Part I

Basic components and their applications

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Contents

I Basic components and their applications 1

1 Passive components and their applications 8

1.1 Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.1.1 Physical Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.1.2 Reading the resistor’s value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.1.3 How to choose a resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.1.4 Derivative of resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.1.5 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.2 Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.2.1 Physical Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.2.2 Reading the inductor’s value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.2.3 How to choose an inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.2.4 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1.3 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.3.1 Physical Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.3.2 Reading the capacitor’s value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

1.3.3 How to choose a capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 1.3.4 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

1.4 Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1.4.1 Physical Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

1.4.2 Testing a relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Semiconductors and their applications 23

2.1 diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.1.1 Physical Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.1.2 Testing a diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.1.3 Other type of diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.2 The Zener diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.2.1 Physical Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

2.2.2 How to choose a zener diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.3 Light Emitting Diode(LED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.3.1 Physical Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.3.2 Testing a LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.3.3 Other type of LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.3.4 RGB LED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

2.3.5 LED displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

2.4 Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.4.1 Physical Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.4.2 Testing a transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2.4.3 Other type of transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3 Integrated Circuits 32

3.1 Count IC pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.1.1 case of DIP package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 3.1.2 case of SIL package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.2 How to use the data sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.2.1 How to find a data sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.2.2 The good way to use a data sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.3 Supply an Integrated Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.3.1 noise suppression for IC power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.4 Logic gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.4.1 Logic gates truth table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.4.2 How to connect logic gates in a circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.4.3 How to choose a logic gate IC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.5 The NE555 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.5.1 NE555 as monostable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.5.2 NE555 as astable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.6 integrated voltage regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.6.1 Fixed voltage regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.6.2 Variable voltage regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.6.3 How to choose a voltage regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4 Operational Amplifier 45

4.1 Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.2 Operational Amplifier in linear mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.2.1 Voltage follower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.2.2 Non inverting amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.2.3 Inverting amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.2.4 Linear Current generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.2.5 Integrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.2.6 Derivator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

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 4.2.7 Subtractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4.2.8 Adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4.3 Operational amplifier in commutation mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.3.1 Simple Comparator with asymmetric power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.3.2 Simple Comparator with symmetric power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4.3.3 The Schmitt Trigger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.4 Package and physical identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.5 How to choose an operational amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.6 Other types of operational amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

One point start is to know symbols and devices used in electronics. When it comes the time to
measure, some special devices are used according to what we are to measure - ohmmeter, - DC
voltmeter, - AC voltmeter, - DC Ammeter, - AC Ammeter, ... . The multimeter is a devices
grouping many measuring devices on it. Really common on the market, it is portable and has
many functionalities. One functionality can be chosen according to the measurement to be done.

Figure 1: The multimeter

The voltmeter is used to measure voltage(in volt The ammeter is used to measure current(in am-
(V)). Its symbol is as shown on figure2. pere (A)). Its symbol is as shown on figure3.
It can be of two types: -AC voltmeter or ,- DC It can be of two types: -AC ammeter or ,- DC
voltmeter. ammeter.

V A
Figure 2: The voltmeter symbol Figure 3: The ammeter symbol

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

The ohmmeter is used to measure resistance of quency of a signal(in hertz (Hz)). Its symbol is
resistor(in ohms (Ω)). Its symbol is as shown as shown on figure6.
on figure4.

Hz
Figure 6: The frequency-meter symbol
Figure 4: The ohmmeter symbol

The Henry-meter is used to measure inductance

The capacy-meter is used to measure capacy-
of inductor(in henry (H)). Its symbol is as
tance of capacitors(in Farad (F)). Its symbol is
shown on figure7.
as shown on figure5.

F H
Figure 5: The capacy-meter symbol Figure 7: The henry-meter symbol

The frequency-meter is used to measure the fre- Many others exist and are not listed here.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Passive components and their applications
1
1.1 Resistor
Basically, resistor is a two pins component. Its Solution:
unit is Ohm (Ω). Generally, resistors are de- I = UR
noted R in designs. The resistor symbols are NA: 2V
10kΩ = 2 ∗ 10−4 = 0.2mA = 200µA
shown by figure1.1.

Resistor Connections

R R
Calculations in theory can result in any value.
Figure 1.1: Resistor symbols
That value can be within or out of the normal-
ized values. To produce those values practi-
The voltage U across a resistor R in a circuit is cally, the designer must combine normalized
given by the ohm’s law U = RI and expressed values available around. The combination can
in Volts (V). be connection in series, connection in parallel,
mixed connections.
The current flowing through that resistor is:
I = UR . Resistors connected in Series

Example:
R1 R2
What is the voltage across a 100kΩ resistor
with 20µA flowing through it? Figure 1.2: Resistors Connected in series

Solution: When connected in series, the same current

U = RI passes through the different resistors. The
NA: U = 100kΩ ∗ 20µA = 2V equivalent resistance is the sum of their values:
RT = R1 + R2 + ... + Rn
Example:
What is the current flowing through a 10kΩ re- Example:
sistor with 2V across it? Resistors R1 = 10kΩ, R2 = 10kΩ, R3 = 2.2kΩ

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

1.1 Resistor
R1 R2
are connected in series. RT = R1 +R2
What is the corresponding total resistance?
The device used to measure resistance is the
Solution: ohmmeter.
RT = ∑ni=1 Ri
= R1 + R2 + R3
NA: RT = 10kΩ + 10kΩ + 2.2kΩ = 22.2kΩ

Exercise:
As a designer, you did calculations and came
out with resistor value 192kΩ. Looking in your
component box, you see packets of resistors(10 Figure 1.4: ohmmeter symbol
resistors per packet) with values: R1 = 100kΩ,
R2 = 10kΩ, R3 = 1kΩ, R4 = 2.2kΩ, R5 =
180kΩ.
How will you manage to obtain that resistance
you are looking for?
1.1.1 Physical Identification

Resistors connected in Parallel

Resistors are of many types and packages.

R1

R2
Figure 1.3: Resistors in parallel

Connected in parallel, resistors receive the same

Figure 1.5: Resistor packages A
voltage across their terminals. The resulting
conductance(GT ) is the sum of the involved
conductances. From that conductance(GT ) ,
equivalent resistance(RT ) can be found.
1 −1
RT = GT = G T .
GT = ∑ni=1 Gi = R11 + R12 + ... + R1n
RT = ( R11 + R12 + ... + R1n )−1

From the formula above, let consider the case

with only two resistors, R1 and R2 .
RT = ( R11 + R12 )−1 = ( RR11+RR22 )−1 = R1 R2
R1 +R2 That
gives a simple formula when only two resistors
are connected in parallel: Figure 1.6: Resistor package B

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Passive components and their applications
2. place the probes as indicated for ohmme-
ter;

3. connect them to the two ends of the resis-

tor;

4. read the result on the device screen. If the

meter is an auto-range, its will give the
direct result. but if not, some adjustments
in calibration may be necessary to get a
good reading of the result.

