1.

Introduction to Computer Networks

 Definition: A computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers or

computing devices that allows sharing of data, resources, and services.
 Examples of networks in everyday life:
o Social networks: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram connecting
users worldwide.
o Mobile networks: Cellular networks enabling communication through calls,
SMS, and internet services.
o Airline, banking, and hospital networks: Systems ensuring efficient
operations and customer service.
o Computer networks: Infrastructure allowing devices to communicate and
share resources like printers, files, and software.
 Components of a network:
o Hosts/nodes: Devices such as computers, smartphones, and servers capable
of processing or storing data.
o Networking devices: Equipment like switches, routers, and modems enabling
interconnections.
o Media: The medium used for connectivity, either wired (e.g., Ethernet cables,
fiber optics) or wireless (e.g., Wi-Fi, radio waves).

2. Evolution of Networking

 Historical Milestones:
o 1961: The concept of ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network) was developed to connect research institutions.
o 1969: The first successful connection of ARPANET linked UCLA and
Stanford Research Institute.
o 1971: Roy Tomlinson introduced email, using the symbol "@" to separate
user and machine addresses.
o 1983: The introduction of the TCP/IP protocol standardized communication
across ARPANET.
o 1990: Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web, introducing
technologies like HTML, HTTP, and URLs.
o 1997: The first version of Wi-Fi (802.11 standard) was introduced,
revolutionizing wireless communication.
 Key Developments:
o ARPANET's commercial use: ARPANET evolved into the commercial
network Telenet.
o NSFNET Program: Extended connectivity to more institutions, forming the
backbone of the modern Internet.
o Birth of the Internet: The term "Internet" emerged in the 1980s to describe
interconnected networks using TCP/IP.

3. Types of Networks

 Personal Area Network (PAN):

 o A PAN is a small network designed for personal use. - It connects personal
devices such as smartphones, laptops, tablets, printers, and wearable devices.
Examples:
 Bluetooth connections between a phone and wireless earbuds.
 Tethering a mobile phone to a laptop using a USB cable.
o Typically, the range of a PAN is about 10 meters.\n - Can be wired (e.g., USB)
or wireless (e.g., Wi-Fi or Bluetooth).
 Local Area Network (LAN):
o LANs are networks that connect devices within a limited geographical area,
such as a home, office, or school.
o Uses Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi, or fiber optics for connectivity.
o Characteristics:
 High-speed data transfer (10 Mbps to 1 Gbps).
 Typically spans up to 1 km.
o Examples:
 A school's computer lab network.
 An office connecting multiple computers to a central server.
o Advantages:
 Easy resource sharing (e.g., printers, storage).
 High security within the premises.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
o MANs cover a city or a large campus and connect multiple LANs.
o Typically spans 30 to 40 km.
o Characteristics:
 Medium data transfer speed (lower than LAN but higher than WAN).
 Often implemented using fiber optics or microwave links.
o Examples:
 Cable television networks.
 City-wide broadband networks providing high-speed internet access.
 Wide Area Network (WAN):
o WANs span large geographical areas, such as countries or continents.
o Connects multiple LANs and MANs using routers and public communication
links (e.g., satellites, telephone lines).
o Characteristics:
 Lower data transfer speeds compared to LANs and MANs.
 High latency due to long distances.
o Examples:
 The Internet (largest WAN).
 Corporate networks connecting offices across different cities or
countries.
o Advantages:
 Enables long-distance communication and resource sharing.
 Supports a large number of devices and users.
 Other Network Types:
o Campus Area Network (CAN):
 A CAN connects multiple LANs within a university, business campus,
or military base.
 Example: University networks linking departments and libraries.
o Storage Area Network (SAN):
 A SAN provides access to consolidated, block-level data storage.
  Used in data centers for efficient storage and retrieval.
o Virtual Private Network (VPN):
 A VPN allows secure access to a private network over the internet by
creating an encrypted "tunnel."
 Commonly used for remote work or secure data transmission.

