TRENDS IN COMPUTING

In this topic, we observe the following aspects:

1. Computer Security ethics and Privacy

A computer security risk is any event or action that could cause a loss or damage to
computer hardware, software, data, or information.

a) Some abuses to computer security are accidental, but some are planned.

b) Any illegal act involving a computer is generally referred to as a computer crime.

c) Cybercrime refers to online or Internet-based illegal acts.

2. Internet and network attacks

a) Viruses: is a small piece of software that is attached on real programs and disorganizes
their mode of operation. For example, a virus might attach itself to a program such as a
spreadsheet program. Each time the spreadsheet program runs, the virus runs, too, and it
has the chance to reproduce (by attaching to other programs).

b) E-mail viruses: An e-mail virus travels as an attachment to e-mail messages, and usually
reproduces itself by automatically mailing itself to a number of people in the victim's e-
mail address book. Some e-mail viruses don't even require a double - click -- they launch
when you view the infected message in the preview pane of your e-mail software.
c) Trojan horses: is simply a computer program. The program claims to do one thing (it
may claim to be a game) but instead does damage when you run it (it may erase your hard
disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate automatically.

d) Worms: is a small piece of software that uses computer networks and security holes to
replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans the network for another machine that has a
specific security hole. It copies itself to the new machine using the security hole, and then
starts replicating from there, as well.

e) A rootkit is a stealthy type of software, often malicious, designed to hide the existence of
certain processes or programs from normal methods of detection and enable continued
privileged access to a computer

3. Denial of service attacks

A type of attack conducted over the Internet, using the combined resources of many computers to
attack, and often crash, a targeted computer system or resource (e.g., a program, website or
network).

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An example of how a DDoS attack is conducted: an attacker will exploit vulnerability in one
computer system and make it the DDoS master using Remote Control Software. Later, the
intruder will use the master system to identify and manage zombies that can perform the attack.

There is no single DoS attack method, and the term has come to encompass a variety of different
forms of attack, a number of which are outlined below:

✓ Ping flood - This attack uses the Internet Message Protocol (ICMP) ping request to a
server as a DoS method. The strategy either involves sending ping requests in such larger
quantities that the receiving system is unable to respond to valid user requests, or sending
ping messages which are so large (known as a ping of death) that the system is unable to
handle the request.

✓ Smurfing - it makes use of the TCP Internet Message Protocol (ICMP) ping request to
mount DoS attacks. In a typical smurfing attack the attacker sends a ping request to the
broadcast address of network containing the IP address of the victim. The ping request is
sent to all computers on the broadcast network, which in turn all reply to the IP address of
the victim system thereby overloading the victim with ping responses.

✓ TCP SYN Flood - Also known as the TCP Ack Attack, this attack leverages the TCP
three way handshakes to launch a DoS attack. The attack begins with a client attempting
to establish a TCP connection with the victim server. The client sends a request to the
server, which in turn returns an ACK package to acknowledge the connection.

At this point in the communication the client should respond with a message accepting
the connection. Instead the client sends another ACK which is responded to by the server
with yet another ACK. The client continues to send ACKs to the server with the effect of
causing the server to hold sessions open in anticipation of the client sending the final
packet required to complete the connection.

As a result, the server uses up all available sessions serving the malicious client, thereby
preventing access to other users.

✓ Fraggle - A fraggle attack is similar to a smurfing attack with the exception that the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used instead of using ICMP.
✓ Land - Under a Land attack the attacker creates a fake SYN packet contain the same
source and destination IP addresses and ports and sends it to the victim causing the
system to become confused when trying to respond to the packet.

✓ Teardrop - A teardrop type of DoS attack exploits a weakness in the TCP/IP

implementation on some operating systems. The attack works by sending messages
fragmented into multiple UDP packages. Ordinarily the operating system is able to
reassemble the packets into a complete message by referencing data in each UDB packet.
The teardrop attack works by corrupting the offset data in the UDP packets making it

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 impossible for the system to rebuild the original packets. On systems that are unable to
handle this corruption a crash is the most likely outcome of a teardrop attack.

✓ Bonk - An effective attack on some Windows systems involving the transmission

corrupted UDP packets to the DNS port (port 53) resulting in a system crash.

✓ Boink - Similar to the Bonk attack except that the corrupted UDP packets are sent to
multiple ports, not just port 53 (DNS).

