Networking and Data communication

NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION

Definition of terms used in Networking

Network

A Network can be defined as a collection of independent entities

that are arranged in such a manner as to exchange data,
information or resources.

Examples of networks:

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 Networking and Data communication

Road network: - this is the interconnection of roads in a country,

continent or throughout the world. Road networks facilitate the
transfer of goods & services from one area to another.

Telephone network (voice networks): - it includes the many lines

that criss-cross a country, and enables people to communicate.

Railway network.
Nervous system.

Computer Network

A computer network can be defined as a collection 2 or more

computers connected together using transmission media (e.g.,
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 Networking and Data communication

telephone cables, or Satellites) for the purpose of communication

and sharing of resources.

Usually there can be from 2 to hundreds or even thousands of

computers on the network. Apart from computers, other devices
such as Printers, plotters, fax machines, modems, etc can also be
connected to the network.

The term Transmission media refers to any physical or non-

physical link between 2 or more computers, and in which a signal
can be made to flow from source to destination.

Network Server.

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 Networking and Data communication

Computer networks usually have one computer reserved as the

“Mother” of all the other computers on the network.

A Server is a powerful computer that provides services (shared

resources) to the other computers on the network. It enables
information, resources & network devices to be shared by users on
a computer network.

Network servers;

i). Have a higher hard disk & main memory (RAM) capacity than
the other computers on the network.

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 Networking and Data communication

ii). Store & run a special program called the server software
(network operating system), which controls computers on the
network.

Clients (workstations)

Clients (also referred to as Workstations) are Personal Computers

(PCs) attached to the network, on which the network users do their
work. They are used by network users to send their requests to the
server.

Clients;

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 Networking and Data communication

i). Are usually less powerful than the server, and use the resources
provided by the Server.
ii). Have their own operating systems and files.

The PCs can be IBM or compatible running MS-DOS, OS/2,

Windows, etc.

The figure below shows a server on a network.

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 Networking and Data communication

DATA COMMUNICATION

Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data

signal from one place to another through a communication media.

The basic components of a data transmission system are:

(a) A central computer.

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 Networking and Data communication

(b) Terminal devices.

(c) Telecommunications link between the central computer & the
terminal devices.

Terms used in data communication

Data signal:

A data signal is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the

flow of data.

In data communication, there are 2 types of data signals; Digital

and Analog.

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 Networking and Data communication

Analog data is made up of continuous waveforms, while digital

data is made up of a non-continuous discrete waveform.

Analog data signal

Velocity
(Sine wave)
Time

Digital data signal

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 Networking and Data communication

Velocity
(Rectangular waved)
Time

Signal modulation and demodulation:

This is the process of converting data signals to a form that can be

transmitted over a transmission medium.
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 Networking and Data communication

E.g., a modem converts a digital signal to an analog signal, which

can be transmitted over analog telephone lines. This process is
called modulation. A modem at the receiving end converts the
analog signal into a digital signal, a process known as
demodulation.

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:

Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over

the same medium, e.g., a wire conductor can be made to carry
several data signals either simultaneously or at different times.

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 Networking and Data communication

Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed

signals at the receiving end.

Illustration:

Town A has 10 computers which want to communicate with 10

other computers in town B. In a normal case, it will need a direct
cable linking each of the computers in town A to its partner in
town B. However, if multiplexing is used, the computers can be
made to share a single cable laid between the two towns, hence,
saving cost.
Demultiplex
Multiplexer

The different data signals have different frequencies on the cable;

hence, they do not interfere with one another.
er

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 Networking and Data communication

Multiplexed line
From computers To computers

Fig.: A multiplexed link

Frequency (f):

Frequency of a wave is the number of cycles made by the wave in

1 second. Frequency is measured in units called Hertz (Hz);
where 1 Hz is equivalent to 1 cycle/second.

Baud:

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 Networking and Data communication

This is the unit to measure the speed of transmission. Generally,

1BAUD is 1bit/second.

Baud rate:

This is the rate at which data is transferred or transmitted. It is

measured in Bits per second (bps).

Band:

The rate of change of a signal on a transmission line.

Bandwidth:

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 Networking and Data communication

A Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission

medium can carry at any one time. E.g., a certain cable may have
a bandwidth of 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second).

Guardband:

This is the range of frequency that is used to separate two

channels.

Baseband signal:

This is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the

transmission medium directly without modulation.

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 Networking and Data communication

Note. A baseband signal utilizes the full capacity of the

transmission medium; hence, at any one time, only one signal can
be sent. However, multiple signals can be sent at different times,
if they are multiplexed.

Broadband transmission:

This is where an analog signal is sent over the transmission

medium using a particular frequency. This means that, several
data signals can be sent at the same time through the same
medium, but at different frequencies so as to prevent them from
overlapping.

Attenuation:
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 Networking and Data communication

Attenuation is the decrease in magnitude and energy of a signal as

it progressively moves along a transmission medium.
If the signal is not boosted, it will totally be lost along the way,
and may never reach the destination.

Attenuation (or signal loss) is usually corrected by placing signal

amplifiers (also called repeater stations) along the medium at
appropriate distances in order to receive the weak signal, clean it,
amplify it, then retransmit it.

Modes of data communication

There are 3 modes of data communication:

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 Networking and Data communication

(a). Simplex.
(b). Half duplex.
(c). Full duplex.

Simplex transmission:

This is where communication is only in one direction (as in radio

or television broadcast). The listener or viewer cannot
communicate back through the radio or television receiver back to
the broadcaster.

Half duplex transmission:

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 Networking and Data communication

This refers to communication in both directions, but one direction

at a time.
A sender must first send the data before the recipient can reply,
e.g., if two police officers are communicating using a ‘walkie
talkie’ radio, one has to say “over” to mark the end of every
statement in order for the other to respond.

Full duplex transmission:

This is where communication occurs in both directions

simultaneously (as in computers that are sending & receiving data
on a network).

