delivery.

3. Foetal Stage(8weeks-Birth)

By this stage, the basic human structures have been formed. It is a period for linking up of body
systems. The foetus now begins to develop reflexive behaviors e.g. kicking, turning, stretching
and reacting towards external stimuli. By the time it comes to seven months, the foetus has
developed the main parts and can now sustain life outside the uterus.

4. The Delivery Period

A period when the child is ready to come outside the uterus. The mother experiences labour pains
to facilitate delivery.

Genetic And Development Deffects

The prenatal stage of development can easily be subjected to genetic and developmental
abnormalities. These defects may later affect the individual's cognitive and psychosocial

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potentials. Some of these are chromosomal abnormalities which come about due to faulty paring
or division or placing of chromosomes.

A. Chromosomal Abnormalities

1) Down's syndrome

This usually happens when there is faulty division of the chromosomes leading to an extra
chromosome e.g. they become 47 instead of 46. These may happen due to the mother's old age.
The individual with such a syndrome tends to have such features e.g. flattened face, folded or
slanting eyes, small head, protruding tongue. These people tend to have retarded intellectual
development. They usually die at and early age.

2)Turner's syndrome

This is a sex-linked chromosomal abnormality. It usually happens in females due to lack of X-

chromosomes. Individuals with such a syndrome tend to have poor development of secondary sex
characteristics e.g. having too small breasts, delayed menstruation, etc. Such people often have
fertility and heart problems.

3) Klineffelter's syndrome

This is a sex-linked abnormally which usually happens in males due to and extra sex chromosome
leading to either XXX or YYX. In females, it is called triple X syndrome. The males develop
feminine characteristics e.g. sharp voices, breasts, etc. They are also with brain, fertility and
overweight problems.

B. Teratogenic Factors

These are environmental factors which directly or indirectly influence the development of a child.
They include:-

1. Maternal diseases which may interfere with the development of the body structures of the
children e.g. STDs. these may lead to problems e.g. blindness, heart problems, mental retardation,
still birth, etc.

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2. Alcohol and drug consumption. Consumption of alcohol and drugs by the mother in large
amounts may lead to foetal alcoholic syndrome (F AS). The child may be born with mental
retardation, bone deformations, underweight, etc.

3. Mother's nutrition. Inadequate diet by the mother leads to malnutrition especially if it is deficient
of enough proteins and calories. Such children may have mental retardation, deformities in the
skeleton systems and general weakness.

4. Radiation: too much exposure to x-rays and other radioactive rays may have a negative effect
on the unborn baby. Such children have got high risks of physical deformities high risks of
miscarriages to mothers, etc.

5. Maternal stress (mother's emotional state). The state of mind of the mother may change the
physical, emotional, and psychological state which will affect the unborn baby.

6. Age of the mother: delivering when you are too old or too young may lead to delivery
complications. Such children are prone to various sicknesses and other physical problems. There
are also instances of still birth.

7. Hereditary factors: Children may inherit certain abnormalities from their parents which may
affect their future functioning e.g. sickle cells, asthma, heart failure, etc.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the behavioral learning theory and Psycho-analytic theory showing how they try
to explain the nature of human being

2. Explain the environmental factors that may interfere with the child’s development

3. Describe the stages of prenatal development

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PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Sigmund Freud intensively studied personality development. He first used hypnosis as a method
and later used free association and finally used introspection (thinking through his thoughts and
by basing on what someone is telling)

According to him, Freud found out that personality development is based on 2 principles

i.e.

• Psychic determination

• Unconscious motivation

1. Psychic determination: is the tendency that mental activities are caused by events

which precede /come before them

2. Unconscious motivation: This is being completely unaware of processes which guide our lives.
He concluded that this motivation hinges upon the energy forces i.e. Eros and Anatos.

According to Freud, personality development comprises of three psychic structures e.g. ID, EGO,
and SUPEREGO.

The Id is unconscious irrational, selfish and uncompromising. It represents the biological and
unconscious drive. It operates on the pleasure principle.

The EGO is rational. It is patient and assesses the consequences of the ID and controls them. It
begins from the age of2-3years. It heavily acts on the reality principle.

The SUPERECGO represents the conscious mind. It is the conscious of what is right or wrong and
begins to appear from the age of 7. It represents the moral principles. Any imbalance between three
forces leads to conflict in behavior.