Back Door Attacks

Back Door attacks use programs that provide a method for entering a system without going
through the usual authentication process. This can either take the form of hidden access
points deliberately put into application by the original developers to help in maintaining and
debugging the software or a malicious program that is placed on a system through a virus, or
other method which opens up the system to unauthorized access.

A number of back door programs have been discovered over the years, some which are listed
below:
a) Back Orifice - This rather distastefully named tool was developed by a group known as
the Cult of the Dead Cow Communications. The primary purpose of Back Orifice is to
provide remote access to a server for the purposes of performing administrative tasks.

b) NetBus - Similar to Back Orifice, NetBus is also designed to enable remote

administrative access to Windows system.

c) Sub7 - Sub7 is yet another illicit back door program designed to allow unauthorized
access to systems.

Whilst the installation of any of the above back door programs on a system will have serious
implications for security, all these threats can be effectively prevented through the
implementation of a complete virus scanning strategy.

Spoofing

The basis of spoofing involves hiding as a trusted system in order to gain unauthorized
access to a secure environment. IP spoofing involves modifying data to make it appear to
originate from the IP address of a system that is trusted by a server or firewall. Using this
approach, a host is able to pass through the IP filtering that would otherwise serve to prevent
access.

Man in the Middle Attacks

Man-in-the-middle attacks are perhaps one of the more complex and advanced forms of
security breaching approaches. As the name implies, such an attack involves the secret
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assignment of a software agent between the client and server ends of a communication. In
this scenario neither end of the communication is aware that the malicious agent is present in
the line of communication.

Man-in-middle attacks have increased considerable since the introduction of wireless

networking. Now there is no need for the rogue to connect to a wire, instead the data can
simply be intercepted from anywhere within range of the wireless signal (such as in the
parking lot outside an office or the road in front of a house). The best way to avoid such
attacks is to use encryption and secure protocols in all communications.

Replay Attacks

In a replay attack an agent is once again placed within the client / server line of
communication. In the case of a Replay attack, however, the transaction data is recorded for
the express purpose of allowing the data to be modified and replayed to the server at a later
time for nefarious purposes. For example, a replay attack might record the entire process of a
user logging into a banking web site and performing transactions. The recorded transcript
may then be replayed to repeat the login sequence for the purposes of stealing money from
the account.

TCP/IP Hijacking

TCP/IP Hijacking occurs when an attacker takes control of an ongoing session between a
client and a server. This is similar in to a man-in-the-middle attack except that the rogue
agent sends a reset request to the client so that the client loses contact with the server while
the rogue system assumes the role of the legitimate client, continuing the session.

Mathematical Attacks

The solution to a number of the types of attack outlined above has involved the use of
encryption. A mathematical attack involves the use of computation based on the
mathematical properties of the encryption algorithm to attempt to decrypt data. The best way
to avoid the decryption of data is to use strong encryption (128-bit) rather than rely on
weaker encryption (both 40-bit and 56-bit encryption can easily be broken).

Password Guessing

On systems which rely solely on a login name and password the security of the entire system
is only as strong as the passwords chosen by the users. The best way to ensure passwords are
not cracked is to avoid the use of simple words or phrases which can be found in a
dictionary. This needs to be balanced with making the passwords easy enough to remember
so that users do not write them on pieces of paper and stick them on their laptops or monitors
for others to find.

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The best passwords consist of a mixture of upper and lower case characters combined with
numbers and special characters. A common approach is to substitute numbers in place of
similar letters. For example W3ath3rN3ws uses the number 3 in place of the letter 'E', the
reasoning being that the number 3 is much like a reversed 'E' making the password easy to
remember. Unfortunately most password cracking algorithms know about this type of
substitution.

There are two primary mechanisms for breaking password protection, brute force and
dictionary.

Brute Force Password Attacks

A brute force attack uses algorithms to systematically try every possible version of characters
in an effort to find the correct password. If allowed to continue, a brute force attack will
eventually identify the correct password, although a well implemented security plan will
disable the account and block the IP address from which the attempts were made after 3 or 4
failed password attempts.

Dictionary Password Attacks

Dictionary password attacks take advantage of the fact that many user simply rely on easy to
remember words as their passwords. A dictionary attack simply works through a list of
words from a dictionary to see if any of them turn out to be a valid password. Such brute
force programs also take into consideration such tricks as using the number 3 instead of the
letter 'e' and the number 1 in place of the letter 'l'.

Password Cracking

Computer systems typically store the passwords which allow access to the system in a
password file which is cryptographically protected from prying eyes. A number of password
cracking programs are available for extracting the passwords from a password file.

