System development life cycle (SDLC)

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
What is a System?

It is a collection of independent but interrelate components that work together to

serve a common purpose. This could be people, equipment and methods or
procedure organised together to accomplish a specific objective.

A system can be described as either soft or hard

SOFT SYSTEMS

Composed of human driven activities. E.g. Political system, sales tracking

system. Called soft because:

i. Their boundaries keep on changing (they are fluid)

ii. Their goals and objectives usually conflict and may not be captured
clearly at any one time because they are based on human factors like
attitudes and preferences.

iii. It is difficult to precisely define exact measures of performance for them.

HARD SYSTEMS

THESE ARE SYSTEMS whose goals and objectives are clearly defined and
outcomes are predictable from the systems’ processes and can be modified
accurately.eg.stock management system.

NB:a good system incorporated/consists of both hard and soft traits of a system.eg
stock management system. Should tell when demand of an item rises and that
demand is driven by soft aspects of peoples live like attitudes and seasons.

Characteristics of Systems
i. Holism
All systems are composed of inter-related parts or sub-systems and the
systems can only be explained as a whole. This is known as holism or
synergy.

ii. Hierarchy
Systems are hierarchical in that parts of the sub-systems are made up of other
smaller parts.

iii. Interdependence
The parts of a system cannot be altered without affecting other parts.

iv. Optimality
The sub-systems should work towards the goal of their higher systems and not
pursue their own objectives independently. Where sub-systems do pursue their

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
own objectives to the detriment of higher objectives, then a condition of sub-
optimality is said to exist.

vi. System entropy

System decay naturally with time. This means that system naturally become
useless either due to change in technology, management, policies or change in
user requirements

vii. Input and Output

A system communicate with the environment by receiving input and giving
output. Input –raw material Output – finished product

viii. Boundaries and the Environment

Boundaries
The features which define the extent of a system are its boundaries. Changes at
the boundary of interacting systems can be a source of friction if not handled
properly.

The environment of a system comprises :

a) External elements which, when changed, affect the system;
b) External elements which are changed by the system’s behaviour.
The environment is diverse and dynamic. The elements in the environment may
affect the organisation or be affected by the organisation’s actions or output.
Where necessary and possible, organisation do attempt to influence their
environment.
What is an Information System (IS)?
Information system can be defined as a set of interrelated components that collect
or retrieve, process, store and distribute information to support decision-making
and control in an organization.
NB: It could be manual or computerized

The four main activities of an IS are

i. Entering data into the IS (input)
ii. Changing and manipulating the data in the IS (data processing)
iii. Getting information out of the IS (output)
iv. Storing data and information (storage)

Besides the four main operations, feedback is also needed to return the output to
the appropriate people or activities in the organization to evaluate and refine the
input.

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)

Storage

Input Process Output

Feedback
Figure 1.1 Diagram showing the four main operations

A good IS must be able to produce information that carries the following

characteristics:
i. Relevant – information must pertain to the problem at hand.
ii. Complete – partial information is often worst than no information.
iii. Accurate – erroneous information may lead to disastrous decisions.
iv. Current – decisions are often based upon the latest information available.
v. Economical – in a business setting, the cost of obtaining information must be
considered as one cost element involved in any decision.

Purpose of an information system

i. Information systems help senior manager with long-term planning. The principle
concern at this level is matching changes in the external environment with
existing organizational capabilities.
ii. Information systems help managers monitor and control. It typically provides
periodic reports rather than instant information on operations.
iii. Information systems help knowledge and data workers design product, distribute
information and cope with paperwork.
iv. Information systems help integrate new knowledge into the business and to help
the organization in decision making
v. Information systems help manager keep track of the firm’s day-today activities
thus helping in answer routine questions and to track the flow of transactions
through the organization.

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
“System Life Cycle”,

Therefore, a system life cycle describes how programs are developed from an idea, to
completed programs and then, to revised or discontinued programs

Who is a System analyst?