Reading resistance using color code

Figure 1.7: SMD resistor package

Must of the circuits are full of resistors. Consid-
ering that predominance, it is difficult and time
wasting for someone to use the ohmmeter for all
1.1.2 Reading the resistor’s value
the resistors present in the circuit. Color code
helps significantly when it comes the time to
Resistor value can be measured directly us-
identify resistor just using sight and brain(super
ing ohmmeter or read on the package us-
fast calculator). Some resistors have colored
ing text code(for power resistors) or color
bands on their body which help to calculate
code(generally for low power resistors).
their resistance using the color code for resis-
tors.
Reading resistance using Ohmmeter The number of bands( 3 , 4, 5 ) helps in identi-
fying the resistor series(E6 , E12 , E24 ,...).
To read resistor’s value using ohmmeter, follow Note:The more the bands, the less the tolerance.
these steps: The document linked here(https://
neurophysics.ucsd.edu/courses/physics_
1. calibrate the multimeter to Ohmmeter 120/resistorcharts.pdf) is interesting con-
section; cerning color code.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

1.1 Resistor

© Copyright 2006 Blue Point Engineering All Rights Reserved

Figure 1.8: resistor color code

For the color code, get more informations on http://www.resistorguide.com/resistor-color-code/

Reading resistance using digit code their top. That code helps in their value identi-
fication. In that number or code, the last digit
As everything is going to smallest sizes, surface is the multiplier. The number of digit helps in
mounting resistors have a digit code printed on identifying the series.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Passive components and their applications
Three(3) digits code has 5% as tolerance. Having a torch circuit of four components con-
Four(4) digits code has 1% as tolerance. nected in series: battery-switch-resistor-LED-
As example, a surface mounting resistor with battery. The LED is VF = 3.2V and IF = 10mA.
code 101 has resistance: The battery generate E = 9V . The switch is
R= 10 ∗ 101 = 100Ω sufficient, but the resistor value is unknown.
Choose a resistor for that torch to operate nor-
Considering the tolerance, 99.5Ω ≤ R ≤ 105Ω
mally.
A surface mounting resistor with code 224 has
Note: use the E12 series.
resistance:
R = 22 ∗ 104 = 220000Ω = 220kΩ

Considering the tolerance, 209kΩ ≤ R ≤

231kΩ

Reading resistance using text code

R
E
Power resistors are easy to read, as they gen-
erally have their value, power and tolerance
D
marked on them in an expressive way. As ex-
ample, a resistor with text 5W 0.22ΩJ has:
resistance R = 0.22Ω Figure 1.9: LED torch
power 5W
tolerance J = 5%
So the reel value this resistor can give is:
0.22Ω(1 − 5%) ≤ R ≤ 0.22Ω(1 + 5%)
⇒ 0.209Ω ≤ R ≤ 0.231Ω
Solution:
E−VF
R= IF
NA: R = 9−3.2
10mA = 580Ω
1.1.3 How to choose a resistor
P = RI 2 = 580Ω ∗ (10 ∗ 10−3 )2 = 0.058W
Turning into reality, the tolerance in that series
Most important parameters when choosing re-
is 10%, if we assume that we are looking for a
sistor for a design : resistance, power.
resistor Rx , we have
The designer chooses a resistor based on some
R(1 − 10%) ≤ Rx ≤ R(1 + 10%)
calculations. After having the the resistor
⇒ 580Ω(1 − 10%) ≤ Rx ≤ 580Ω(1 + 10%)
value(resistance) R, he must consider the fact
⇒ 522Ω ≤ Rx ≤ 638Ω
that the amount of current I that will flow
Any value ranged from 522Ω to 638Ω can be
through that resistor will cause heat generation;
selected. In normalized values of E12 series,
That is why the resistor power P is important.
Rx = 560Ω responds to the need.
P = RI 2
Hence, the resistor that will make the torch op-
Example: erate properly is R = 560Ω, P ≤ 0.058W

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

1.1 Resistor
1.1.4 Derivative of resistors

Potentiometer

The potentiometer has three pins. It resistance

varies according to the position of its cursor.
One of its applications is analog volume control
in sound amplifiers.
Figure 1.13: Real LDR

Figure 1.10: Potentiometer symbol

Temperature dependent resistor (NTC and

PTC)

Temperature depending Resistor varies their re-

sistance according to the temperature.
The PTC (Positive temperature coefficient) in-
creases its resistance as the temperature in-
creases.
The NTC (Negative temperature coefficient)
Figure 1.11: Potentiometers decreases its resistance as the temperature in-
creases.
They are used for in sensing temperature in var-
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) ious devices.

LDR has small resistance under light and very

high resistance in the dark. Its resistance de-
creases as light increases.

Figure 1.12: LDR symbol Figure 1.14: Thermistor Symbol

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Passive components and their applications
2. connect R1 in parallel with R2 and
measure with the Ohmmeter : RTb =
Ω;

3. compare RTa and RTb and :

(a) tell if the theoretical formula RT =

(∑ni=1 R1i )−1 is true regarding the
practical result.
(b) explain what can be the causes of
their difference.
Figure 1.15: Real Thermistor

LDR
1.1.5 Practice
Do the following steps:

We are full of theory! Let’s apply it now.

1. Connect the LDR to the ohmmeter;

2. Turn ON the ohmmeter

Connection
3. expose the LDR to the light, read the
Select four resistors R1 = 10kΩ , R2 = 10kΩ , resistance Rlight and note: Rlight =
R3 = 1kΩ , R4 = 1kΩ. Ω.
A: Process as follow:
4. with hand, cover the LDR, read the
resistance Rcover and note: Rcover =
1. compute RTa = R1 + R2 = Ω
Ω.
2. connect R1 in series with R2 and mea-
5. Cover as most as possible the LDR, read
sure with the Ohmmeter : RTb =
the resistance Rdark and note: Rdark =
Ω
Ω.
3. compare RTa and RTb and: 6. Comment the observations

(a) tell if the theoretical formula RT = 7. Give your own definition of this compo-
∑ni=1 Ri is true regarding the practi- nent.
cal result.
(b) explain what can be the causes of
Potentiometer
their difference.

Do the following steps:

B:Do the following steps:
1. connect the ohmmeter to the ex-
1. compute RTa = R1 //R2 = Ω; tremes pins of the potentiometer as on

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1.2 Inductor
picture1.16a and read the valueR = Application
Ω;(This value represent the resistance of
that potentiometer) perform the following steps:

2. Connect the ohmmeter to one extreme pin

1. connect two resistors (R1 = 10kΩ , R2 =
and the middle pin as on picture1.16b;
10kΩ) in series;
3. turn the potentiometer knob and pro-
gressively and note the values ; 2. supply the resulting resistor with a VDD =
Position 5V DC voltage source;
Value (Ω)
3. measure the voltages (U1 and U2 ) across
4. Express what you think about the poten- each resistor;
tiometer according to the observations.
4. looking at the values of (R1 , R2 , VDD and
U1 ) as same as the value of (R1 , R2 , VDD
and U2 ), which theorem has been applied
there?

5. are these results confirming the theory?

(a) connections to extremes

(b) one side connection

Figure 1.16: measure potentiometer

1.2 Inductor
The voltage VL across a inductor L in a circuit
is given by VL = L didtL where iL represents the
Figure 1.17: Inductor current flowing through the inductor.

Basically, inductor is a two pins component. Its

unit is henry and its symbol (H). Generally, in-
ductors are denoted L in designs.

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 Passive components and their applications
inductor Connections

As same as resistors, calculations in theory can L1

result in any value. That value can be within or
out of the normalized values. To produce those
L2
values practically, the designer must combine
normalized values available around. The com-
Figure 1.19: Inductors connected in parallel
bination can be connection in series, connection
in parallel, mixed connections.

Inductors connected in Series

Connected in parallel, inductors receive the

same voltage across their terminals. The equiv-
L1 L2 alent inductance(LT ) can be found.
LT = ( L11 + L12 + ... + L1n )−1
Figure 1.18: Inductors connected in series
From the formula above, let consider the case
with only two inductors, L1 and L2 .
When connected in series, the same current LT = ( L11 + L12 )−1 = ( LL11+LL22 )−1 = L1 L2
That
L1 +L2
passes through the different inductors. The gives a simple formula when only two induc-
equivalent inductance is the sum of their values: tors are connected in parallel:
LT = L1 + L2 + ... + Ln LT = L1 L2
L1 +L2

Example: Exercise:
Inductors L1 = 100µH, L2 = 100µH, L3 = As a designer, you did calculations and came
3.3mH are connected in series. out with inductor value 50µH. Looking in your
What is the corresponding total inductance? component box, you see packets of inductors(5
inductors per packet) with values: L1 = 100µH,
Solution:
L2 = 10µH.
LT = ∑ni=1 Li = L1 + L2 + L3
How will you manage to obtain that inductance
NA: LT = 100µH + 100µH + 3.3mH =
you are looking for?
3.5mH = 3500µH
The device used to measure inductance is the
Exercise:
self-meter or inductance-meter.
As a designer, you did calculations and came
out with inductor value 210µH. Looking in
your component box, you see packets of induc-
tors(5 inductors per packet) with values: L1 =
100µH, L2 = 10µH, L3 = 1mH, L4 = 220µH.
How will you manage to obtain that inductance 1.2.1 Physical Identification
you are looking for?