4. Unauthorized access and use:

Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or network without permission.

A cracker, or hacker, is someone who tries to access a computer or network illegally.

Some hackers break into a computer for the challenge. However, others use or steal computer
resources or corrupt a computer's data.

Unauthorized use is the use of a computer or its data for unapproved or possibly illegal
activities.

Examples of unauthorized use of computers include

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✓ An employee using a company computer to send personal e-mail.
✓ Someone gaining access to a bank computer and performing an unauthorized transfer.

✓ One way to prevent unauthorized access and unauthorized use of computers is to utilize
access controls.

5. Hardware theft and vandalism:

Hardware theft is the act of stealing computer equipment. The act of defacing or destroying
computer equipment is known as hardware vandalism.

Precautions to prevent hardware theft include

✓ Use physical access controls, such as locked doors, and windows.

✓ Use cables to lock the equipment to desk, cabinet, or floor.
✓ Install alarm systems for additional security.
✓ Never leave a notebook computer or handheld computer unattended in a public place.
✓ Use passwords, possessed objects, and biometrics as a method of security.
✓ Back up all the files stored on the computer regularly.

6. Software theft:

Two common forms of software theft are:

a) Physically stealing media (e.g., floppy disk, or CD-ROM) that contains software; and

b) Software piracy, which is the most common form of software theft. Software piracy
refers to the unauthorized and illegal duplication of copyrighted software.

Software piracy is the most common form of software theft.

Purchasing software only provides a consumer with a license agreement, or the right to use
the software.

a) A single - user license agreement or end-user license agreement is the most common type
of license included with software packages purchased by individual users.

b) A software site license gives the buyer the right to install the software on multiple
computers at a single site (e.g., a school computer laboratory).

c) A network site license allows network users to share a single copy of the software, which
resides on the network server.

Risks of software piracy include

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a) Increase the chance of spreading computer viruses.
b) No technical support for the software can be received.
c) Drive up the software cost for all legal users.

7. Information theft:

Information theft refers to someone steals personal or confidential information from others.

Reasons for information theft include

a) A company wants to learn about a competitor.

b) An individual steals credit card numbers to make fraudulent purchases.

Preventions for information theft include

c) Implement access control to computers and networks.

An access control is a security measure that defines

✓ Who can access a computer?

✓ When the users can access the computer?
✓ What actions the users can take while accessing the computer?

Access control is normally implemented using a two-phase process:

✓ Identification verifies whether the user is a valid one.

✓ Authentication verifies that the user is really the one he or she claims to be.

Four methods of identification and authentication exist, which include

a) User names and passwords

✓ Most multiuser operating systems require a user to enter the correct user name and
password before accessing the data, information, and programs stored on a computer or
network.
✓ Many other systems that maintain financial, personal, and other confidential information
also require a user name and password as part of their logon procedure.
✓ Some systems assign the user names and even passwords to their users, but some systems
allow their users to choose their own user names and passwords.

b) Possessed objects: A possessed object is any item that a user must carry to gain access to
a computer or computer facility.

Examples of possessed objects include badges, cards, and keys.

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✓ Possessed objects are often used in combination with personal identification numbers.
✓ A personal identification number (PIN) is a numeric password, either assigned by a
company or selected by a user.
✓ PINs provide an additional level of security.

c) Biometric devices: authenticates a person's identity by verifying personal characteristics

(e.g., fingerprints).

It translates a personal characteristic into a digital code that is compared with a digital
code stored in the computer.

Examples of biometric devices include

✓ A fingerprint scanner, which captures curves and indentations of a fingerprint.

✓ A hand geometry system, which can measure the shape and size of a person's hand.
✓ A face recognition system, which captures a live face image and compares it with a
stored image.
✓ A voice recognition system, which compares a person's live speech with their stored
voice pattern.
✓ A signature verification system, which recognizes the shape of handwritten signature of a
person.
✓ An iris recognition system, which reads patterns in the tiny blood vessels in the back of
the eye, which are as unique as a fingerprint.

Advantages of biometric devices include

✓ Personal characteristics are unique and cannot be forgotten or misplaced.

Disadvantages of biometric devices include

✓ Most of the biometric devices are expensive.

✓ A fingerprint scanner might reject a legitimate user if the user cuts his or her finger.
✓ Hand geometry readers can transmit germs.
✓ A signature might not match the one on file when the person is nervous.
✓ A voice recognition system might reject a legitimate user with a sore throat.

d) Callback system: A biometric device authenticates a person's identity by verifying

personal characteristics (e.g., fingerprints).