Factors to consider when selecting a data transmission system

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 Networking and Data communication

1. Cost of each type of data transmission method.

2. Distance between the computer & the terminal.
3. Whether data should be transmitted direct to the computer
online.
4. Type of data transmission system to be used, i.e., whether the
data transmission will be 1-way or 2-way.
5. Volume of data to be processed; and whether it is batched at
particular times, or whether it is collected individually and
required to be processed immediately.
6. Speed of transmission required.
In many cases, it is acceptable to use the ordinary Postal service,
Kenyan rail, or a private Courier service.
7. Accuracy and reliability required.

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 Networking and Data communication

PURPOSE OF NETWORKING

Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include:

1). Resource sharing

A Network resource refers to any component that can be

attached to the network for access by users.

Some of the shared resources include:

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i). Application programs. vii). Network Printers

ii). Data and information. viii). Fax machines
iii). Messages. ix). Modems
iv). Graphics. x). Storage devices (optical
drives).
v). Files. xi). Communication ports.
vi). Computer processing power. xii). Disk space

Users whose computers are connected to a network can, for

example, share their files, exchange mails, send faxes, schedule
meetings, and print documents from any point on the network.

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This centralized access to data & information leads to less waste

of time, and hence greater productivity.

2). Remote communications

Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals

between two communication devices located at different
geographical locations.
E.g., using remote communication, one can work from home just
as if he/she is in the office.

It is mainly through remote communications that people can be

able to share ideas, and pass messages over the Internet.

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 Networking and Data communication

A computer that tries to access resources from another computer

on the network is called a remote client, while the computer
being accessed is called a remote host.

Remote communication has been made possible by use of

wireless transmission media such as radio waves, microwave,
and satellite.

3). Distributed processing facilities

Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same

programs or databases on different computers, which are on the
same network but placed in separate locations.

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Each computer has its own local peripherals, e.g., disks, printers,
terminals, etc.

For example;

In a large organization, each branch office has its own server that
stores data, information, and other resources required for their
daily operations.
This implies that, files reside on the user’s computer rather than
on a central computer, and are only transmitted periodically to
update the central computer.

Advantages of distributed processing.

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 Networking and Data communication

1. Failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of

the other terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally; hence, no time wastage.
3. There is faster access of data as each machine can process &
store its data.
4. It doesn’t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.
5. It can accommodate users with variety of needs.

Disadvantages of distributed processing.

1. It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an

infected file and spread it throughout the network.
2. Developing an effective back up plan is more difficult when
users store data in their individual systems.
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 Networking and Data communication

3. File management (organization) is difficult as the files are

stored in different locations.
4). Cost effectiveness

The initial cost of purchasing and laying down of networks

components may be expensive. However, the savings
experienced and the value added to service delivery make
networks cost effective.

 Networks greatly increase the efficient use of scarce resources.

E.g., a large organization with many stand alone computers
will need a printer for each computer. However, if the
computers are networked, only one printer is used.

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 Computer networks have also enhanced daily communication,

i.e., they have made the flow of information from one place to
another easy. Users can send mails (e.g., e-mails) to each
other, without having to bear the cost of stamp duty or delivery
charges.
Similarly, company executives can hold electronic video
conferences, thus reducing the traveling costs.

5). Reliability

A computer network is reliable especially when communicating

or accessing information:

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i). Data can be transferred with minimum errors from source to

destination.
ii). Incase one computer breaks down; the user can still access
data & information from the other computers using another
computer on the network.

LIMITATIONS (DISADVANTAGES) OF NETWORKING

1). Security issues

Data & information held on a network is open to many people

across the world, and can easily be accessed illegally. In
addition, when information is sent over the network from one

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place to another, it can be tapped or listened to by unauthorized

parties.

2). High initial cost

The initial cost of buying network hardware & software is very

high.

3). Moral and cultural effects

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 Networking and Data communication

Large networks such as the Internet have chat rooms and

messaging services. These enable underage children to meet
peers and adults on the net, some of whom may have bad
intentions.

Access to pornographic and other negative material on the

Internet has made the fight against social problems such as
HIV/AIDS, bad sexual behaviour, and drug abuse more
complicated.

4). Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking

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The Internet makes it easy for terrorists and drug traffickers to

operate. This is because; they use information networks for their
business communications.

5). Over-reliance on networks.

Most organizations have done away with manual operations.

This means that, all business processes, and the society depend
on computer networks. Therefore, if by any chance the network
fails or goes down, then many systems in the society will stop
working.

Review questions.

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 Networking and Data communication

1. List four network systems that are not computer-based

networks.
2. Define the following terms:
(a). Computer network.
(b). Data communication.
3. Differentiate between:
(a). A baseband and broadband signal.
(b). A Network server and a workstation.
(c). Remote client and remote host.
(d). Half duplex and full duplex transmissions.
4. State the factors to be considered while selecting a data
transmission system.
5. Give four advantages and two disadvantages of networking.
6. (a) Explain the concept of distributed processing in networking.
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(b) State 3 advantages and 2 disadvantages of distributing

processing.
7. Why is a network more reliable than stand alone computers?
8. What do you understand by the following terms in networking:
(i). Baud.

(ii). Baud rate.

(iii). Bandwidth.

(iv). Resource.

9. What name do we give to each of the following:

(a). The computer that is dedicated to serving requests from other

computers in a network.
(b). The computers that sends requests.

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TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Computer networks are usually classified according to size. The

three most common types of networks are:

1. Local Area Network (LAN).

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
3. Wide Area Network (WAN).

Local Area Network (LAN).

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This is a computer network that is formed whenever computers

are connected together in a relatively small geographical area, e.g.,
in one building or a school.

LAN is the smallest size of network & it normally covers an area

within the radius of 10M – 3 Km.

LAN is usually owned by one organization. However, one LAN

can be connected to other LANs over any distance via data
transmission lines or wireless media.

A LAN connects several Personal Computers to a Server

computer. The server computer makes available the resources
requested by the other computers (workstations) on a network.
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In most LANs, each workstation has its own CPU which it uses to
execute programs, but still the workstation user can also access
data & devices anywhere on the network.

Advantages of LANs.

1). They enable many users to share expensive devices such as

Laser printers, as well as data. However, the no. of computers
that can be connected & the distance to be covered is limited.