Inductors connected in Parallel Inductors are of many types and packages.

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1.2 Inductor
Reading inductance using text code

Power resistors are easy to read, as they gen-

erally have their value, power and tolerance
marked on them in an expressive way. As ex-
ample, a resistor with text 5W 0.22ΩJ has: re-
sistance:
resistance L = 0.22Ω
power 5W tolerance J

Figure 1.20: Inductor packages

1.2.3 How to choose an inductor

Inductors are generally used where frequency is

1.2.2 Reading the inductor’s value involved. To choose an inductor for a circuit,
the designer must consider at least the amount
Inductor value can be measured directly using of current that will flow trough that inductor.
measuring device or read on the package using
text code.
1.2.4 Practice

We are full of theory! Let’s apply it now.

Reading inductance using measuring device

To read inductor’s value using inductance- Connection

meter, follow these steps:
Select two inductors L1 = 100µH , L2 =
100µH.
1. turn ON the device; A: Process as follow:

2. place the probes as indicated for induc- 1. compute LTa = L1 + L2 = Ω

tance; 2. connect L1 in series with L2 and
measure with the device : LTb =
3. connect them to the two ends of the in- Ω
ductor;
3. compare LTa and LTb and:

4. read the result on the device screen. If the (a) tell if the theoretical formula LT =
meter is an auto-range, its will give the ∑ni=1 Li is true regarding the practi-
direct result. but if not, some adjustments cal result.
in calibration may be necessary to get a (b) explain what can be the causes of
good reading of the result. their difference.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Passive components and their applications
B:Do the following steps: 3. compare LTa and LTb and :

(a) tell if the theoretical formula LT =

1. compute LTa = L1 //L2 = Ω;
(∑ni=1 L1i )−1 is true regarding the
2. connect L1 in parallel with L2 and practical result.
measure with the Ohmmeter : LTb = (b) explain what can be the causes of
Ω; their difference.

1.3 Capacitor
combine normalized values available around.
The combination can be connection in series,
connection in parallel, mixed connections.

Capacitors connected in Series

(a) unpolarized capacitor

C1 C2
(b) polarized capacitor
Figure 1.22: Capacitors connected in series
Figure 1.21: capacitor symbol

Connected in series, capacitors receive the same

Basically, capacitor is a two pins component.
voltage across their terminals. The equivalent
Its unit is Farad and its symbol (F). Generally,
capacitance(CT ) can be found.
capacitors are denoted C in designs. Capacitor
CT = ( C11 + C12 + ... + C1n )−1
are mainly of two types: Polarized and Unpo-
larized capacitors. From the formula above, let consider the case
with only two capacitors, C1 and C2 .
The current ic flowing through a capacitor C in
CT = ( C11 + C12 )−1 = ( CC11+CC22 )−1 = CC11+CC22
a circuit is given by ic = C du
dt
c
where uc repre-
sents the voltage across the capacitor. That gives a simple formula when only two ca-
pacitors are connected in parallel:
CT = CC11+CC22

Capacitor Connections Exercise:

As a designer, you did calculations and came
Like resistors and inductors, calculations in the- out with capacitor value 500µF. Looking in
ory can result in any value. That value can be your component box, you see packets of capac-
within or out of the normalized values. To pro- itors(10 per packet) with values: C1 = 1000µF,
duce those values practically, the designer must C2 = 22µF.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

1.3 Capacitor
How will you manage to obtain that capacity capacy-meter.
you are looking for?

Capacitors connected in Parallel 1.3.1 Physical Identification

Capacitors are of many types and packages: ax-

ial, radial, SMD(0805, 1206,...),...

C2

Figure 1.24: SMD electrolytic capacitor

C1
Figure 1.23: Capacitors connected in parallel

Figure 1.25: SMD electrolytic capacitors

When connected in parallel, the equivalent ca-
pacity is the sum of their values:
CT = C1 + C2 + ... + Cn

Example:
Capacitors C1 = 100µF, C2 = 2200µF, C3 =
47µF are connected in parallel.
What is the corresponding total inductance?
Figure 1.26: Capacitor packages
Solution:
CT = ∑ni=1 Ci = C1 + C2 + C3
NA: CT = 100µF + 2200µF + 47µF = 1.3.2 Reading the capacitor’s value
2347µF
Capacitor value can be measured directly using
Exercise: measuring device or read on the package using
As a designer, you did calculations and came text code.
out with capacitor value 3200µF. Looking in
your component box, you see packets of ca-
pacitors(20 capacitors per packet) with values: Reading capacity using measuring device
C1 = 2200µF, C2 = 10µF, C3 = 1000µF.
How will you manage to obtain that capacity To read capacitor’s value using capacy-meter,
you are looking for? follow these steps:

The device used to measure capacity is the 1. turn ON the device;

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 Passive components and their applications
2. place the probes as indicated for capacity; Note: The voltage on the capacitor must be
greater than the voltage where it is supposed to
3. connect them to the two ends of the ca- be inserted in the design.
pacitor;
For high frequencies: removing high fre-
4. read the result on the device screen. If the quency noises. Here must of time, unpolarized
meter is an auto-range, its will give the capacitors are used, ceramic capacitors,... de-
direct result. but if not, some adjustments signer must take care of their voltage(hundred
in calibration may be necessary to get a of volts) and capacity(generally in nF, pF).
good reading of the result.

1.3.4 Practice
Reading capacity using text code
We are full of theory! Let’s apply it now.
Polarized capacitors have very simple and ex-
pressive text on their body for their value to be
Connection
known; A capacitor marked with: 1000µF 16V
is a 1000µF capacitor, able to support maxi-
Select four capacitors C1 = 100µF , C2 =
mum voltage of 16V.
100µF.
Ceramic capacitors have digit code like; 102 A:Do the following processes:
which means :
C = 10 ∗ 102 pF = 1000pF = 1nF. 1. compute CTa = C1 + C2 = F
The basic unit there is pF, so: 2. connect C1 in parallel with C2 and
104 ⇒ C = 10 ∗ 104 pF = 100000pF = 100nF measure with the device : CTb =
223 ⇒ C = 22 ∗ 103 pF = 22000pF = 22nF F
331 ⇒ C = 33 ∗ 101 pF = 330pF
47 ⇒ C = 47pF 3. compare CTa and CTb and:
15 ⇒ C = 15pF (a) tell if the theoretical formula CT =
∑ni=1 Ci is true regarding the practi-
cal result.
(b) explain what can be the causes of
1.3.3 How to choose a capacitor
their difference.

To choose a capacitor for a circuit, frequency, B:Do the following steps:

type, voltage and capacity at least are parame-
ters to take into account. 1. compute CTa = C1 //C2 = F;
For low frequencies: filtering power supply,
2. connect C1 in series with C2 and mea-
some low pass filters, here , the type must be
sure with the Ohmmeter : CTb =
chemical or polarized capacitors. the capac-
F;
ity(generally in µF) and voltage( 6.3V , 10V ,
16V , 25V ,50V ,63V ,100V ,...). 3. compare CTa and CTb and :

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

1.4 Relay
(a) tell if the theoretical formula CT = (b) explain what can be the causes of
(∑ni=1 C1i )−1 is true regarding the their difference.
practical result.