According to Freud, there are 4 personalities

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1.Melancholic i.e. always depressed

2.Sanguine i.e. cheerful

3.Phlegmatic i.e. unemotional

4.Choleric i.e. irritable

PSYCHO-ANAL YTIC/PSYCHO-SEXUAL THEORY

1. Oral stage(O-2 years)

2. Anal stage

3. Phallic stage

4. Latency stage

5. Genital stage

(See introductory psychology)

Implications to Education

• Teachers should endeavor to understand past growth conditions of students because their
current behaviors might be related to their past.

• Teachers/parents should provide relevant and systematic training that will mould their
behavior and characters e.g. toilet manners.

• Students need to receive satisfaction out of their growth stages. Therefore teachers should
provide conducive environments that will enable students to derive satisfaction.

• Teachers need to provide a role model from whom students may improve their personality
traits.

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SAMPLE QUESTION
1. Explain Freud’s structure of personality

2. Discuss Freud’s theory of psycho-analytic development

3. Explain the concept of Fixation

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (JEAN PIAGET)
Cognition is knowing and understanding. The major concept here is intelligence which is a
relative, broad and abstract concept with different meanings. Intelligence or cognition means those
inner processes and products of the human mind that lead to knowing and understanding and
includes activities e.g. remembering, relating, synthesizing, imagination and creativity .

..

IQ is always used to measure intelligence (Intelligence Quotient) which is the ratio of the mental
age to chronological age. An average IQ is 100%.High IQ is high intelligence and the reverse is
true .l 00-140% is high, 140 and above is genius, 70% is dull.

The theory of cognitive development was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist who
developed his theory by observing the behaviour of his children by analyzing the incorrect answers
that these children gave in response to questions. He later concluded that intelligence appears to
function on the basis of adaptation to environment (biological orientation). This adaptation
involves three processes:-

1. Assimilation: this is the ability to acquire the truth or understanding certain natural tendencies
e.g. fire is hot, water makes us wet, etc.

2. Accommodation. The ability to develop new or modify behavior to handle new situations e.g.
ability to adapt to new environment, overcome hunger, etc.

3. Equilibrium (balance)

According to Piaget, there are 4 stages of cognitive development:-

1. Sensori-Motor Stage (O-2years).

The child is not yet capable of thinking but operates mainly by reflex actions based on motor
activities e.g. grasping objects, kicking legs, etc. These reflexes always disappear by 3-6moths. the
main reactions are those that are circular e.g. intelligence by discovering satisfying experiences

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(accidental discovery).between 4-8months, the child develops secondary circular response
reactions. It is during this time when the child attempts to repeat pleasurable experiences which
were initially discovered by accident. Therefore the child attempts to modify the events that had
occurred accidentally. Between 8-12months, the child begins to coordinate the experiences of
secondary circular reactions (Modification). Therefore, the infants begin to coordinate previously
learnt experiences and they develop goal-directed behaviors. Between 12-l8months, the child
develops tertiary circular responses. In this period, the child's mental capacity begins to be
dominated by experimental tendencies because of the likely consequence attached to them.
Therefore, the child becomes aware that certain behaviors produces certain consequences. By 24
moths, the child is in transition to symbolic thinking and therefore the child develops the ability to
use primitive symbols i.e. symbols which allow the children to transform events into simple images

2. Pre-Operational Stage (2-7years)

During this period, the child's thinking is highly symbolic with mental representation. Therefore
the child's thinking is dominated by the ability to make objects represent certain events. It is the
beginning of shifting mentally from using primitive symbols to sophisticated symbols. This stage
is divided into 2:-

a) Pre-conceptual stage(2-4years)

The child has the following mental characteristics

i) Symbolic function i.e. the ability to mentally represent an object that may not be present e.g. at
the sight of a flask, a child knows there is something to drink

ii) Symbolic play: this is using materials or objects to represent reality e.g. a doll to a girl or a car
to a boy in form of toys

iii) Transductive thinking. This is thinking from particular i.e. children have a tendency of shifting
a particular situation to another particular situation e.g. if his father has a blue car, the child will
always know that every blue car is his dad's car.

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iv) Object Permanency: this is the tendency to be aware that something exists even when not seen
e.g. that an aunt always carries for them sweets in her handbag

v) Physical concept development. A child begins to identify categories of objects and separate
them e.g. if plates, cups, dishes, spoons and folks are mixed up, a child can separate them at this
stage

b)Intuitive stage ( 4-7 years)

The mental characteristics are:-

i) Egocentrism: the tendency to perceive and understand the world from their own points of view
e.g. everything is mine e.g. clothing, TV, etc

ii) Centration: the tendency to focus only on one aspect of an event e.g. a child may think half of
a big glass is more than a full small glass

iii) Irreversible thinking: this is the inability to link up different issues backwards e.g. counting
from 20-1 consistently.

iv) Non-transformation: this is the process of being unable to mentally record processes of change
from one to another e.g. being unable to put piled stones in a line. This is lack of inductive and
deductive reason.

iv) Non-transformation: this is the process of being unable to mentally record processes of change
from one to another e.g. being unable to put piled stones in a line. This is lack of inductive and
deductive reason.