4. Network Devices

 Modem (MOdulator-DEModulator):
o Converts digital signals to analog signals for transmission over telephone lines
and vice versa.
o Types:
 DSL Modems: Use Digital Subscriber Line for internet.
 Cable Modems: Connect via cable TV networks.
o Example: Browsing the internet using a broadband connection.
 Ethernet Card (NIC):
o A Network Interface Card enables computers to connect to a wired network.
o Characteristics:
 Embedded on the motherboard or as an add-on card.
 Has a unique MAC address for identification.
o Example: Desktop computers connected to a local area network.
 RJ45 Connector:
o An 8-pin connector used to connect Ethernet cables.
o Significance: Provides a standard interface for networking devices.
 Repeater:
o Amplifies and regenerates signals to extend network range.
o Example: Used in long Ethernet cable runs exceeding 100 meters.
 Hub:
o A basic device that connects multiple devices in a network, broadcasting data
to all ports.
o Limitation: Inefficient due to data collisions in high traffic.
 Switch:
o A device that connects multiple devices and directs data to the intended
recipient based on MAC addresses.
o Advantages:
 Reduces network congestion.
 Supports full-duplex communication.
 Router:
o Connects multiple networks and determines the best path for data
transmission.
o Types:
 Wired routers: Use Ethernet cables.
 Wireless routers: Provide Wi-Fi access.
o Example: Home routers connecting local devices to the internet.
 Gateway:
o Acts as an entry and exit point for a network, translating protocols between
different systems.
o Example: Connecting an enterprise network to the public internet.
5. Networking Topologies

 Mesh Topology:
o Each device connects directly to every other device.
o Advantages:
 High reliability.
 Parallel data transmission.
o Disadvantages:
 Complex wiring.
 High cost.
 Ring Topology:
o Devices form a closed loop, with data transmitted in one direction.
o Advantages: Easy to install and low cost.
o Disadvantages: Failure of one node disrupts the entire network.
 Bus Topology:
o Devices share a common communication line.
o Advantages:
 Cost-effective.
 Easy to install.
o Disadvantages:
 Limited cable length.
 Network failure if the backbone is damaged.
 Star Topology:
o Devices connect to a central hub or switch.
o Advantages:
 High performance and scalability.
 Failure of one device does not affect others.
o Disadvantage: Central hub failure disrupts the network.
 Tree/Hybrid Topology:
o Combines multiple topologies in a hierarchical structure.
o Advantages: Flexible and scalable.
o Disadvantages: Complex configuration and maintenance.

6. Identifying Nodes in a Network

 MAC Address (Media Access Control):

o A unique identifier for a device, assigned by the manufacturer.
o Format: 48-bit hexadecimal (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
 IP Address (Internet Protocol):
o A unique address for devices in a network.
o IPv4:
 32-bit numeric address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
 Limited to ~4.3 billion addresses.
o IPv6:
 128-bit hexadecimal address (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334).
 Supports a vast number of devices.

7. Internet, Web, and IoT

  Internet:
o A global network connecting billions of devices, enabling communication and
resource sharing.
o Components:
 ISPs: Provide internet access.
 Servers: Host websites and data.
 Routers and switches: Direct data flow.
 World Wide Web (WWW):
o A collection of interlinked web pages accessible via the internet.
o Technologies:
 HTML: Designs the structure of web pages.
 URI/URL: Unique addresses for resources (e.g.,
https://www.example.com).
 HTTP/HTTPS: Protocols for transferring web content.
 Internet of Things (IoT):
o A network of interconnected smart devices (e.g., thermostats, cameras,
vehicles).
o Applications: Home automation, healthcare, industrial automation.

8. Domain Name System (DNS)

 Purpose: Converts human-readable domain names into IP addresses.

 How it works:
1. User enters a URL in a browser.
2. The DNS server resolves the domain name to its IP address.
3. Data is retrieved from the server hosting the resource.
 Components:

o Root servers: Top-level DNS servers.

o DNS hierarchy: Organized to distribute resolution tasks efficiently.

9. Key Terms and Concepts

 ARPANET: Advanced Research Projects Agency Network; precursor to the internet.

 ISP: Internet Service Provider; offers internet access.
 Topology: The arrangement of devices in a network.
 Switch vs. Router:
o A switch connects devices within a LAN, directing data based on MAC
addresses.
o A router connects multiple networks, directing data based on IP addresses.