1.4 Relay
1.4.1 Physical Identification

Many packages are done for relay, depending

on their purpose, the current they can handle,. . .
Figure 1.27: Relay symbol The figure1.28 present a relay with these char-
acteristics:

Relays are used when it comes the time to con- • SPST relay type: Single Pole Single
trol heavy load or high voltages with just few Throw relay
voltage and small current. The coil of the relay
• Coil voltage: 12 VDC. This relay’s con-
is controlled by the small voltage and current,
tacts operate when 12V DC is applied on
its contacts are used as switch for the high volt-
its coil pins;
age part or the heavy load of he circuit. One
of the advantages is that the two stages(small • under 250V AC, it can handle 10A when
voltage and heavy part) are isolated one from contacts are closed.
another. The voltage needed to control the coil
depends on the relay. It can be: 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V, • under 24V DC, it can handle 10A when
24V, 48V. contacts are closed.
The contacts , depending on the manufac-
turer prescription, can support big current when
closed (5A, 10A,. . . ) and an amount of voltage
when open (110V AC, 240V AC,. . . ).
Some relay contacts are normally open, others
normally closed. Important characteristics of a
relay are:

• the coil voltage;

• the coil resistance;

Figure 1.28: SPST Relay package
• the nominal current of the contact;

• the voltage the contacts can support when The figure1.29 present a relay with these char-
open. acteristics:

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 Passive components and their applications
• DPDT relay type: Double Pole Double
Throw relay

• Coil voltage: 24 VDC. This relay’s con-

tacts operate when 24V DC is applied on
its coil pins;

• under 120V AC, it can handle 20A when

contacts are closed.

Figure 1.29: DPDT Relay package

• under 24V DC, it can handle 20A when

contacts are closed. 1.4.2 Testing a relay

To test a relay , follow these steps:

• under 240V AC, it can handle 16A when 1. identify the coil and supply it with indi-
contacts are closed. cated voltage;

2. check the contacts to see if they short-

circuit or not; A good relay will close
• under 30V DC, it can handle 16A when or open its contacts as it is supplied, and
contacts are closed. move to the opposite when no supply.

References

https://www.hobby-hour.com/electronics/smdcalc.php

https://www.electronicsdesignhq.com/resistors/

http://www.resistorguide.com/resistor-color-code/

https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/light-emitting-diodes-leds/all

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Semiconductors and their applications
2
2.1 diode
D Breakdown voltage VB : it is the voltage drop
across the diode at a defined current level
A K when it is beyond reverse-biased level.
This is known as avalanche. Beyond this
Figure 2.1: Diode symbol
voltage in the reverse biasing, the diode
destroy itself by avalanche. also noted
VRRM or PIV .
Basically, diode is a two pins semiconductor
component. The current flows through it only Reverse current IR is the current at a particu-
when the voltage at its anode(A) is greater than lar voltage, and which is below the break-
the voltage at its cathode(K). When conducting, down voltage.
there is a voltage drop(VF ) across its pins with
value depending on the material used to make
it( 0.6V, 0.7V for silicium , 0.3V for germa- PIV: Peak Inverse Voltage.
nium). In theory, diodes are considered like per- VRRM : Repetitive Reverse Maximum Voltage.
fect component(no voltage drop when ON,...).
The important characteristics if the diode are: Diodes are used in:

Forward voltage VF : it is the voltage drop of • rectifiers (power supplies);

a diode across anode and cathode at a de-
• polarized device protection(to avoid dam-
fined current level when it is forward bi-
ages caused by accidental polarities in-
ased. Generally, VF < 1.
version);
Forwad current IF : it is the quantity of cur-
• DC voltage regulation(Zener diode);
rent which can flow through the diode
when it is forward biased without damage • protection switching semiconductors
it. (free wheeling diode)

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Semiconductors and their applications
2.1.1 Physical Identification 2.1.2 Testing a diode

To test a diode using multimeter, follow these

steps:

1. turn ON the device;

Figure 2.2: Identify diode pins
2. place the probes as indicated for diode;

3. connect the black probe on the cathode

Diode packages vary according to the power
and the red probe on the anode;
they can support. Some are taking very
small current (signal diode, 75mA). others 1A 4. read the forward voltage on the screen. If
(1N40xx), ... The more the power, the bigger no forward voltage displayed, the diode is
the package. damaged or pins are switched.
Most of time, diodes have a band represent-
ing their cathode.The second pin is the anode. For more knowledge on testing a diode, use
a diode marked with the code : 1N4001 is this link https://www.fluke.com/en-us/
VF = 0.6V , I = 1A, 01⇒ VRRM = 50V ; learn/best-practices/test-tools-basics/
1N4002 is VF = 0.6V , I = 1A, 02⇒ VRRM = digital-multimeters/how-to-test-diodes-using-a-d
100V ;
1N4003 is VF = 0.6V , I = 1A, 03⇒ VRRM =
200V ; 2.1.3 Other type of diode
1N4007 is VF = 0.6V , I = 1A, 07⇒ VRRM =
1000V ; There are many types of diode: zener diode,
shotky diode, LED, photodiodes,. . .

2.2 The Zener diode

D 2.2.1 Physical Identification

A K
Figure 2.3: Zener diode

It is difficult to differentiate zener diodes from

simple diodes as they generally have the same
Zener diode has something special: when sup- package. The code on the package helps in
plied in reverse, they impose the voltage across locking for the corresponding datasheet to col-
their pins: that voltage called Zener Voltage VZ lect information on the component.
is fixed by the constructor. This effect is used in For some zener diodes, Zener Voltage is marked
voltage regulation. on the package, but not for all.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

2.3 Light Emitting Diode(LED)
2.2.2 How to choose a zener diode

The designer must consider the zener voltage VZ

and the zener current he needs.

2.3 Light Emitting Diode(LED)

IF is generally 10mA while the forward voltage

depends on the LED light color.
A D K
As normal diode, LED has two pins, the An-
Figure 2.4: LED symbol ode and the cathode. When forward biased, the
LED generate a colored light.

Light Emitting Diode(LED) is a diode that Note: Never connect LEDs in parallel. If want-
generate light. At the human eye level, that ing to connect LEDs in parallel, each LED must
light can be visible (common LED) or invisi- have its own protecting resistor.
ble(Infrared LED). Visible lights generated by
LEDs are of different colors (RED, GREEN, Depending on the color, characteristics are not

BLUE, YELLOW, WHITE). The more com- the same for all LEDs. The figure2.5 gives some

mon characteristic of LED are Forward Voltage information concerning LED’s colors:

VF and forward current IF .

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 Semiconductors and their applications

Figure 2.5: LED characteristics

Some informations on LED can be found on these links:

https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/light-emitting-diodes-leds/all
https://electronicsclub.info/leds.htm

2.3.1 Physical Identification Some LED are just transparent physically, it is

when they are they are supplied that they shine
LED are of many forms and colors. with their color. These LED are generally of
high luminosity.

Figure 2.6: LED colors

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

2.3 Light Emitting Diode(LED)
2.3.2 Testing a LED

To test a LED using multimeter, follow these

steps:

1. turn ON the device;

2. place the probes as indicated for diode;

Figure 2.7: High luminosity 3. connect the black probe on the cathode
and the red probe on the anode;

There are power LED, generally of white color,

4. the LED shines if normal(observable only
mostly used in lamps. Their power is consider-
for visible lights )read the forward volt-
able.
age on the screen. If no forward voltage
displayed, the diode is damaged or pins
are switched.

Note that for invisible light, phone’s camera can

be used to see the generated light.

Figure 2.8: Power LED

2.3.3 Other type of LED

To physically identify the pins of a LED ( An-
As the technology progress, many types of LED
ode and Cathode), the figure2.9 below can be
are created :
used if not wanting to test using multimeter as
for diode test. But notice that some LEDs are
different and may not respect these indications.
2.3.4 RGB LED

RGB LED for example is a LED having RED,

GREEN and BLUE color grouped in one pack-
age. Some RGB LED have only two pins, when
powered, they change color automatically like a
game light. Other RGB have 4 pins: one com-
Figure 2.9: LED pins identification mon pin and 3 other pins for the different colors.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Semiconductors and their applications

Figure 2.10: RGB LED

2.3.5 LED displays

Figure 2.13: Startburst display
LED displays are packages of many LEDs ar-
ranged in a pattern, the most familiar pattern
being the 7-segment displays. It can be 7 seg-
ment display, dot matrix display, bargraph dis-
play, startburst display.