2). Have Low cost (requires less expensive equipment).

3). Enable users to communicate with each other, by sending
messages or engaging in chat sessions.
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4). LANs transmit data at very fast rates. They are much faster
than data transmitted over telephone lines.
5). Small error counts (low error rates).

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).

A MAN is made up of many LANs connected together.

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It covers a metropolitan (medium-sized geographical) area, e.g., a

town or an entire city, within a radius of 5 – 50 Km.

Characteristics of MAN

-Larger than LAN.

-Slower than LAN, but faster than WAN with data rates of
100MBps & above.
-Are more expensive than LANs, since special equipment is
needed to connect the different networks together.
-Prone to few errors (moderate error rates).

Wide Area Network (WAN).

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This is the largest size of network.

A WAN covers a large geographical area such as an entire

country, a continent, or even the whole world.

It consists of many LANs and MANs connected together to form

one large network such as the Internet.

Characteristics of WAN

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 They cover an unlimited (a very large) geographical area, e.g.,

can cover the whole world.
 They are expensive to build since it requires special equipment
for connection.
 Their transmission links are also expensive.
 Long distance transmission.
 Have low data transfer rates compared to LANs (i.e., they are
slower than LANs & MANs)
 More prone to errors (very high possible error rates compared to
LANs and MANs).

Differences between a Local Area Network and a Wide Area

Network.

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1. LAN is limited to a small geographical distance.

2. Data transmission speed in LANs is higher.
3. Cost of data transmission in LANs is small.
4. There are less transmission errors in LANs.

Review questions.

1. Describe THREE major data communication models.

2. Explain the three most common types of computer networks in
use today.
3. Describe a Wide area network.
4. List THREE differences between Wide Area Network and
Local Area Network.
5. Determine the type of a network characterized by:
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(a). connection between computers, printers and other resources

using UTP cables.
(b). over 250 computers connected to share resources in a city.

ELEMENTS (COMPONENTS) OF NETWORKING

A computer network is made up of several standard components,

which can be classified into three (3) major categories, namely:

1. Data communication media.

2. Communication devices.
3. Networking software.

Data communication (Transmission) media

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A data communication medium is a physical pathway used for

carrying data signals & information from one point to another.

Data communication media can be divided into two:

(a). Communication using cable (bound media).

(b). Wireless communication (unbounded media).

Communication using cables (bounded media).

In bounded media, data signals are transmitted from the source to

the destination through a cable.

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There are 4 major types of bounded transmission media, namely:

1. Two-wire open lines cables.

2. Twisted pair cables.
3. Coaxial cables.
4. Fibre optic cables.

Two-wire open lines cables.

Two-wire open lines cables are made up of 2 parallel copper wires

separated by a plastic insulator.

Plastic insulator
Wire conductor
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The Plastic insulator is meant to reduce signal interference called

Crosstalk. However, the linear nature of the wires allows an
electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data
transmission, which may cause interference to the signal.

The wires also capture/pick unwanted environmental frequencies,

e.g., radio waves, hence causing noise in the transmission channel.

Two-wire open lines cables are used in telecommunication

network to transmit voice (analogue) signals.
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Twisted pair cables.

A twisted pair cable is made up of 2 insulated copper wires

twisted around each other in a spiral pattern.

The twisting prevents electromagnetic fields from developing

around the two wires as they transmit data.

Twisted pair cables can be used to transmit both voice & data
signals (i.e., analogue & digital signals).

Types of twisted pair cables.

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The 2 common types of twisted pair cables are:

(i). Unshielded twisted pair (UTP).

(ii). Shielded twisted pair (STP).

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables.

UTP cables do not have a shield that prevents electromagnetic

interference (also called ‘Electric noise’) from the environment.

Twisted pair
Outer cover

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UTP cable is prone to noise & signal interference, and therefore,

not suitable for environments that are electrically ‘noisy’.
Noise may come from lightening sparks, radio signal, or radiations
from spark plugs in motor vehicles.

Shielded twisted pair (STP) cables.

In STP cables, a braided shield is wrapped around the wires to

protect them from noise.

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Twisted pair cables are grouped into 5 categories according to the

type of data transmitted, and the maximum rate of transmission.

Category Speed (max. limit) Suitable for

transmitting
1 Less than 1 Mbps (i.e., Voice
Megabits per second)
2 1 Mbps Data
3 16 Mbps Data
4 20 Mbps Data
5 100 Mbps Data

Advantages of Twisted pair cables.

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1. Can support high data rates (bandwidth) of up to 100 Mbps.

2. Telephone systems use UTP, which is present in most
buildings. Therefore, it is easier to setup network media
because; connection is readily available.

3. Installation equipment is cheap & readily available.

4. It is cheap because; of mass production for telephone use.

Disadvantages of Twisted pair cables.

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1. They suffer from high attenuation. Therefore, for every cable

length of 90m, a “Repeater” is needed to amplify (restore) the
signal.
2. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference & eavesdropping.
3. It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.

Coaxial cables.

A Coaxial cable resembles the cable that is used to connect

television antenna to a television set.

The cable has;

1. A central copper core (which is either solid or stranded wires).

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The diameter of the centre core determines the attenuation rate.

If the core is thin, then the attenuation rate will be higher.

2. An insulator (a dielectric material) surrounding the copper

core.
3. A hollow braid (mesh conductor) surrounding the insulator.
The braid is made of copper or aluminium, and serves as the
ground for the carrier wire.
4. A shield which covers the braid making the core more resistant
to electromagnetic interference.

The braid together with the insulator & the foil shield protects the
carrier wire from Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI).
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 Networking and Data communication

Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1 Gbps (Gigabits per

second). Hence, they can be used to link/connect different
networks between buildings, and route trunk calls in
telecommunication companies.

The Two types of coaxial cables.

(i). Thin coaxial cable (Thinnet): - it has 1 dielectric insulator

around the core.

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(ii). Thick coaxial cable (Thicknet): - it has 2 dielectric insulators

around the core, and is thicker than the thinnet.

Advantages of coaxial cables.