Is a person who is responsible for identifying an organizations needs and problem
then design and develop an information system to solve them

Roles of a system analyst

i. Review the existing system by giving recommendation on how to improve them
ii. Works hand in hand with programmers during construction of new system
iii. Coordinates training of new system users and owners

Why develop a new Information System?

i. Problem with the current system
If the existing system is not able to meet the organizational goals, the organization
may opt for a new system
ii. Changes in the organization
The management can introduce changes in the organization that may force the
organization to develop a new information system
iii. New opportunities
If an opportunity presents it self that can enable the organization improve its services
then a new information system may be developed.
iv. Change in user expectations may make the organization to develop a new
information system
v. Change in government policies
Government regulation may force the organization to develop a new system in order
to comply.
Reason for changing a system and not modifying
i. Existing hardware and software coming to end of life
ii. Introduction of new hardware and software
iii. Inability to maintain the existing system
iv. Change in user requirements

Why Do Systems Development Project Fail

i. Inadequate user involvement

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
If the users expectations are not met per their demand then they may reject the new
system.
ii. Inadequate feasibility study
If feasibility study was done in hurry then the cost and benefit analysis will not be
realistic
iii. Poor communication between the users and data processing groups or the computer
specialist
iv. Poor planning on system integration
If the proposed system is worked on by different groups of technical specialist who do
not communicate and had not planned their way forward properly the project is likely to
fail

STAGES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

Stages of System development

The environment in which any business system or enterprise function does not remain
static for very long. Because of this, the system has to change. When there are changes,
the system will eventually need to be replaced, or significantly altered to become a new
system or a new version.

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)

Stages of System Development

1. Problem recognition
and definition

7. System review and 2. Information gathering

maintenance

6. System implementation 3. Requirement

specification for the new
system

5. System construction 4. System design

Figure 1.2 showing the Stages of System Development life cycle

1. Problem recognition and definition

A system project will not start for any apparent reasons. It must have been
initiated by someone (we will generally call him the user).

Problem recognition is the initial stage and is based on the user’s requests, the
System Analyst (SA) will check the background of the problems to see if it is
possible to solve.

During problem definition the SA survey all the existing problems and find
out if there are possibilities of getting solutions. After the study of the existing
system, the SA will produce a feasibility study report.

NB: Feasibility study is a special study carried out to establish the cost and
benefits of a new system

Content of feasibility study report

i. Describe the scope of the new system

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
ii. Contains estimates of the time,
iii. Costs and benefits that would result from the system.
Types of feasibility studies

They are four:

i. Operational feasibility
It aims at establishing how comfortable the users are with the proposed
system, effect of the system on the organizational image and management
levels etc.
ii. Technical feasibility
It aim at establishing where the technology available is sufficient or can be
upgraded for the new system. It also seeks to find out whether the staffs
have relevant technical skills to use the new system.
iii. Economical feasibility
It establishes whether developing a new system is cost effective by
analysing all the cost and benefits of the proposed system i.e. direct
benefits, indirect benefits, developmental cost, installation cost, running
costs etc.
iv. Schedule feasibility
It establishes whether the development of the proposed system will be
accomplished within the available time.
2. Information gathering
After the management has approved the feasibility study report, the system
analyst proceeds to the next stage, which is information gathering. The system
analyst gathers data about the current system and the users need from both
internal and external sources

Methods of information gathering /data collection

i. Observation

This method involves watching an operation for a period of time to see for
one self what exactly happens

Advantages
 Concepts difficult to explained can be observed
 Enable the system analyst be acquainted with operational
personnel’s
 It provide fast hand information
Disadvantages
 Its time consuming

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
 The people being observed many be uncomfortable
 Personnel may alter their working speed or style when being observed
ii. Interview

It’s a face-to-face interaction between the system analyst and the users of
existing system in order to gather information about the requirements for
the proposed system.