It translates a personal characteristic into a digital code that is compared with a digital code
stored in the computer.

A company should:

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- Maintain a log that records in a file both successful and unsuccessful access attempts.
- Investigate unsuccessful access attempts immediately to ensure they were not intentional
breaches of security.

- Review successful access for irregularities, such as use of the computer after normal
working hours or from remote computers.

- Have written policies regarding the use of computers by employees for personal reasons.

- Document and explain the policy of computer use to employees.

- Use encryption techniques

8. System failure

A system failure is a prolonged malfunction of a computer that can also cause hardware,
software, data, or information loss.

Common causes of system failure include

- Aging hardware
- Natural disaster (e.g., fires, floods, storms, or earthquakes)
- Electrical power variation

Electrical power variations can cause loss of data or equipment.

A single power disturbance can damage multiple systems in a computer network.

Electrical power disturbances include

- Noise is any unwanted signal, usually varying quickly, which is mixed with the normal
voltage entering the computer.
- An under voltage occurs when the electrical supply drops (i.e., below 220 volts in Hong
Kong).

- An overvoltage, or power surge, occurs when the incoming electrical power increases
significantly above the normal 220 volts.

✓ A surge protector can be used to protect computer equipment against under voltage and
overvoltage.

✓ Many users also connect an uninterruptible power supply to the computer for additional
electrical protection.

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✓ Files should be backed up regularly to prevent against data loss caused by a system
failure.

9. Backing up

A backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disk that can be used if the original is lost,
damaged, or destroyed. Files can be restored by copying the backed up files to their original
location on the computer.
Backup copies should be kept in a fireproof and heatproof safe or offsite.

Three types of backup that can be performed are

a) Full backup, which copies all of the files in the computer.

b) Differential backup, which copies only the files that have changed since the last full
backup.

c) Incremental backup, which copies only the files that have changed since the last full or
last incremental backup.

Some users implement a three-generation backup procedure to preserve three copies of

important files.

a) The grandparent is the oldest copy of the file.

b) The parent is the second oldest copy of the file.
c) The child is the most recent copy of the file.

10. Wireless security

Wireless networks are much more at risk to unauthorized use than cabled networks. Wireless
network devices use radio waves to communicate with each other.

Unencrypted information transmitted can be monitored by a third-party, which, with the right
tools (free to download), could quickly gain access to your entire network, steal valuable
passwords to local servers and online services, alter or destroy data, and/or access personal
and confidential information stored in your network servers.

To minimize the possibility of this, all modern access points and devices have configuration
options to encrypt transmissions. These encryption methodologies are still evolving, as are
the tools used by malicious hackers, so always use the strongest encryption available in your
access point and connecting devices.

Three basic techniques are used to protect networks from unauthorized wireless use. Use any
and all of these techniques when setting up your wireless access points:

1. Encryption
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Enable the strongest encryption supported by the devices you will be connecting to the
network. Use strong passwords (strong passwords are generally defined as passwords
containing symbols, numbers, and mixed case letters, at least 14 characters long).

2. Isolation

Use a wireless router that places all wireless connections on a subnet independent of the
primary private network. This protects your private network data from pass-through internet
traffic.

3. Hidden SSID

Every access point has a Service Set IDentifier (SSID) that by default is broadcast to client
devices so that the access point can be found. By disabling this feature, standard client
connection software won't be able to "see" the access point. However, the eves-dropping
programs can easily find these access points, so this alone does little more than keep the
access point name out of sight for casual wireless users.
11. Computers and health risks

Prolonged computer usage can lead to health risks such as

a) Eye strain
b) Back pain due to poor sitting posture
c) Electromagnetic radiation especially with CRT monitors
d) Addiction from use
e) Wrist pain to do non-ergonometric
f) Repetitive Strain Injury(RSI)
g) Headaches
h) Neck pain
i) Stress due to noise from fans, printers, power inputs
j) Ear problems for use of ear phones especially with embedded systems

Precautions to help prevent such risks include

a) Pay attention to sitting posture.

b) Take a break to stand up, walk around, or stretch every 30 to 60 minutes.
c) Place the display device about an arm's length away from the eyes with the top of the
screen at eye level or below.
d) Adjust the lighting in the room.
e) Ensure that the workplace is designed ergonomically. Ergonomics means incorporating
comfort, efficiency, and safety into the design of items in the workplace.