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1. They are very stable even under high loads.

2. They have a large bandwidth (up to 1Gbps) compared to
twisted pair cables.
3. They can carry voice, data and video signals simultaneously.
4. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic
interference than twisted pair cables.

Disadvantages of coaxial cables.

1. Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with.

2. They are relatively expensive to buy & install compared to
twisted pair cables.

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Fibre optic cables.

A fibre optic cable uses light to transmit data signals from one
point to another on the network.

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is used at the source/transmitter

(sending computer) to convert electrical signals to light signals
which are then send along the cable. At the receiving computer, a
photosensitive device is then used to convert the light signals back
to electric signals that can be processed by the computer.
A fibre optic cable is made up of;

1. The Core.

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 Networking and Data communication

This is the central part of the cable, and is made of a hollow

transparent plastic or glass.

2. Cladding.

This is a single protective layer surrounding the core.

The Cladding is able to bend light rays, (i.e., when light tries to
travel from the core to the cladding, it is redirected back to the
core).

3. Buffer.

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 Networking and Data communication

It surrounds the cladding. Its main function is to strengthen the

cable.

4. The Jacket.

It is the outer covering of the cable.

Light transmission along a fibre optic cable.

The light signal travels along the core through a process referred
to as Total internal reflection.

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 Networking and Data communication

The process that causes total internal reflection is called

Refraction. Refraction is the bending of light when it crosses the
boundary of two mediums that have different densities.

Therefore, when light signal is inserted into the cable, it tries to

cross from the core to the cladding. The light is bent back into the
core, hence spreads along the length of the cable.

Light rays

Core Cladding
Types of fibre optic cables.
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(i). Single mode fibre optic cable.

The single mode fibre has a very narrow centre core. This
implies that, the light in the cable can take only one path
through it.

 It has a very low attenuation rate, and is preferred for long

distance transmission.
 It has a very high bandwidth of 50 Gigabits per second.

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 It is very expensive, and requires very careful handling during

installation.

(ii). Multimode fibre optic cable.

A multimode fibre has a thicker centre core than the single

mode fibre.

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 Networking and Data communication

 It allows several light signals (rays) to be sent through the

cable at the same time. Hence, there are high chances of the
signal being distorted.
 It has a high attenuation rate, and is usually used for shorter
distance transmission.

Advantages of fibre optic cable.

1. It is immune to electromagnetic interference, and

eavesdropping.
2. It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
3. It has low attenuation; hence, a long distance can be covered.

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4. It does not generate electrical signals; hence can be used in

dangerous (highly flammable) places.
5. It is smaller & lighter than copper cables; hence, suitable for
situations where space is limited.

Disadvantages of fibre optic cable.

1. Requires expensive connectivity devices and media.

2. Installation is difficult because the cable must be handled
carefully.
3. It is relatively complex to configure.
4. A broken fibre optic cable is difficult & expensive to repair.

Review questions.
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 Networking and Data communication

1. Define the term Transmission media.

2. (a). Give two advantages of coaxial cables.
(b). Explain the importance of the wire braid in coaxial cable.
3. Distinguish between Thinnet and Thicknet coaxial cables.
4. Define the term Pitch as used in twisted pair cabling.
5. (a). Give two advantages of fibre optic media.
(b). Differentiate between single mode and multimode fibre
optic cables.

Wireless communication (unbounded media)

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Wireless (unbounded) media is a type of media that is used to

transmit data from one point to another without using physical
connections.
In this case, a transmitting antenna & a receiver aerial are used to
facilitate the communication.

Examples of wireless communication media include:

1. Microwaves.
2. Radiowaves.
3. Infrared transmission.
All these waves use different frequencies of the electromagnetic
spectrum, and travel at the speed of light.

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 Networking and Data communication

Below is a diagrammatic representation of the electromagnetic

spectrum

Radiowaves
M
I
V
U
X
G
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 Networking and Data communication

ncy
Freque Hz
Freque 106
High
High
Freque 107
Very
High
Ultra-
ves
icrowa
red
nfra-
light
isible
violet
ltra-
-Rays
rays
amma
Hz

Hz
10
Hz8
10
Hz10
10
Hz13
10
Hz15
10
Hz16
10
Hz20
1022
Microwave transmission

Microwave frequencies have a small wavelength, and can easily

release their energy in water as heat. This is why they are used in
making domestic kitchen appliances, e.g., microwave ovens.

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 Networking and Data communication

In networking, microwaves are suitable for point-to-point

transmissions, whereby a signal is directed through a focused
beam from the transmitter to the receiver station.

Line of sight

Satellite communication

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A Satellite is a microwave relay station. The microwave earth

stations have parabolic dishes with an antenna fixed on them in
order to focus a narrow beam towards the satellite in space.

A satellite transmission system has 3 main components:

1. Transmitter earth station - it sets up an uplink to the satellite

in order to transmit data.

2. A Satellite that is somewhere in an orbit. It receives,

amplifies, and retransmits the signal to a receiving earth station
through a downlink frequency.

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 Networking and Data communication

The downlink & the uplink frequency are usually different. This
is to prevent the downlink signal from interfering with the uplink
signal.

3. Receiving earth station - receives the signal sent by the

satellite on the other side of the globe.

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 Networking and Data communication

Satellite in space

Uplink Downlink

Transmitter Receiving
earth station earth station

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 Networking and Data communication

A communication satellite is usually launched into space about

36,000 km above the earth in such a manner that its speed is
almost equal to the rotation speed of the earth. This makes the
satellite appear as if it is stationary in space. Such types of
satellites are called geostationary satellites.

Advantages of using satellites

1. A satellite is convenient because; it provides a large constant

line of sight to earth stations. This means that, there is no need
to keep on moving the parabolic dish so as to track the line of
sight.

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2. The satellite transmits the signal to many recipient earth stations.

This is because; the transmitted signal spreads out in all
directions to form a Point to Multipoint transmission.

Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)

A VSAT is a very small satellite dish used both in data, radio, and
TV communication.

It can be set up at home or in a small business. It enables direct

access to satellite communication instead of having to go through
state-owned or licensed satellite gateways.