Advantages

 The interviewee feel part and parcel of the proposed system

 Interviewees have an opportunity to put forward their opinions

 System analyst get first hand information

iii. Record inspection / study of the existing documents

The available documents about the existing system are inspected carefully
in order to gain an overall insight of the existing system. This documents
could be organization charts, technical manuals, receipts, reports etc

iv. Questionnaires
A Questionnaire is a document containing a number of standard questions
set to be asked a large number of people in order to gather information
from them. The analyst is able to collect information from several key
people in the organization who may be affected by the proposed system

Advantages of questionnaires
 They are filled in a less tense environment
 It provide many people with an opportunity to provide their input
and suggestions
 Save time especially when the respondents are geographically
scattered
Disadvantages
 It’s a slow way of fact finding
 They require expertise in designing
 If misunderstood they provide wrong information
 Analysis of questions require a lot of time
v. Automated methods

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
This is used when actual data is required but it’s difficult to get through
other means. Such data may be collected using devices that capture data
from the source e.g. video cameras, tape recorder etc

3. Requirement specification for the new system

The system analyst must come up with the detailed requirements for the proposed
system

This should include

i. Output specification

State what the system will produce. What format will the output be i.e.
softcopy (displayed in video screen), hardcopy (printed report) etc

ii. Input specification

You should define the type of input to be used e.g. keyboard, barcode
reader etc. Apparently the analyst should design the user interface by
designing data entry screen/ form

iii. Files and data stores

This involve making an informed decision on files required to store data

and information in the system. The analyst should identify the number of
files that that will be needed by the system and determine the structure of
each file.

iv. Hardware and software requirements

The system analyst should specify the hardware and the software
requirements for the new system. The analyst should consider:

a. Economic factors e.g. the cost/price

b. Operational factors e.g. reliability, Upgradability, and

compatibility with the existing resources

c. User friendliness

4. System analysis and design

It involves the detailing the physical design of the system. What the SA has gathered
will be documented using tools like Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs), flow charts,

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
structured chart etc. There will normally be a presentation by the SA to the user to
verify the findings.
Once the findings have been confirmed to be accurate, the SA will design a
system that will meet the user’s requirements. The SA will produce the system
specification, which includes:

 The information flow

 The file storage organisation
 The program’s requirements
 The outline of the user’s operations manual

An acceptance of the system specification by the user will mark the end of this
stage and the authorisation to commence with the next stage.

5. System construction
It’s the implementation of system analysis and design phase by the programmers
to meet the organizational needs. This refers to coding, installation and testing of
the modules and their components such as input, output and files

Testing: Its done by entering some test data to find out whether its output are as
expected. This must be done following the requirement specifications system
specifications

6. System implementation
This involves installing the new system in the user’s computers, testing the new
system, converting from the old system to the new one and training the users.

System implementation involves:

i. File creation and conversion

This involves setting up the master files that are to be used with the new
system. The setting can be from scratch or just to convert the files that
were used in the old system

ii. Staff training

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
The aim of training is to:

a. Enable the staff become familiar with the new system

b. Remove fear of change

c. Convince the users the effectiveness of the new system

Methods of training may include: demonstration, on job training, tutorial

packages, handbooks etc

iii. System change over

This is the process of changing form the old system to the new system.
Types of system changeover
a. Direct changeover / straight change over
In this approach the new system commences live operation and
immediately the old system is abandoned. It’s a sudden change from old
to new system

Old system

New system
Figure 1.3 showing direct change over
Advantage
 It’s a cheap method since no additional manpower is required.
Disadvantages
 The project faces higher risk in case the new system faces
problems
 It places the organization in a do or die situation
b. Parallel changeover
In this change over, the operation of the old and the new system
are run parallel to each other for some time till finally the old
system is faced out.
(t = time the old and the new system will operate together)
t

Old system

New system

Figure 1.4 showing parallel change over

Advantages

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
 The personnel become familiar with the new system before
the old system is faced out.
 It allow proper induction/ training to the new system
Disadvantages
 Expensive to run since it will require additional manpower
 Cross checking is difficult due to increase in work load

c. Phased changeover

In this change over the implementation of the new system in done

only one part of the new system at a time e.g. if a new curriculum
is to be introduced then each year one-class changes over to the
new syllabus.
Old system
New system