Figure 2.11: 7 segment display Figure 2.14: Dot matrix display

Figure 2.12: Bargraph display

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

2.4 Transistor
2.4 Transistor

C When a negative voltage is applied to the base

of a PNP transistor, its emitter and collector are
”short-circuited”, and it reacts like a switch.
B

VB E
E B

(a) NPN transistor C

Vcc
C

B VB
B
E

C
Vcc
E
(b) PNP transistor
Figure 2.17: PNP transistor as switch
Figure 2.15: transistor symbol

The transistor is a triode component. There are Note that the voltage drop when saturated VCE sat
two types of transistor: - The NPN transistor is not zero in practice as assumed in the theory.
and the PNP transistor. Transistors can be used in amplification or in
commutation. In commutation, we consider the
When a positive voltage is applied to the base
states ON and OFF while in amplification, the
of a NPN transistor, its emitter and collector are
space between these two extremities are consid-
”short-circuited”, and it reacts like a switch.
ered.
C
B Transistors are used in:
VB E
Vcc

• regulator (power supplies);

C
• audio amplifiers;
B

VB E
Vcc
• oscillators;

Figure 2.16: NPN transistor as switch • relay control

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Semiconductors and their applications
2.4.1 Physical Identification

Transistor packages vary according to the power they can support. They have 3 pins (Base, Collec-
tor, Emitter).The code marked on the transistor helps in identifying the component using datasheet
or internet. some codes are: 2N2222 , BC547, BC557, BD243, BD244, TIP41, TIP42.

Figure 2.18: Transistor packages

2.4.2 Testing a transistor

Figure 2.19: Pin detection of a transistor

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

2.4 Transistor
To test a transistor using multimeter, follow Between the two remaining pins,
these steps: -the one presenting the highest value is
the Emitter ;
1. turn ON the device; -the one presenting the smallest value is
the Collector;
2. place the probes as indicated for diode;

3. connect the black probe on the cathode

and the red probe on the anode;
2.4.3 Other type of transistor

4. proceed as shown on figure2.19. The photo-transistor is a transistor sensitive to

light. The light is like its Base. When exposed
5. Read the type. Take the two cases pre-
to the light, Emitter and Collector are ”short-
senting values, the fixed probe is the base.
circuited”. In the dark, they are open-circuit.
The movable probe shows emitter and
collector.
If the fixed probe is the black, C
it is PNP transistor since there
is two Red(”Positive”) and one
Black(”Negative”).
If the fixed probe is the Red,
it is NPN transistor since there
is one Red(”Positive”) and two
Black(”Negative”).

6. Detect the pins. The pin having the fixed

E
probe is the Base Figure 2.20: Photo-transistor

References

https://www.fluke.com/en-us/learn/best-practices/test-tools-basics/digital-multimeter
how-to-test-diodes-using-a-digital-multimeter

https://www.astuces-pratiques.fr/electronique/le-transistor-bipolaire-test-au-multime

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Integrated Circuits
3
3.1 Count IC pins
When working with Integrated Circuits, it is
necessary to know how to identify at least the
right position of their pins. Here trigonometry
direction is used. There is a point on the pack-
age showing the first pin (pin 1) of the IC. Once
that pin is detected, use the trigonometric direc-
tion(Counter Clock Wise ) to continue count-
ing (pin2, pin3, pin4,. . . ) . The package can be Figure 3.2: DIP package 8 pins
through hole type or surface mounting type.

When confused, the datasheet of the circuit

gives direct and sure informations. By consult-
ing datasheet regularly, the familiarity will take
place and speed too will be ready to be installed.

3.1.1 case of DIP package

DIP: Dual In Line Package. Pins here are range

Figure 3.3: DIP package
on two parallel sides.

8 7 6 5
3.1.2 case of SIL package
Pin count
direction
Point Single In Line (SIL) : Here pins are ranged on a
single line. To count, the user faces the written
1 2 3 4
side of the component and take the pin left pin
Figure 3.1: DIP package pin count as the first. The counting direction is from left

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

3.2 How to use the data sheet
to right.

Figure 3.5: DIP package

Find more informations on packages on https:

//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_
integrated_circuit_packaging_types#
Transistor,_diode,_small-pin-count_
Figure 3.4: DIP package 8 pins IC_packages

3.2 How to use the data sheet

Each IC contains a lot things combined together some usages of the IC you may not think
in a small package. That must be used with at about;
least a minimum level of precaution. The data
sheet provides technical information on the IC:
what is inside, how to use it, its packages, its
limits, its electrical characteristics, . . .

The data sheet seems very difficult to read when

not use to, but becomes interesting once one
knows how to use it and what to look for in it.
That is why this section is made.
3.2.1 How to find a data sheet

• if it is the first time for you to see an IC,

its data sheet will give you little technical
Having a circuit at hand, just by typing the
details about what it is;
text wrote on it followed by datasheet in a
• if it is a component you are use to, the browser like Google directly find the corre-
data sheet will help in understanding a sponding datasheet if existing online.
particular aspect you just want to use;
As example, around is an integrated circuit( on
• the data sheet brings you in discovering figure3.6) just removed from an old device.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Integrated Circuits

Figure 3.6: raw circuit

To obtain its data sheet, follow these steps:

• type the chip text followed by ”datasheet” in the browser’s edit box and search for it ;

Figure 3.7: find on internet

• in the different results appearing, select the more convenient ;

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

3.3 Supply an Integrated Circuit

Figure 3.8: select the interesting one

• if needed for later offline usage, download a copy in ”*.PDF” format and keep.

3.2.2 The good way to use a data you are looking for, and focus on it. Ignore the
sheet other informations.

By time to time, passing through all the pages

As the data sheet has a lot of technical informa- passively can help in knowing some details on
tions, looking at all of them at the same time is the IC contain.
discouraging. The thing to do is to know what

3.3 Supply an Integrated Circuit

No IC can perform without power supply. The pins provided to supply it. The datasheet shows
user must supply the IC for it to work prop- those pins on the IC diagram. It also give the
erly. According to internal technology and con- right voltage that can be used without damag-
stitution, each IC has its specifications concern- ing the IC, this is generally well described in
ing its power supply as well as some special ”DC Electrical characteristic section” .

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Integrated Circuits
3.3.1 noise suppression for IC pling circuit is generally made of ceramic ca-
power supply pacitors in parallel with the IC power supply,a
bypass capacitor, connecting the power supply
to the ground near the IC power supply termi-
When functioning, an IC may misbehave in one nal. As common habit, C = 100nF is a working
way or another. The first thing the designer choice, but it is always good to follow the IC
must think about is how much he prepared his datasheet recommendations.
circuit to be robust against noises. The decoupling circuit or power supply filter
The noise can be be generated by an IC when will play the following roles:
operating, that must be suppressed or attenuated
so that it will not affect the other parts of the cir- 1. Noise suppression;
cuit.
2. Temporarily supplying current;
The noise can come from intrusion from an ex-
3. Form signal returning path
ternal source.

Power supply voltage fluctuation can bring As the circuit clock speed increases, a large
noise and affect the IC functioning. In order amount of noise is generated; the technique to
to suppress these noises and make the IC op- filter changes. Simple decoupling capacitor can
erate normally, a good decoupling circuit must no more work there. Other way filters are used
be made. In low clock speed circuit, the decou- here.