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The dish has an antenna that receives the satellite signals. The
signals are decoded using a decoder which is plugged directly to a
television set or a computer.

Radio communication

Radio waves are used in radio and television broadcasts.

Radio waves travel just like surface water waves, i.e., they start
from a central point and spread outwards in all directions.
As they travel outwards, their energy spreads outwards over the
covered area. The waves are radiated into the atmosphere by a
radio frequency antenna at constant velocity.

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The figure below shows a typical radio waves link between two
separate geographical locations.

Path

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 Networking and Data communication

Transmitting Receiving
antenna antenna

Power supply
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER

Fig.: A typical radio transmitter and receiver link

Radio waves can be of:
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High frequency (HF).

Very high frequency (VHF).
Ultra-high frequency (UHF).

High frequency (HF) radio waves

The High frequency radio wave signal is transmitted by directing

it to the ionosphere of the earth. The ionosphere reflects it back to
the earth’s surface, and the receiver then picks the signal.

Disadvantage of HF communication

 The signal can be intercepted by unauthorized parties.

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Very High frequency (VHF) radio waves

They are transmitted along the earth’s surface. However, since

the earth is somehow curved, the signal tends to attenuate at the
horizons of mountains and buildings. This means that, repeater
stations have to be built on raised areas in order to receive,
amplify, and propagate the signal from one area to another.

Note. The range of VHF is limited, however, it is preferred to HF

because; it is possible to make a VHF wave follow a narrower &
more direct path to the receiver.

Ultra-High frequency (UHF) radio waves

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The UHF radiowaves use the line of sight principle used by the
VHF waves. This means that, there should be no barrier between
the sending & the receiving aerial. However, they require smaller
aerials.

For example;

The Television aerial for VHF is bigger than the one for UHF
radio waves. This is because; UHF radio waves can be made to
follow a narrower & a more direct path to the receiver than VHF
radio waves.

The Bluetooth technology

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This is a worldwide and short range radio transmission technology

that allows all personal, hand-held devices to be able to
communicate with each other through wireless technology.

It enables people to use hand-held communication devices such as

mobile phones & Personal Digital Assistants (PDA’s) to access
the Internet.

The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way

radio transceiver, which can be inserted in small devices.
Bluetooth enabled devices use a network called the Wireless
personal area network (WPAN) or piconet.

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Infrared transmission

Communication through infrared waves (signals) is achieved by

having infrared transmitters & receivers (transceivers) within a
line of sight in the same room. This is because; infrared signals
cannot penetrate obstacles like walls and ceilings. However, the
signal can be reflected off these surfaces until they reach their
destination.

For example;

Most mobile phones have an infrared transceiver. Once activated,

two people in the same room can send messages to each other on

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their mobile phones without going through the mobile service

provider; hence avoid being charged.

In computer networking environment, infrared technology can be

used to connect devices in the same room to each other without
the need for cables, e.g., a computer and a printer. However, the
computer’s infrared transceiver must maintain a line of sight with
the one for the printer.

Advantages of wireless communication.

1. Wireless medium is flexible in operation, i.e., devices can be

moved around without losing access to the network.
2. Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
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3. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in

very remote areas that do not have high cost physical
infrastructure like telephone lines.

Disadvantages of wireless communication.

1. The initial cost is very high.

2. It is relatively difficult to establish or configure.

Review questions.

1. Distinguish between radio and microwave transmission.

2. Describe an electromagnetic spectrum.
3. State two advantages of satellite communication.
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4. Give one application area of Infrared transmission.

5. Describe the VSAT technology.
6. Explain the concept of a geostationary satellite.
7. Explain the line of sight principle in wireless communication.

Communication devices

For a network to be fully operational, communication devices are

required, and act as interfaces between the Terminal devices.
Terminal equipments are the devices at both ends of the
communication link, e.g., computers.

Some of the data communication devices are:

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1. Network Interface cards (NIC)

A NIC acts as a physical connection (link/interface) between the

computer & a properly terminated transmission cable.

A NIC is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the

motherboard, and has ports at the back in which the terminated
end of a network cable can be plugged.

2. A Modem and a Codec

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A Modem converts a digital signal to analogue form so that it

can be transmitted over an analogue media.

A Codec converts an analogue signal to digital form so that it

can be transmitted over a digital medium.

A modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the

motherboard.

Fig.: An external modem

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3. Hub (Concentrator)

A Hub is a component that connects computers on a network,

and is able to relay signals from one computer to another on the
same network.

A Hub usually connects networks that have the same set of

communication software usually called Protocols.

A Hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all the computers

on the network. After the signal is broadcasted, the computer

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whose address is on the message then picks the message from the
network.

Several hubs can be connected together one after another to

expand a network.

Intelligent hubs

Intelligent hubs are able to monitor the way computers are

communicating on the network, and keep the information in their
own database called management information base (MIB). The
network server can then use this information to fine-tune the
network.

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Intelligent hubs also manage a network by isolating computers

that are not functioning properly.

4. Bridges

This is a network device that selectively determines the

appropriate network segment for which a message is meant to be
delivered. It does this through address filtering.

Purpose of using a Bridge

a). It can divide a busy network into segments to reduce

network traffic.
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b). To extend the length & number of workstations that a

segment can support.
c). To reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only
in the destination segment of the network.
The bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a
particular segment are not broadcast in that segment.

5. Repeater

A Repeater receives a signal from one segment of a network,

cleans it to remove any distortion, boosts it, and then sends it to
another segment.
It therefore, enables the network to eliminate attenuation
problems.
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Note. Repeaters can easily be used to expand a network. This is

because; they broadcast the same message to other network
segments.

6. Routers

A Router connects different networks, and directs the transfer of

data packets from source to destination.

Note. Routing depends on network addresses. Each network

has a unique address (or identifier) called the IP address.

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The router will receive a packet of data from another router on

the network, and check the network address of the destination.
If the address is the same as the one on which the router is, the
router will then read the address of the host and then pass the
data packet to the destination, otherwise the packet will be
routed to the next network address.