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11years)

The characteristics of a child's mental processes are:

a) Coherent and integrated thinking

b) Child develops the ability to organize and manipulate the world

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c) Child develops logic operations as regards to quantity, measurements, time, space, etc.
(arithmetic operations)

d) Classification. They develop the ability to arrange objects in terms of colour, size, etc.

e) Sestematic i.e. the ability to arrange objects in ascending or descending order

f) Conservation: ability to deal with relationships between different events

g) Reversibility. Ability to link up different states/elements backwards

h) Spatial operations i.e. the ability to perceive relationships between moving objects.

4. Formal Operational Stage (12-19years)

In this period, there is qualitative improvement of all stages. This stage is characterized by:-

a) Abstract reasoning

b) Logical reasoning and experimentation

c) Hypothetical deductive operation/reasoning i.e. the ability to link up the relationship between
real and impossible situations

d) Systematic problem-solving

Implications To Education

• Teachers should respect leaner's views

• Teachers should match the content with cognitive levels

• Teachers to use valid instructional materials which can provoke leaner's thinking

• Learners should be allowed to participate

• Teachers to use the discovery method

• Teachers to teach from known to unknown

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Review Questions

1. Explain Piaget’s theory of Cognitive development

2. How would you apply Piaget’s theory of Cognitive development to teaching and learning

3. Outline the implications of Piaget’s theory to teachers

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SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Human beings live by interacting with each other in a social context. In so doing, they learn to
conduct themselves in accordance to societal expectations. This is through the process called
socialization which is an ongoing process cutting across all years. Effective socialization facilitates
effective inter and intrapersonal relationships. Socialization is experienced through three main
levels:-

1. Superficial interpersonal relationship. This is the socialization among strangers or distant

people. This level is highly characterized by suspicions, uneasiness, uncertainty and calls for high
level adaptation skills e.g. self-control, politeness, self-respect and effective communication

2. Sustained interpersonal relationship. This involves socialization among people who have
interacted for some time. This level requires good working relationship e.g. patience, control of
temper, sharing, etc.

3. Sustained intimate relationship. This involves socialization among very close friends or
members of society e.g. children and parents, husband &wife, girl/boyfriends, etc. this level calls
for high level of confidentiality, trust, commitment and tolerance.

Psycho-Social Development Theory (Erikson)

Erikson intensively studied the socialization process in the context of an individual and the
environment. In attempting to do so, he came up with a theory referred to as the psychosocial
theory of social development. He observed that there are different stages of social development in
which individuals face unique challenges (crises) which have got to be resolved.

These stages are:-

1. Trust Vs Mistrust (O-2years)

During this period, he child socially is completely dependent upon the parents and caretakers. This
stage calls for love, attention, affection, protection, etc. these breed a sense of attachment and
security amongst those being taken care of if the child achieves these social aspects adequately,

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there will be manifestation of tendencies such s smiling, active play, joy, comfort, etc. therefore
the child develops trust in those people around

him. But any inadequacy in those social aspects leads to discomfort, crying, lack of sleep, misery,
etc. The child therefore develops mistrust in the people around him.

2. Autonomy Vs Shame/Doubt (2-4 Years)

During this period, the child looks at himself as capable of manipulating the environment (they
want to do whatever you do). They are learning to do things to find out what their parents and
caretakers feel about them. Most of these children's behaviors are dominated by play. Too much
control from parents and caretakers will develop in them a sense of doubt of their self worth. They
therefore begin to get ashamed of themselves. This stage is crucial for the development' of self-
concept

3. Initiative V S Gullt( 4-6years)

During this period, children begin to initiate doing certain things/activities. They want to
demonstrate their capabilities to people around them. Their social behavior is dominated by
competition. Being criticized or not appreciated develops in them a sense of guilt and they get
disappointed with themselves. Being appreciated strengthens their innovativeness, creativity and
competence.

4. Industry Vs Inferiority Stage(6-12years)

Children tend to be proud of their achievements and they learn to share with their peers. They
become active in accomplishing given tasks. This stage facilitates the development of self esteem
and is crucial for gender stereotyping. If they don't achieve this, they develop an inferiority
complex especially amongst their peers.

5. Identity Vs Confusion (12-19)

During this period, the individuals develop self-identity with group behaviors. Failure to achieve
will kill those social aspects and will cause conflict with the self which lead them into a confused
state of life.