Part 1

Part 2

Part 3

Time
Phase Phase …
1 2

Figure 1.5 showing phase change over

Advantages
 Less costly
 Failures of the system are limited
 Causes minimal disruption in an organization
Disadvantages
 It takes a long time
d. Pilot changeover

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
If a system is to be implemented at many locations in a widely
dispersed company, the task can be very difficult to manage all at
once. It advisable to implement the system in one location and
ensure it is working properly before moving on to another
location. This is called pilot implementation

Factors to consider when choosing a change over method

i. Cost of changing over

ii. Size of the system

iii. Type of system

iv. Degree of safety required

v. Methods of controlling errors

vi. Types of personnel responsible what is their level of training

etc

7. System review and maintenance

Once the system has been used for a sufficient length of time and emergencies
have been coped with, an evaluation review should be carried out.. The content of
the review will include:

 Objectives met
 Cost
 Performance
 Standards
 Recommendations
After the review, maintenance may be carried out to improve the system or it may
be decided that part or the whole of the system needs to be re-designed, and hence
re-developed.

If redesigning needs to be done, then problem recognition and definition will

come in again, thus calling into play the entire System Life Cycle once more.

Causes of system maintenance

i. Errors e.g. caused by viruses or wrong entries etc

ii. Change in technology

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
iii. Change in user requirements

iv. Poor documentation

Types of system maintenance

i. Perfective maintenance

It involve changing a system to make it more efficient, reliable and

maintainable by enabling it to recognise additional functions that will
provide benefits in users requirements e.g. adding more RAM to improve
performance, improving network speed and bandwidth, introducing a
better platform e.g. object oriented programming

ii. Adaptive maintenance

This maintenance is aimed at modifying the system to accommodate

changes to external environment e.g. new technology, operating systems,
new peripherals etc. It’s always triggered by the users request.

iii. Corrective maintenance

It aims at diagnosing and correcting one or more errors in the system.

These are mostly errors that may have been overlooked during system
testing. They requires a careful analysis before making any change to
avoid introduction of a new problem e.g. file reinstallation

SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION

It’s a written material that explains what the information system does and how
people interact with the system. Generally a comprehensive system
documentation consist of the following

i. Report on fact finding

This documentation outlines methods used in data collection, weaknesses

of the current system and recommendations to the current system

ii. Requirement specification

This entails mainly output, input and hardware requirements to develop

the new system e.g. the new system requires 1GB RAM and not less than
2.4Ghz processor speed could be the hardware requirement

iii. System and module flowchart

This shows the overall functionality of the proposed information system.

This should be drawn to show how information is captured, how it flow

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 System development life cycle (SDLC)
and how it’s stored. This gives a graphical representation of the system at
a grace.

iv. Table / file structures description

Depending on the approach used in system construction, the report should

contain the file or table structure definition. Tables should be captured and
described so that any system user can be able to have an explanation in the
absence of those who designed the system

v. Sample test data and expected output

In this documentation, the test data is aimed at establishing whether the

new system is working as expected.

Some of the test data to be documented should include

a) Normal data i.e. data for which the program was designed for

b) Extreme values i.e. very large and very small,

c) Exceptional data i.e. illegal data that the system should reject

NB: Capture how the system responds to each type of data

especially extreme values and Exceptional data

vi. Output report

This documentation aims at proving that the system is working as

expected. Sample outputs from various system modules should be
captured and documented.

vii. User manual

They are meant to support the users of the system with minimum guidance
as possible. i.e. should be easy to read and understand.

It should contain the following information

a) How to install and start the system.

b) How the system appears when running (interface)

c) How to carry out various tasks e.g. add an entry, edit, generate
reports, or even delete an entry

d) How to get help when faced with a problem

NB: user manual should include both text and graphics explained
chronologically i.e. step by step

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