NB: Network addressing has been made possible because of the

use of a special interconnecting protocol called the Internet
Protocol (IP).

7. Gateways

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A Gateway is any device that can be configured to provide

access to a Wide Area Network or the Internet.

Note. A gateway may be a router, or a computer configured to

provide access to the Internet.

Fig.: A gateway PC connecting a LAN to a WAN

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8. Switches

Unlike a hub, a Switch forwards a data packet directly to the

terminal equipment on the network without broadcasting. It
does this by connecting the two nodes point-to-point as if they
were linked by a direct cable.

Note. Some hubs can also act as switches. Such a hub is

referred to as a switching hub.

Switches are more expensive than hubs. This means that, one
switch may be used as a bridge to connect several hubs. This
reduces collision problems caused by broadcasts.

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Fig. A switch on a Local area network

Wireless communication devices

For a long time, networks have been implemented using tangible

transmission media like cables. However, since the cost of
wireless technology has gone down & the quality of service
increased, companies & individuals are now using wireless

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segments in their communications with the aim of extending the

capability of wired networks.

The most common devices (components) used in wireless

communication are: Access Points (AP), and Wireless antennae.

1. Access points (AP)

An Access point is an entry point into a bounded network.

It is used by people who have wireless devices such as Personal

Digital Assistants (PDA’s), Laptops, and computers with
wireless links.

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Fig. 3.0: Wireless access point

2. Wireless antennae

The Access point should have antennae so as to detect wave

signals in the surrounding. The waves may be Radio waves,
microwaves or infrared waves.
Most Access points have 2 antennae so that the one that receives
the best signal at any particular time can be used.
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Personal Computer Memory Card International Association

(PCMCIA) card

A PCMCIA is a card inserted into a device such as a Personal

Digital Assistant (PDA) or a laptop in order to enable wireless
communication between the device and a wired network server.

Fig.: The PCMCIA card used to connect a device to a wireless

LAN

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Review questions.

1. Describe at least five devices used in data communications.

2. Explain the function of a NIC in networking.

3. (a). Explain the importance of a gateway on a network.

(b). Differentiate between a router and a gateway.

4. Why is a Switch preferred to a hub on the network?

5. What is the function of a Repeater on a network?

6. Give one disadvantage of a Hub on a network.

Network software

Network software can be classified into 2 main groups:

1. Network Operating systems.

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2. Network Protocols.

Network Operating systems

These are operating systems specifically designed to enable the

networked computers to respond to service requests.
Servers run on a network operating system.

Functions of network operating systems

A network operating system performs the following network

related functions:

1. Provides access to network resources, e.g., printers and folders.

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2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate efficiently with

each other.
3. Enables the various processes on the network to communicate
with one another.
4. Responds to requests from application programs running on the
network.
5. Supports network services such as network card drivers &
protocols.
6. Maintains security, ensuring that only users authorized to use the
computer system are allowed access to it.
7. Produces logs, i.e., a record of all the programs as they are run.
8. Organises the use of storage, since this has to be shared among
different users.

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9. Works out the resources used by each program. If the user is

paying for the service, then the computer works out the cost of
running the program & charges the appropriate account.

Network OS are normally designed as Multi-user operating

systems that run the network server program.

Examples of network operating systems are:

 UNIX - Windows NT
 Linux - Windows 2000
 Novell NetWare - Windows 2003
Protocols

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Protocols are a set of rules and procedures that govern the

communication between two different devices or people.
E.g., a diplomat from a foreign country must adhere to the set
rules and procedures of communication when representing his
country in the host country.

In computer networking, Protocols are the rules and technical

procedures that govern communication between the different
computers on the network.

How Protocols work

The data transmission process over the network is divided into

steps, and at each step, a certain action takes place.
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In addition, each step has its own rules and procedures as defined
by the network protocols. The work of these protocols is usually
coordinated through protocol layering so as to ensure that there
are no conflicts or incomplete operations.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model.

Interconnecting of the various hardware & software products from

different manufacturers together into a single network requires
that the equipment must be able to communicate and work with
each other.

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The OSI reference model defines standard (uniform) methods

which enable different systems to interoperate with each other and
to be portable across one another.
Network protocols are usually designed using the OSI reference
model. To facilitate communication between application
processes located on different computers, the model groups
similar computer communication protocols into 7 layers, each
performing specific functions.

Layer Function
7. Application This is where user applications are run. It
layer provides network services such as file
sharing, distributed processing, file transfer,
and network management to users. It also
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generates requests for transmission of data or

opening of received information
6. Presentation Defines data formats to be exchanged & adds
layer formatting, display and encryption
information to the data being sent.
5. Session layer Sets up data transmission sessions between
two communicating devices on the network.
4. Transport Manages data transfer over the network to
layer ensure reliability. It ensures that data units
are delivered free of errors, in sequence, and
without loss or duplication.
3. Network Serves the Transport layer by adding address
layer information to the data packets, and routing it
to its destination.
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2. Data link Prepares data for going onto the

layer communication medium on the physical layer.
Adds error checking & correction information
to the data.
1. Physical Transmits raw data packets via the network
layer card through the transmission media in form
of bits. Converts frames to electronic signals
and vice versa.

Protocols at the Application layer:

They provide services to application programs such as the E-mail

editor program that enables composing or reading of e-mail
messages.
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Examples of protocols at the Application layer include:

1. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - an Internet protocol for

transferring e-mails.

2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – an Internet protocol for

transferring files.

3. Apple Talk and Apple Share – a networking protocol standard

for Apple computers.
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Protocols at the Transport layer:

They ensure that data is passed between computers more reliably.

Examples of protocols at the Transport layer include:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – enables delivery of

sequenced data over the network.

2. Sequential Packet Exchange (SPX) – used in Novell networks

for sequenced data.

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3. NetBEUI – used in Microsoft and IBM networks to establish

communication sessions between computers in LANs.

4. Apple Transaction Protocol (ATP) – it is a communication

session and data transport protocol used in Apple computers.

Protocols at the Network layer:

They provide link services, e.g., they handle addressing and

routing information, error checking and retransmission of
requests.