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6. Intimacy Vs Isolation (20-40years)

During this period, the individual wants to share his/her identity with others especially the beloved
ones. The social life is organized, careful and useful for the future. The inability to achieve those
social aspects of belongingness and attachment develop in an individual a sense of isolation and
rejection and this will lead him or her into a psychological and physical isolation.

7. Generativity Vs Stagnation (40-55)

During this stage, the individual is working hard to attain a good future. The individual is busy
planning to concretize those activities which have been laid down and guiding the young
generation. The ultimate goal of the individual is to be productive socially, politically, and
economically. The individual contribution is not only limited to family but it is extended to the
community. One who doesn't achieve these aspects tends to live a stagnated state of life, full of
boredom, depression and uncertainty.

8. Integrity Vs Dispair (55+Years)

This stage stems from one has already achieved or failed to accomplish as a result of hardworking
or not being productive. It is usually retirement age where one looks back at all the achievements
and failures. From such a state, one will either live a respectful life or life of
helplessness/desperation.

Implications Of This Theory To Teachers

The teacher should be a good role model for the learners to emulate him/her

Teachers should give enough time and opportunity for the learners to experiment their discoveries

There is need for continuous guidance and counseling in all stages

Sample Question

Explain Erick Erickson’s stages of Psycho-social development

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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Language is one of the unique characteristics of humans. It is very crucial in the teaching and
learning process. By simple definition, language is a system of rules that govern communication.
Communication which involves verbal and non-verbal language development consists of 3
interrelated processes namely: encoding, transmission and decoding.

Encoding is the process of organizing messages into meaningful experiences. Transmission is the
process of conveying messages from the producer to the receiver, teacher to learner etc. It is a
channel of communication.

Decoding is the process of understanding and interpreting, internalizing the transmitted messages
in order to make sense out of it. (The three make communication effective)

NB: teachers must be selective and clear about the language used during instruction. Language
structure consists of subsystems which deal with sound meaning, overall structure and everyday
usage. These subsystems have got different components which make up language. They include
phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.

Phonology refers to sound production in language. It is the rule about sound units in a language.

Morphology is the rule about sound units to create a word(s) (behind changing tenses into verbs)

Syntax is the rule by which words are arranged to make a sentence (deals with grammar)
Semantics: this is the rule by which the underlined concepts are expressed in words or word
combination. The rule by which meaning is derived from a sentence. This may be deep or surface
meaning. Surface meaning is the meaning got from a sentence or word just the way it is plainly,
literally, etc. deep meaning is inferred basing on context (philosophical)

Pragmatics: this is the general rule that governs language usage.

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Different theories attempt to describe how language development occurs. These include the
following:-

1. Beha Vioural Theories

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These argue that language, like any other behavior is acquired through conditioning. Therefore,
they stipulate that models or caretakers/adult should engage in the process of moulding and
reinforcing the young ones. They further argue that l nguage acquisition depends on the
environmental stimuli. Therefore individuals tend to learn the language of where they are. They
believe that to be competent or not in a language depend on the reinforcement and feedback. To
them, this is called language acquisition support system

2. The Native/Psycholinguistic Theories

The nativists stress that the individual has got internal mental structures which provide them with
the capacity to learn and interpret the language. Therefore they believe that language is biologically
acquired. They further stress that human beings are born with the potential to learn the language
thus language is genetically determined. Children are born with language acquisition device
(LAD). This is an innate system potential to learn any language.

3. Cognitive Theories

These believe that language depends upon one's mental ability to learn or not to learn the language.
When an individual lacks that cognitive ability, he/she may not be good at language development.
Cognitive processes facilitate language related systems to develop any language effectively.

Stages of Language Development

The psycho linguists have advanced the view that language development progresses through a
number of stages.

1. Preverbal (0-12 Months)

During this period, the child's language development is largely through sound. At about 2 months,
babies begin to make noise (cooing). By about 6 months, the child communicates• through
bubbling. Generally this period is characterized by cooing, bubbling, smiling, etc.

2. Horophrase Stage (1-2 Years)

During this period, language development is characterized by use of one or two words which carry
meaning accompanied by nonverbal used. In this stage, children's communication is characterized

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by under and over generalization. Under generalization is use of a word in a restrictive manner e.g.
a child asking for a soda without specifically giving the choice. Overgeneralization is using a word
in abroad sense e.g. aunt for very woman.