3.4 Logic gates

In digital electronic, electrical signal is consid- 1. OR : acts when at least one of the input
ered logic level. According to the technology conditions is fulfilled;
used (TTL, CMOS,. . . ), beyond a certain level
2. AND: acts when all the input conditions
of voltage, the voltage present is considered as
are fulfilled;
logic one (1). below a certain level of voltage,
the voltage present is considered as logic zero 3. NOT: produces the opposite logic level of
(0). Sometime, basic operations on voltages are the input logic level.
needed in making : we may want to produce
the opposite logic level of the voltage we have,
Using the three basic logic functions, other
we may want to act on an element according to
logic gates can be produced: NOR gate, NAND
one condition or another, we may want to per-
gate, XOR gate, NOT XOR gate.
form a authorize something only when two or
many conditions are fulfilled. These operators Each type has a way of working summarized in
are well made with and called Logic gates. At its truth table. In the real world, they are pack-
the base are three types: aged in an integrated circuit(IC); In the pack-
age, they can be of two inputs or more. The

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3.4 Logic gates
CD4001 contains 4 NOR gates, all of them are
supplied by the same pins. The data sheet gives
more informations on the circuit : -internal dis-
position, power supply limits, technology, cur-
rent consumption, . . .

When confused, the data sheet of the circuit

gives direct and sure informations. By consult-
ing data sheet regularly, the familiarity will take
place and speed too will be ready to be installed.

Figure 3.11: OR gate truth table

Figure 3.9: CD4001 internal structure

Figure 3.10: CD4001 package

3.4.1 Logic gates truth table

Each logic gate has a truth table summarizing

the way its operate. Figure 3.12: AND gate truth table

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Integrated Circuits

Figure 3.13: NOT gate truth table

Figure 3.16: XOR gate truth table

Figure 3.14: NOR gate truth table

Figure 3.17: XNOR gate truth table

3.4.2 How to connect logic gates in

a circuit

To avoid floating state on the input of a logic

gate, resistors are used to maintain the gate in-
put to the opposite logic level. These resistors
are given the name of pull-up resistor( when
pulling the input to VCC ) or pull-down resistor(
when pulling the input to GND ) according to
the case. Generally, the resistances used at this
Figure 3.15: NAND gate truth table level are between 1kΩ and 10kΩ.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

3.4 Logic gates
Vcc

Figure 3.20: Logic gate made monostable

Figure 3.18: Logic gate connection , pull-up

Vcc

Figure 3.21: Logic gate made astable multivi-

brator

Figure 3.19: Logic gate connection , pull-down For practical usage, it is good to know some ref-
erences when looking for a logic gate to use.

3.4.3 How to choose a logic gate IC OR gate IC references: 4071 is a quad-2 in-
puts OR gate, 4072 is a Dual-4 inputs OR gate.
This task is easy when some elements are NOR gate IC references: 4001 is a quad-2 in-
known: puts NOR gate, 4002 is a Dual-4 inputs NOR
gate.
• the environment where the device will
function: is it noisy? XOR gate IC references: 4030, 4070,
74HC386, 74LS386 are quad-2 inputs XOR
• the supply voltage available for the cir- gate.
cuit;
XNOR gate IC references: 4077 is a quad-2
• the number of inputs needed for an oper-
inputs XNOR gate.
ation;
AND gate IC references: 4081 is a quad-2 in-
• ...
puts AND gate, 4082 is a Dual-4 inputs AND
gate.
Logic gates are also used in multi-
vibrators(Monostable, astable), in other digital NAND gate IC references: 4011, 7400 are
functions( RS flip flop, JK flip flop, adder,. . . ). quad-2 inputs NAND gate, 4012 is a Dual-4 in-
Many circuits are made combination of a lot of puts NAND gate. , 4023 is a Triple-3 inputs
logic gates. NAND gate, 4068 is an 8 inputs NAND gate.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Integrated Circuits
3.5 The NE555
This circuit well known is a simple, but useful 3.5.1 NE555 as monostable
integrated circuit in the world of electronics. Its
internal constitution is as shown on figure3.22
and figure3.23 . Looking at its internal constitu-
tion, many things can be done using this circuit.
Two basic well known usages of the NE555 are
the monostable and the astable.

Figure 3.24: NE555 as monostable

When mounted as monostable, the circuit pro-

duces a high pulse when triggered with a low
pulse at its trigger input.

• no trigger signal applied(trigger input at

high level), the output is low; the dis-
Figure 3.22: NE555 internal constitution charge transistor is saturated, so the ca-
pacitor C is short-circuited or discharged;

• a zero logic trigger signal(voltage lower

than 13 VCC ) is applied at the trigger in-
put. The comparator 2 output goes high,
that set the RS Flip-Flop Q̄ to Zero (0).
The output becomes high. The discharge
transistor is blocked. The capacitor start
charging through R1 toward VCC ;

• as the capacitor charges, when the volt-

2
age across the capacitor reaches 3 VCC ,
the comparator 1 output goes high, that
set the RS Flip-Flop Q̄ to logic one (1).
The output becomes low. The capaci-
tor quickly discharges through the dis-
charging transistor toward 0V. The cycle
is complete.

As result, a simple and shortest low pulse gen-

Figure 3.23: NE555 internal constitution erates a high pulse at the output with duration

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

3.5 The NE555
T. That duration depends on the value of C and
R1 . It is recommended to choose :
10kΩ ≤ R1 ≤ 14MΩ , and
100pF ≤ C ≤ 1000µF )
T = R1C ln 3 = 1.1R1C

The corresponding waveform is as shown on

figure3.26. In this case,
T = R1C log 3 = 15kΩ ∗ 1µF ln 3 = 15kΩ ∗
1µF ∗ 1.1 = 16.5ms

Figure 3.26: NE555 monostable waveforms

3.5.2 NE555 as astable

Figure 3.27: NE555 as astable

When configured as astable, the circuit pro-

duces a square waveform.

• we just power the system, the capacitor

C is discharged, the output of compara-
tor 2 is high, that set Q̄ to zero ( Q̄ = 0
). The discharging transistor blocked, and
the output high. The capacitor C charges
Figure 3.25: NE555 as monostable through R1 and R2 toward VCC .

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Integrated Circuits
2
• When the capacitor voltage reaches 3 VCC ,
the comparator 1 output set to high, this
set the Q̄ to logic High, as consequence,
the discharging transistor is saturated, the
output goes Low. The capacitor dis-
charges through R2 and the discharging
transistor toward 0V.

• When the capacitor voltage decreases till

1
3 VCC , the comparator 2 output set to high,
this set the Q̄ to logic Low, the discharg-
ing transistor is blocked, the output goes
high. The capacitor charges through R1
and R2 toward VCC . The cycle is com-
plete, and repeat itself from step 2 till the
removal of power supply.
Figure 3.28: NE555 as astable
The high pulse lasts for th :
th = (R1 + R2 )C ln 2 = 0.693(R1 + R2 )C
The low pulse lasts for tl :
tl = R2C ln 2 = 0.693R2C
The oscillating signal as a period T given by:
T = th + tl = (R1 + 2R2 )C ln 2 = 0.693(R1 + 2R2 )C
And the corresponding frequency f is:
1 1 1
f= T = (R1 +2R2 )C ln 2
= 0.693(R1 +2R2 )C

The corresponding waveform is as shown on

figure3.29. In this case,

tl = 20kΩ ∗ 680nF ln 2 = 20kΩ ∗ 680nF ∗

0.693 = 9.4ms Figure 3.29: NE555 astable waveforms
th = (10kΩ + 20kΩ) ∗ 680nF ln 2 = (10kΩ +
20kΩ) ∗ 680nF ∗ 0.693 = 14.1ms
It is recommended to choose :
T = (10kΩ + 2 ∗ 20kΩ) ∗ 680nF ln 2 = 10kΩ ≤ (R1 + 2R2 ) ≤ 14MΩ, and
(10kΩ + 2 ∗ 20kΩ) ∗ 680nF ∗ 0.693 = 23.5ms 100pF ≤ C ≤ 1000µF )

3.6 integrated voltage regulators

Integrated Voltage regulators are integrated cir- the voltage variation at their input stands within
cuits producing fixed voltage at their output as the allowed range. Generally, the voltage at

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

3.6 integrated voltage regulators
the input is greater than the one at the output, • Vo : The output regulated voltage.
since there is a voltage drop across the internal
circuitry of the component. The package can
The usage of fixed voltage regulator is really
vary, for the same reference of voltage regula-
simple as shown on figure3.31. The corre-
tor, package can be TO-xx, SO-x.
sponding voltage regulator’s datasheet provides
They facilitate the design as the user has just more informations and circuits concerning the
to add few components and supply for them to component.
produce expected result.