Examples of protocols at the Network layer include:

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1. Internet Protocol (IP) – it does packet forwarding and routing.

2. Internetwork Packets Exchange – This is a NetWare’s protocol
for packet forwarding and routing.

Review questions.

1. List two types of network software.

2. Outline four functions of network operating system.
3. List four examples of network operating systems.
4. Outline the seven open systems interconnection (OSI) reference
model layers.
5. Explain the importance of the Physical layer in the open systems
interconnection (OSI) reference model.
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6. (a). Define the term protocol.

(b). Give three examples of protocols used in networking.

Network Topologies

The term network Topology refers to the way in which computers,

cables, and other devices have been arranged in the network.

It can also refer to how data is passed from one computer to

another in the network.

Logical and physical topologies

Network topology can be viewed in 2 ways; Logical or Physical.

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Logical (Signal) topology

Logical topology deals with the way data passes from one device
to the next on the network.

Examples of logical topologies are:

(a). Ethernet.
(b). Token ring.

Ethernet topology

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In Ethernet topology, all computers listen to the network media,

and a particular computer can only send data when none of the
others is sending.
Token ring topology

In Token ring topology, a special package for data called a token

goes around the network. The computer whose address is on the
data held in the token picks it up, reads the data, and then releases
the token. The token can then be captured by another computer
which needs to transmit data.

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Physical topology

Physical topology refers to the physical arrangement of

components on the network.

Examples of physical topologies are:

(a). Star topology.

(b). Bus topology.
(c). Ring topology.
(d). Mesh topology.
(e). Tree (Hierarchical) topology.
(f).Hybrid topologys

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The choice of the topology to adopt depends on factors such as

Reliability, Expandability, and Performance.

Star topology

Star topology consists of computers and other devices, each

connected to a common central server called the Hub. However,
to connect to the central machine, each computer uses a separate
cable.

Nodes communicate across the network by passing data signals

through the hub, i.e., any two computers (workstations) in the
network communicate through the central machine.

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When the hub receives data from a transmitting computer, it

broadcasts the message to all the other nodes on the network.

Advantages of Star topology.

1. Allows key networking resources such as concentrators &

servers to be centralized.

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2. Easy to configure.
3. Enhances operational survivability.

The hub isolates the network cables from each other. Even if a
wire between a workstation and the hub breaks or develops a bad
connection, the rest of the network remains operational.

4. Simple to control.
5. It can be extended easily, since a workstation is simply
connected to the hub.
6. Provides flexibility in adding or deleting devices.

The wiring hubs increase the flexibility for growth. Addition &
removal of nodes does not involve cutting and joining of cables.
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7. Easier to troubleshoot.

When something goes wrong with the network, the administrator

can troubleshoot it from the wiring hub.

8. The Hub can support multiple types of cables.

Disadvantages of Star topology.

1. If the central switch node (Hub) fails, it may bring down the
entire network.

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2. It is costly because; each workstation is connected to the central

concentrator by its own dedicated cable (i.e., it requires a lot of
cables).

3. Installation is time consuming, because each node forms a

segment of its own.
4. May require a special device for signal regeneration across the
network.

Bus topology (Daisy-chain topology)

In Bus topology, all the devices in the network are connected

directly, through appropriate interfacing hardware, to a single

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transmission cable called the Bus (or Backbone) on which

information is broadcast.

Bus topology uses Coaxial cable as transmission medium. The

cable can carry only one message at a time and each workstation
on the network must be able to know when it can and cannot
transmit using this cable.

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A Terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals

from bouncing back and forth on the cable causing signal
distortion.

For communication to take place, data is addressed to a particular

computer & put in the cable in the form of electronic signal. As
the data passes along the cable, each workstation checks whether
the data is addressed to it. If the address in the data matches that
of the machine, it picks up the data and processes it.

Bus topology doesn’t need any special equipment such as switches

or repeaters to amplify the signal.

Advantages of Bus topology.

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1. Easy to install.
2. Inexpensive (less costly) because; it does not require a complete
cable length per computer.
3. Can easily be extended.
4. It allows the workstations to communicate independently
(separately) of each other.
5. Failure of one station on the network does not affect the
operations on the bus.

Disadvantages of Bus topology.

1. A cable break in each section brings down the whole network.

2. The performance degrades since there is no signal integration.
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3. Troubleshooting the cable fault can be quite difficult because;

the fault could be anywhere on the cable.
4. Only a limited number of computers can be connected to the
cable. This is because; each computer is listening to the cable in
order to transmit. This means that, if the number of computers
increase, there will be more collision as the workstations
compete for transmission.

Ring topology

In a ring topology, the computers are connected to one another in

the shape of a closed loop using a single cable.

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Data flows from one computer to another in one direction, and

each computer actively participates in data transfer from one
station to the other. In other words, each workstation acts as a
booster by regenerating and retransmitting the signals around the
network to its neighbour.

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A token is used to exchange data from one station to another. A

token can be viewed as an envelope or a bag where data is placed
for transmission and carried around the network.

Advantages of Ring topology.

1. They use a short length cable.

2. Simple to install.
3. Provides high performance for many users.
4. Provides an orderly network in which every device has access to
the token and can transmit data.

Disadvantages of Ring topology.

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1. Failure of one computer or the cable will affect the rest in the
entire network.
2. Modification is difficult because; adding or removing a device
can disrupt the entire network.
3. Troubleshooting can be difficult.

Mesh topology

Mesh topology uses separate cables to connect each device to

every other device on the network providing a straight
communication path.

It is mostly used in Wide Area Networks where there are many

paths between different locations.
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Advantages of Mesh topology

1. It is fast.
2. Failure on one node will not cause communication breakdown.

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3. Easy to troubleshoot cable problems. If two machines are not

communicating, the administrator will only check the cable
between them.
4. Enhances flexibility in communication.
5. Enhances fault tolerance provided by redundant/ excessive links.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Difficult and expensive to install and maintain.

2. Very costly as it requires large amounts of cables (or redundant
links).
3. Difficult to add more nodes when the network is large.
4. Difficult to isolate faults due to lack of a central control point.