3. Telegraphic (2-3 Or 4 Years)

During this period, language tends to be characterized by phrases or short sentences. This is the
time when children tend to omit or add certain articles. This is called duophrase e.g. 'food good',
'mummy go'

4. Fune-Tuning (4-6years)

During this period, the child develops most grammatic construction. There is great improvement
in the child's grammar. Therefore the child can follow the simple rules which govern language
construction.

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COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
In the process of language development, the individual might develop some defects. Language
disorder is the inability to use language appropriately. The disorder may be in terms of expression
i.e. inability to speak or write the language or in terms of reception (inability to understand a
language)

Such disorders include the following:-

• Aphasia: total loss of speech. you can’t communicate at all

• Dyslexia: inability to read

• Language disability-speech problems. this is characterized by distortions in

communication which prohibit an individual to use the language effectively e.g. dumbness,
scattering, stammering

• Language delay: inability to use a language at the appropriate time

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Morals are the virtues and vices. Morals differ from society to society in general and person to
person in particular. Moral development involves 3 key aspects namely: cognitive, behavioral and
affective.

Cognitive i.e. which hold that moral reasoning and therefore moral judgment of right or wrong is
deduced from the social principles.

Behavioral aspect combines the action of right and wrong basing on the environment Affective
looks at the feelings about moral behaviors.

Kohlberg's Theory

Moral development is important in trying to ensure good conduct. From this, Kohlberg asked
different age-groups related questions about whether Heinz was right or wrong to have stolen the
drug in order to save the life of his wife. From his study, Kohlberg concluded that moral
development passes through 3 levels each level with two different stages of moral reasoning or
judgment.

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1. PRE-CONVENTIONAL (2-7 years)

During this period, children's moral judgment is controlled by the consequences of their actions
(rewards and punishment). Therefore morality is governed by external factors such as parents,
teachers, elders, peers, etc. hence what is morally right or wrong is judged basing on the
consequences of ones behavior.

a) Punishment and obedience orientation: Here, the child's moral thinking and judgment is based
on punishment administered after every act. Therefore, children choose to obey rules in order to
avoid being punished. To them, any behavior which is punishable is bad and should be avoided.

b) Naive instrumental orientation: Children obey when they gain some reward.

Individuals choose to obey when it is in their interest to get favour. Thus, what is right morally is
what is rewarding.

2 CONVENTIONAL LEVEL (7-12 Years)

During this period, moral judgment is based on conforming on the moral standards of what is right
or wrong. It is aimed at getting approval by society.

a) Good boy/good girl orientation. In this stage, moral judgment is based on conforming on
the moral standards of what is right or wrong. It is aimed at getting approval by society. The
individual values trust, care and loyalty from others as the basis of moral judgment. Individuals
value approval by others. The ultimate goal is to maintain social order by following what is morally
acceptable in any social system.

b) Authority maintaining orientation: moral judgment is based on doing the right thing at the
right time as a' sign of respect for authority. Individuals tend to conform to the moral codes in
order to avoid censure by society.

3. POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL.

This is the highest level of moral reasoning where the individual is no longer externally controlled
or internally controlled. Moral reasoning is based on personal moral standards which approve from

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individual principles/values. The individual analyses the moral standards versus their impact on
his personal principles. Therefore moral codes now become more flexible and more personalized.

a) Legalistic orientation: Individuals now realize that moral values vary from person to person
and therefore they can be modified or even changed. The individual also realizes that the law
protects rights of individuals but not the will of the majority. The individual values the will but not
the majority.

b) Principled orientation/universal Ethical principles. Moral judgment is based on

conventional human rights of the individual. The person internalizes codes of moral principles on
which he/she bases to choose their own ethical principles e.g. respect for others, discipline, justice,
etc.

NB: When one is faced with a conflict between the law and conscious, then the individual satisfies
the conscious first even when such a decision may involve personal risks.

NB: When one is faced with a conflict between the law and conscious, then the individual satisfies
the conscious first even when such a decision may involve personal risks.

Implications to teachers

Teachers and caretakers should labour to instill a sense of morality amongst learners. Teachers
should be good role models. Teachers and caretakers should try to assist the learners to understand
and internalize laws and rules which govern their community. They should try to reinforce
desirable behaviors in any community. Teachers should not blame learners as not being morally
upright before observing their background.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe Kohlberg’s theory of Moral development

2. Explain the implications of Kohlberg’s theory to teachers

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READING LIST
It includes but is not limited to the following texts:

1. Introduction to Psychology by James W. Kalat, 5th Ed (1999)

2. Lifespan Developmental Psychology by Donald B Irwin and Janet A Simons (1994)

3. The growth of Logical thinking from childhood to Adolescence. Jean Piaget and Barbel
Inhelder (1999)

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