In Out

GND
V Vout
in

Figure 3.31: Voltage regulator typical circuit

Figure 3.30: Voltage regulator

3.6.2 Variable voltage regulators

Some regulators produce variable output volt-

3.6.1 Fixed voltage regulators
age. They are very flexible. The LM317 for ex-
ample can produce a positive regulated variable
Fixed voltage regulators produce fixed volt-
DC voltage from 1.25V to more than 25V . Gen-
age at their output as the voltage varia-
erally, a potentiometer is used to vary that volt-
tion at their input stands within the al-
age. The LM337 in other hand, does the same
lowed range. As example, the 78xx se-
work as the LM317, except that it produces neg-
ries produces positive xx voltage. The
ative regulated DC voltage. Fixed voltage regu-
79xx series produces negative xx voltage.
lators have three generally main :
Regulator 7805 7812 7905 7912
Voltage 5V 12V -5V -12V
Fixed voltage regulators have three generally
• Vi : Here the input voltage Vi supplies the
main :
voltage regulator;

• Vi : Here the input voltage Vi supplies the

• GND: this pin goes to the ground (ex-
voltage regulator;
cept in some special cases according to
• GND: this pin goes to the ground (ex- the user);
cept in some special cases according to
the user); • Vo : The output regulated voltage.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Integrated Circuits
3.6.3 How to choose a voltage regu-
lator

According to the need in the application, the de-

signer may have to use voltage regulator. To se-
lect a voltage regulator, he must:

1. decide on the output voltage Vo and the

output current Io ;

2. determine the input voltage Vi of the reg-

ulator.( With the input Vi and output Vo
voltages known, decision on the group of
regulator to use can be made. );

3. determine the power dissipated Pd by

Figure 3.32: LM317 voltage regulator the regulator. This gives the possibility
to check the thermal characteristic suit-
able for the design(the parameter Theta-
JA θJA in oC/W ).
Pd ' (Vi −Vo )Io

These parameters can direct the designer in

looking for informations in datasheets in order
Figure 3.33: LM317 typical circuit to select his voltage regulator.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Operational Amplifier
4
4.1 Presentation 8
+VCC
7
Out
6 5

Operational amplifier can be used in lin-

ear mode (amplification) or in commutation

+
-
mode(saturation). They are active components,
since they can never operate without power sup- 1 2 3 4
In- In+ -VCC
ply.
Figure 4.2: Single OPAMP internal disposition
Operational amplifier is a common and well
used component in electronics. It comes in dif-
ferent packages, some with only one OpAmp, Some references of dual operational amplifiers
other with two OpAmp, . . . circuit: -LM358 , -T L072, -T L082, -NE5532,
-AD644 . The Operational amplifiers are dis-
posed in the DIP(Dual Inline Package) as on
+
figure4.3.
-
+VCC Out In- 2 In+2
8 7 6 5
(a) without power supply pins
-

+ +

-
+
(b) with power supply pins
-

Figure 4.1: operational amplifier symbol

1 2 3 4
Out 1 In-1 In+1 -VCC

Figure 4.3: Dual OPAMP internal disposition

Some references of single operational amplifier
circuit: -T L071, -T L081, -LM311 ... The Op-
erational amplifier is disposed in the DIP(Dual Some references of quad operational amplifiers
Inline Package) as on figure4.2. circuit: -LM324 , -T L074, -T L084;

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Operational Amplifier
4.2 Operational Amplifier in 4.2.1 Voltage follower
linear mode
+

In linear mode, there is a feedback element con- -

vo
nected to the inverting input and the output; this vi
R
f
is known as negative feedback. That is a simple
technique to detect in which mode OpAmp in (a) volt follower
the diagram is operating. In this mode, OpAmp +

can be used to: amplify, add, -subtract, - aver- -

vo
age, -differentiate, -integrate, -. . . vi

Two main assumptions are used:

(b) volt follower 2

Figure 4.4: volt follower

• The ideal operational amplifier does not
consume current at either of its input ter-
minals: (i+ = 0, i− = 0); • e+ = vi

• e− = vo
• The differential input voltage ε ap-
proaches zero when negative feedback is
• e+ = e− ⇒ vi = vo
applied around the ideal operational am-
plifier: (ε = e+ − e− ' 0).

vo
So the voltage gain Av = =1vi
The input impedance is infinite.
To work in linear mode, some simple steps are
The output impedance is the one of the opera-
used:
tional amplifier, hence 0Ω.
The voltage follower is used to interface two el-
ements without influencing their impedances;to
1. find the voltage at the non-inverting input isolate circuits or devices from one another and
e+ ; prevent undesired interaction.
Other names for it are impedance adapter, elec-
trical buffers.
2. find the voltage at the inverting input e− ; The feedback resistor inserted in case of pic-
ture4.4a must never be infinite, always take fi-
nite values. Note that the feedback resistor is
3. equate the two voltages.( That gives the necessary only for current-feedback OpAmps.
possibility to find the requested expres- With voltage follower, source with low current
sion ). capabilities can drive a heavy load.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

4.2 Operational Amplifier in linear mode
vo R
4.2.2 Non inverting amplifier So the voltage gain Av = = −( Rf )
vi
The input impedance Zi is equal to impedance
at the input: Zi = R.
+
The output impedance Zo is zero: Zo = 0
-

vi vo
R 4.2.4 Linear Current generator
f
R

-
Z
i R L i
Figure 4.5: Non inverting amplifier vo
vi UR UZ

• e+ = vi
Figure 4.7: Linear current generator
• e− = R
R + R f vo

• e+ = e− ⇒ vi = R
R+R f vo • e+ = 0
Rf
• vo = (1 + R )vi • our main interest there is the current flow-
ing through R and ZL .
So the voltage gain Av = = (1 + Rf ) vo R vi + UR − e− = 0 ⇔ vi + Ri − e− = 0;
vi
The input impedance Zi is infinite: Zi = ∞. as e+ = e− , we have vi + Ri − 0 = 0 ⇔
The output impedance Zo is zero: Zo = 0 Ri = −vi
⇒ i = − vRi
That same current flows trough the
4.2.3 Inverting amplifier impedance ZL , considered here as the
load.