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Tree (Hierarchical) topology

This is a hybrid topology where groups of star-configured

networks are connected to a linear bus (backbone).

Fig. 3.6: Tree topology

Review questions.

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1. What is a computer network topology?

2. Distinguish between Logical and Physical network topology.
3. Using appropriate diagrams, describe any three types of physical
network topologies.

COMMUNICATION OF DATA IN A NETWORK.

Data in a network travels from one computer to the other using

laid down rules known as Protocols. The protocols used depend
on the way the computers are connected together on the network.

Generally, there are 2 broad ways in which computers

communicate with one another in a network, namely:

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(i).Point-to-point communication.
(ii). Broadcast communication.

Point-to-point communication.

In point-to-point, the network contains numerous cables or

telephone lines, each one connecting a pair of computers.

The message is received at each intermediate computer in whole,

stored there until the required output line is free, and then
forwarded.

A network using this principle is called a point-to-point or store-

and-forward network.
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Broadcast communication.

In broadcast, there is a single communication channel shared by

all computers. In this case, the messages sent by any computer are
received by all other computers.

Something in the message itself must specify for whom it is

intended. After receiving a message not intended for itself, a
computer just ignores it.

Review questions.

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1. As regards to communication within a computer network, what

do you understand by the following terms:
(a) Point-to-point

(b) Broadcast (2 marks)

NETWORK MODELS

A Network model describes how the computer processes

information on the network.

Data can be processed by a Client, a central Server or by all the

computers on the network.

1). Centralized computer model.

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Very large computers, usually mainframes, are connected with

terminals. The users input & output data using the terminals,
while the processing is done by the central computer
(mainframe).

Advantages of Centralized model

(i). Data is kept in one location, ensuring that every user is

working with the same information.
(ii). It is easier to back up data since the information is stored on

only one Server.

(iii). Easier to maintain security. It is only the server which needs

to be secured since the terminals have no data.

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(iv). The terminals do not require floppy drives as all work is

stored on a Server.
(v). Chances of computer being affected by viruses are very
minimal as no diskettes are being used.
(vi). It less costly.
Although the Server has to be very powerful with a lot of
storage space, the terminals are inexpensive as they don’t
require real processing or storage capability of their own.

Disadvantages of Centralized model

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(i). It is very slow as it is the server alone, which does all the
processing.
(ii). In case where the users have varied needs, it would be

difficult to meet these needs in a centralized computing

network as each user application needs to be set up separately.
(iii). Connection is difficult. All the computers have to be

connected on a central place.

2). Distributive computing

In this model, data is stored and processed on the local

workstation. Computers acting as Stand alone systems are
connected together for increased functionality.

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A Stand alone is a computer which is not connected to any

other computer equipment other than its own Printer.

Advantages of Distributive Computing model.

(i). Each machine processes and stores its data; hence, data is
accessed faster.
(ii). It doesn’t need powerful and expensive servers for data

storage.
(iii). It can accommodate users with variety of needs.

Disadvantages of Distributive Computing model.

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(i). It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an

infected file and spread it throughout the network.
(ii). It is more difficult to develop an effective back up plan, since

each user stores data in his/her individual system.

(iii). File management (organization) is difficult as the files are

stored in different locations.

3). Collaborative model.

In this model, all computers can share processing power across

the network. Applications can be written to use the processing
on the computers to complete job more quickly.

Advantages of Collaborative model.

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(i). It is faster to complete a task as users are not limited to

processing power of one system.
(ii). Variety of users can be accommodated on a collaborative
network.

Disadvantages of Collaborative model.

(i). Viruses can easily be transmitted through the network.

(ii). Backing up of the data is difficult.

(iii). File synchronization is difficult.

CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS

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1. Peer-to-Peer network.

A Peer is a computer that acts both as the client and a server.

In this network, all the connected computers are equal & each
machine acts as both client and Server. This means that, there is
no central storage area for information & no dedicated central
Server.

No system administrator. Therefore, the user of each computer

determines what data & resources the computer will shares with
other computers on the network.

Peer-to-peer networks are appropriate in an environment where:

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 There are 10 or less users.

 The users are located in a general area.
 Security is not an issue, e.g. in Bulletin boards.

Advantages of Peer-to-peer networks.

(i). It is small & inexpensive.

(ii). It is easier to maintain.

(iii). It is easier to setup.

Disadvantages of Peer-to-peer networks.

(i). It is difficult to locate information stored in the connected

computers due to Shared level security.
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(ii). Difficult to update documents and files.

(iii). It is expensive to train staff on how to share resources, as each

user is an administrator.
(iv). It is difficult to maintain security, as it is the user’s

responsibility to ensure that only authorized individuals can

access their data.
(v). It is more tedious as the user has to memorize password for

resources, and in case of any change, they have to inform

others.

2. Server-based networks.

In this network, there is usually a Server, e.g. a company which

is dedicated to handle files and/or information for clients, make
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& service requests from network clients, and ensure security of

files and directories for them.

Server-based networks require a network operating system.

Advantages of Server based networks.

(i). There is security since the Server controls the resources the
clients need to access.
(ii). It can support a large number of users.

(iii). The server can be optimized to hand out information as fast as

possible.
(iv). Fewer connections are required by the clients to get the

resources.
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(v). Easier to maintain backup for files (synchronization of files).

(vi). Cost effective as client workstations don’t need large hard
disk (storage capacity).

Disadvantages of Server based networks.

(i). It is dependent on a Network administrator.

(ii). Requires servers, which are expensive.

Review questions.

2. How does each of the following networking models operate?

(i). Centralized computing.

(ii). Collaborative computing.

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(iii). Distributed computing.

Network Security

In networking, there are several ways of protecting your data and

information from intruders. They include: Share level and User
level security.

Share level security

This model of security is mostly used in peer-to-peer networks.

The user can decide which resources to give for sharing.
Most Windows operating systems such as Windows 9X provide
such kind of security.
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User-level security

The User level security is used on server-based networks.

A network administrator assigns accounts to users, i.e., each user

is provided with a unique name and a password which he/she can
use to access network resources.

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