- Some keyboards have built-in wrist rests.

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- Most display devices have a tilt-and-swivel base and controls to adjust the brightness,
contrast, positioning, height, and width of images.

- Most CRT monitors today also adhere to the MPR II standard, which defines acceptable
levels of electromagnetic radiation.

12. Computer ethics

Are the moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and information systems.

Frequently concerned areas of computer ethics are

a) Unauthorized access and use of computer systems

b) Software piracy

c) Information privacy: Information privacy refers to the right of individuals or

organizations to deny or restrict the collection and use of information about them.

d) Information accuracy: Information accuracy becomes an important issue when it is

necessary to access information maintained by other people or companies, such as that on
the Internet. Inaccurate input can result in erroneous information and incorrect decisions
made based on that information. Never assume that information provided on the Web is
always correct.

The Web site providing access to the information may not be the creator of the
information. Always evaluate the content provided on a Web page before using it.

Some people also concerned with using computers to alter output, particularly graphical
images (e.g., retouching a photograph). They believe that even the slightest alteration
could lead to deliberately misleading photographs.

Intellectual property rights

Intellectual property (IP) refers to work created by inventors, authors, and artists. Intellectual
property rights are the rights to which creators are entitled for their work.

✓ A copyright gives authors and artists exclusive rights to duplicate, publish, and sell their
materials.
✓ A common infringement of copyright is software piracy.
✓ Copyright law usually gives the public fair use to copyrighted material (e.g., for
educational purposes). However, this vague definition is always subject to widespread
interpretation.
✓ A trademark protects a company's logos and brand names.

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Codes of conduct

A code of conduct is a written guideline that helps determine whether a specific action is
ethical or unethical.
Codes of Conduct

A code of conduct is a voluntary set of rules which people agree to follow or abide by.

Codes of Conduct are not legally binding but once someone agrees to abide by it, then it is
considered binding.

Codes of Conduct related to ICT might cover things such as usage of the Internet, for
example, the internet should not be used during work time to shop online or book holidays. It
would probably cover downloading and viewing pornographic material at work or gambling
online during work time.

Other things that are often covered by Codes of Conduct are the security and use of user
names and passwords, for example, not leaving your workstation logged on if you are not
present or not telling anyone else your password.

A sample IT code of conduct include

a) Computers may not be used to harm other people.

b) Users may not interfere with other's computer work.
c) Users may not meddle in other's computer files.
d) Computers may not be used to steal.
e) Computers may not be used to bear false witness.
f) Users may not copy or use software illegally.
g) Users may not use other's computer resources without authorization.
h) Users may not use other's output.
i) Users shall consider the social impact of programs and systems they design.
j) Users should always use computers in a way that demonstrates consideration and respect
for other people.
Information privacy

Or data privacy is the relationship between collection and distribution of data, technology,
the public expectation of privacy, and the legal and political issues surrounding them. This
includes the following:

a) Electronic profiles

Involves keeping details concerning online user of a specific service or product. It involves,
writing personal details so as to be allowed to use the service. Remember how you obtained

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your e-mail address; you filled a form related to your profile. This profile is never viewable
by third parties unless otherwise.

b) Cookies

A cookie, also known as an HTTP cookie, web cookie, or browser cookie, is usually a small
piece of data sent from a website and stored in a user's web browser while a user is browsing
a website. When the user browses the same website in the future, the data stored in the
cookie can be retrieved by the website to notify the website of the user's previous activity

c) Spam

Spam is the use of electronic messaging systems to send unwanted bulk messages, especially
advertising, at random. While the most widely recognized form of spam is e-mail spam, the
term is applied to similar abuses in other media.

d) Phishing

Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire information such as usernames, passwords, and
credit card details (and sometimes, indirectly, money) by hiding as a trustworthy unit in an
electronic communication.

e) Pharming

Is an attacker's attack intended to redirect a website's traffic to another, fake site. Pharming
can be conducted either by changing the hosts file on a victim's computer or by exploitation
of a weakness in DNS server software. DNS servers are computers responsible for resolving
Internet names into their real IP addresses. Pharming requires unprotected access to target a
computer, such as changing a customer's home computer, rather than a corporate business
server.

f) Spywares

Spyware is a type of malicious program installed on computers that collects information

about users without their knowledge. The presence of spyware is typically hidden from the
user and can be difficult to detect. Some spyware, such as keyloggers, may be installed by
the owner of a shared, corporate, or public computer intentionally in order to monitor users.