+
ZL receives a current depending only on the in-
-

vo
put voltage vi and the input impedance R.
vi R R
f

4.2.5 Integrator
Figure 4.6: Inverting amplifier

+
• e+ = 0
- ZC
Rvo +R f vi i R i
• e− = R+R f
vo
vi UR
Rvo +R f vi UZ
• e+ = e− ⇒0= R+R f

R Figure 4.8: Integrator

• vo = −( Rf )vi

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Operational Amplifier
• e+ =0 4.2.7 Subtractor
• i = − vRi
R3
+

v R
2 4 -
• e− + UZ − vo = 0 ⇔ vo = UZ = UC
vo
The current flowing trough a capacitor is R
2
R1
given by Ic = C dU C
dt ;
v
1
Since UC = vo , Ic = C dv
dt
o

⇒ dvo = CIc dt
⇒ dvo = −v i
dt Figure 4.10: Subtractor
R RC
−vi
⇒ vo = RC dt
R4
• e+ = R3 +R4 v2 = 1
R v2
1 + R3
4

v1 R2 +R1 vo
The output signal is the integration of the input • e− = R1 +R2 v2 = 1
R1 +R2 (v1 R2 + vo R1 )
signal according to time.
R4
• e+ = e− ⇔ R3 +R4 v2 = 1
R1 +R2 (v1 R2 +
vo R1 )
R4 ( R1 + R2 )
4.2.6 Derivator ⇔ R3 +R4 v2 = (v1 R2 + vo R1 )
R4 ( R1 + R2 )
⇔ R3 +R4 v2 − v1 R2 = vo R1
R4 ( R1 + R2 )
+ ⇔ v − v1 RR21 = vo
R1 ( R3 + R4 ) 2
R4 (R1 +R2 )
ZC -
R
vo = v − v1 RR12
R1 (R3 +R4 ) 2
i i
vo
vi UR
UZ
R4 (R1 +R2 )
vo = k2 v2 − k1 v1 with gains k2 = R1 (R3 +R4 )
and
R2
Figure 4.9: Derivator k1 = R1 The input signal v1 is amplified by gain
k1 and subtracted from amplified v2 . The func-
tion realized is called a subtractor.
• e+ = 0

• UR = vo = RIC
4.2.8 Adder
• vi = −UC = 0
+
• The current flowing trough the capacitor
i -
IC = C dU C
dt ; v1 R
vo
Hence UR = vo = RIC = RC dU
dt =
C
v2 R2 R
f
−RC dv
dt
i
v3
R3
vo = −RC dv
dt
i

Figure 4.11: Adder

The input signal is derivated, multiplied by RC

and inverted to produce the output signal. • e+ = 0

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

4.3 Operational amplifier in commutation mode
v1 v2 v3 vo
• e− = R1 + R2 + R3 + R Vcc
1 1 1 1
R1 + R2 + R3 + R
+
v1 v2 v3 vo
R1 + R2 + R3 + R f e+
• e+ = e− ⇔ 0 = 1 1 1 1 -
R1 + R2 + R3 + R f

⇔0= v1
+ + + v2 v3 vo e- vo
R1 R2 R3 Rf
v1 v2 v3
⇔ vo = −R ( + + f R1 R2 R3 )
v1 v2 v3
vo = −R f ( R1 +R2 + R3)
Figure 4.12: with asymmetric supply

The input signals are amplified, added and the

final result is inverted. if (e+ > e− ), Vo = VCC ;
if (e+ < e− ), Vo = GND = 0V ;

4.3 Operational amplifier in Vcc

commutation mode +
e+
-
In commutation mode, there is no negative e- vo
-Vcc
feedback. The output takes only two possible
states, those states are the extremes of the power
supply. To analyze in commutation mode, some Figure 4.13: with symmetric supply
simple steps are used:

if (e+ > e− ), Vo = VCC ;

1. find the voltage at the non-inverting input
if (e+ < e− ), Vo = −VCC ;
e+ ;

2. find the voltage at the inverting input e− ;

4.3.1 Simple Comparator with
3. determine the output state by comparing
asymmetric power supply
the voltages at the inputs;

• if (e+ > e− ), the output copies the

positive end of the power supply R
Vcc
1
Vo = VCC ; +
• if (e+ < e− ), the output copies the R3
negative end of the power supply -
R
Vo = VCC ; v R2
i vo
– GND when supplied with
asymmetric power supply;
– VCC when supplied with sym- Figure 4.14: simple comparator with asymmet-
metric power supply. ric supply

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Operational Amplifier
vi = 8 sin 100πt (V ), VCC = 12V , R1 = R2 = vi = 8 sin 100πt (V ), VCC = 12V , R1 = R2 =
10kΩ; 10kΩ;
e+ = vi = 8 sin 100πt (V ) e+ = vi = 8 sin 100πt (V )
e− = R1R+2R2 VCC = 1R1 VCC = 12 VCC = 12 12V = e− = R2
R1 +R2 VCC = 1
R VCC = 21 VCC = 12 12V =
1+ R 1 + R1
2 2
6V 6V

Vi
8
6

0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms

t
-8
Vi
8
6
Vo
Vcc 0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms
t
-8
0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms
t
-
Vo
Vcc
LED

0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms

t
ON OFF ON OFF
0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms
t -Vcc

LED
-
Figure 4.15: waveforms of simple comparator
with asymmetric supply ON OFF ON OFF
0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms
t
-
4.3.2 Simple Comparator with sym- Figure 4.17: waveforms of simple comparator
with symmetric supply
metric power supply

R
Vcc
1
+
R3
-
R
v R2 vo In some applications, the output fluctuates too
i -Vcc
much as the threshold is unique and the in-
put varies in a fast way. That fluctuation can
Figure 4.16: simple comparator with symmetric be slowed down or corrected using a double
supply threshold.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

4.3 Operational amplifier in commutation mode
4.3.3 The Schmitt Trigger Vi
8
e+H
e+ L
0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms
t
-8

Vo
Vcc

0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms

t
R1 R2
Va
Vcc -

+ LED

v OFF ON OFF ON
i vo 0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms
t
-
Figure 4.19: Schmitt Trigger wave-
Figure 4.18: Schmitt Trigger form(asymmetric power supply)

R2 va +R1 vo
e+ = R1 +R2
e− = vi
Case supplied with asymmetric power sup-
ply Case supplied with symmetric power supply
*At the beginning, let’s consider that v0 = VCC . *At the beginning, let’s consider that v0 = VCC .
R2 R1 R2 R1
⇔ e+ = R1 +R2 va + R1 +R2 vo ⇔ e+ = R1 +R2 va + R1 +R2 vo
R2 R1 R2 R1
⇔ e+ = R1 +R2 va + R1 +R2 VCC ⇔ e+ = R1 +R2 va + R1 +R2 VCC
This is the high threshold: This is the high threshold:
+ R2 R1 + R2 R1
eH = R1 +R2 va + R1 +R2 VCC eH = R1 +R2 va + R1 +R2 VCC
*When vo = 0V . *When vo = VCCV .
⇔ e+ = R1R+2R2 va + R1R+1R2 (0) ⇔ e+ = R2 R1
R1 +R2 va − R1 +R2 VCC
⇔ e+ = R1R+2R2 va ⇔ e+ = R2 R1
R1 +R2 va − R1 +R2 VCC
This is the low threshold: This is the low threshold:
eL+ = R1R+2R2 va eL+ = R2 R1
R1 +R2 va − R1 +R2 VCC

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

 Operational Amplifier
Vi
8
e+H

0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms

e+L t
-8

Vo
Vcc

0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms

t Figure 4.21: LM324, TL084 internal constitu-
tion
-Vcc

LED

OFF ON OFF ON 4.5 How to choose an opera-

0 10ms 20ms 30ms 40ms
t tional amplifier
-
Figure 4.20: Schmitt Trigger wave-
form(symmetric power supply) To choose and amplifier for a design, the de-
signer should take in account at least these ele-
ments:

• the power supply available in the design:

symmetric or asymmetric? low or high
voltage? Current consumption;

• the impedances of the input and the out-

put;

• the temperature the OpAmp can support;

4.4 Package and physical
• the bandwidth;
identification
• the required gain;

• the accuracy;
As Operational amplifiers are Integrated cir-
cuits, it is difficult to identify them using a spe- The document SBOA092B(HANDBOOK OF
cial form. The datasheet is where to find infor- OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER APPLICA-
mations. TIONS) of Texas Instrument is a good support
Regular IC of operational amplifiers contents to handle operational amplifiers in theory and
one ,two ,four operational amplifiers. practice.

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin

4.6 Other types of operational amplifier
4.6 Other types of opera- strumental Amplifier well known in the world
of instrumentation. It is regular in medical de-
tional amplifier
vices like ECG,. . .

Programmable Gain Amplifiers (PGA) are op-

Some operational amplifiers are made for spe- erational amplifiers with internal circuit for gain
cial purpose. The AD620 for example is an In- programing.

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.html

©(Rev 1.1) Kentsa Zana Kevin