Spyware can collect almost any type of data, including personal information like Internet
surfing habits, user logins, and bank or credit account information. Spyware can also
interfere with user control of a computer by installing additional software or redirecting Web
browsers. Some spyware can change computer settings, which can result in slow Internet
connection speeds, un-authorized changes in browser settings, or changes to software
settings.

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g) Adware

Adware, or advertising-supported software, is any software package which automatically

renders advertisements in order to generate revenue for its author. The advertisements may
be in the user interface of the software or on a screen presented to the user during the
installation process.

The functions may be designed to analyze which Internet sites the user visits and to present
advertising relevant to the types of goods or services featured there. The term is sometimes
used to refer to software that displays unwanted advertisements.

h) Privacy laws

Privacy law refers to the laws which deal with the regulation of personal information about
individuals which can be collected by governments and other public as well as private
organizations and its storage and use. Privacy laws are considered in the context of an
individual's privacy rights or reasonable expectation of privacy.

i) Social engineering

In the situation of security, it is understood to mean the art of influencing people into
performing actions or revealing confidential information.

j) Employee monitoring

- E-mail scanning: is a process in which incoming and outgoing mail passes through E-
mail filtering software to search for content which may violate the policies of the
employer.
- Video surveillance: One of the most effective forms of employee monitoring is through
the use of Video surveillance equipment. Video feeds of employee activities are fed back
to a central location where they are either recorded or monitored live by another person.
"This is a benefit because it provides an unbiased method of performance evaluation and
prevents the interference of a manager's feelings in an employee's review.

- Location monitoring: For employees that do not work in a static location, supervisors
may chose to track their location. Common examples of this are delivery and
transportation industries. In some of these cases the employee monitoring is minor as the
location is tracked for other purposes, such as determining the amount of time before a
parcel will be delivered, or which taxi is closest.

- Employee privacy and ethical issues: From an ethical point of view, the employee does
not give up all of his or her privacy while they are in their work environment. Privacy can
become a moral matter, but it is important to know what the employee and employer
rights are. The ethical challenge that companies face involves protecting their interests

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 through Internet monitoring while ensuring they don't go so far that employees lose all
sense of privacy in the workplace.

- Legal issues: It is illegal to perform invasive monitoring, such as reading an employee's

emails, unless it can be shown that it is a necessary precaution and there are no other
alternatives. Everyone in the conversation must give consent before the conversation can
be recorded. It requires that monitored conversations have a beep at certain intervals or
there must be a message informing the caller that the conversations may be recorded, take
note that this is not informing the company representative which calls are being recorded.
The following uses of employee information are generally considered legal:

✓ Find needed business information when the employee is not available.

✓ Protect security of proprietary information and data.
✓ Prevent or investigate possible criminal activities by employees.
✓ Prevent personal use of employer facilities.
✓ Check for violations of company policy against sending offensive or pornographic email.
✓ Investigate complaints of harassment.
✓ Check for illegal software.
- Security: In some cases, monitoring an employee's work leads to monitoring the
employee's life in aspects that are not related to work. This leads to acquisition of
information about the employee, compromising the security of the employee.

k) Content filtering

Content-control software, content filtering software, secure web gateways, censorware, and
web filtering software are terms for software designed and optimized for controlling what
content is permitted to a reader, especially when it is used to restrict material delivered over
the Internet through the Web, e-mail, or other means. Content-control software determines
what content will be available or perhaps more often what content will be blocked.

Revision questions

1. (a). Define the term computer security ethics and privacy.

(b). Outline any five internet and network attacks.

2. (a). What are denial of service attacks?

(b). Write short notes on the following:
i.) Ping flood.
ii.) Smurfing.
iii.) Fraggle.
iv.) Tear drop.
v.) Bonk.

3. (a). What are back door attacts?

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 (b). List three back door programs in common use.

4. (a). Distinguish between hacking and cracking.

(b). Outline possible measures needed to control dangers of both
hacking and cracking.
5. (a). Define the term data backup.
(b). Outline the three forms of data backup techniques.

6. (a). Outline seven dangers as a result of continued computer use.

(b). Suggest possible ways of controlling dangers mentioned in
(a) above.

7. (a). Define the term information privacy.

(b). Describe eight tools used for information privacy.

8. (a). Distinguish privacy laws and social engineering.

(b). Explain five ways of monitoring an employee in an
organisation.

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