TOPIC 1: NETWORKING AND DATA COMMUNICATION ii).

ii). Store & run a special program called the server software (network
Definition of terms used in Networking operating system), which controls computers on the network.
Network
A Network can be defined as a collection of independent entities that are Clients (workstations)
arranged in such a manner as to exchange data, information or resources. Clients (also referred to as Workstations) are Personal Computers (PCs)
attached to the network, on which the network users do their work. They are
Examples of networks: used by network users to send their requests to the server.
 Road network: - this is the interconnection of roads in a country, continent
or throughout the world. Road networks facilitate the transfer of goods & Clients;
services from one area to another. i). Are usually less powerful than the server, and use the resources provided
 Telephone network (voice networks): - it includes the many lines that by the Server.
criss-cross a country, and enables people to communicate. ii). Have their own operating systems and files.
 Railway network. The PCs can be IBM or compatible running MS-DOS, OS/2, Windows,
 Nervous system. etc.

Computer Network The figure below shows a server on a network.

A computer network can be defined as a collection 2 or more computers
connected together using transmission media (e.g., telephone cables, or
Satellites) for the purpose of communication and sharing of resources.

Usually there can be from 2 to hundreds or even thousands of computers on

the network. Apart from computers, other devices such as Printers, plotters,
fax machines, modems, etc can also be connected to the network.

The term Transmission media refers to any physical or non-physical link

between 2 or more computers, and in which a signal can be made to flow from
source to destination.

Network Server. DATA COMMUNICATION

Computer networks usually have one computer reserved as the “Mother” of
all the other computers on the network. Data communication refers to the process of transmitting data signal from one
place to another through a communication media.
A Server is a powerful computer that provides services (shared resources) to
the other computers on the network. It enables information, resources & The basic components of a data transmission system are:
network devices to be shared by users on a computer network. (a) A central computer.
(b) Terminal devices.
Network servers; (c) Telecommunications link between the central computer & the terminal
i). Have a higher hard disk & main memory (RAM) capacity than the other devices.
computers on the network.

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Terms used in data communication
Data signal: Demultiplexing is the process of separating the multiplexed signals at the
A data signal is a voltage level in the circuit which represents the flow of data. receiving end.

In data communication, there are 2 types of data signals; Digital and Analog.

Analog data is made up of continuous waveforms, while digital data is made Illustration:
up of a non-continuous discrete waveform. Town A has 10 computers which want to communicate with 10 other
Analog data signal computers in town B. In a normal case, it will need a direct cable linking each
Velocity of the computers in town A to its partner in town B. However, if multiplexing
(Sine is used, the computers can be made to share a single cable laid between the
wave) two towns, hence, saving cost.
Time
The different data signals have different frequencies on the cable; hence, they
do not interfere with one another.

Demultiplex
Multiplexer
Digital data signal Multiplexed line
From computers
Velocity
To computers

er
(Rectangular waved)
Time
Fig.: A multiplexed link
Frequency (f):
Frequency of a wave is the number of cycles made by the wave in 1 second.
Frequency is measured in units called Hertz (Hz); where 1 Hz is equivalent to
1 cycle/second.
Signal modulation and demodulation:
Baud:
This is the unit to measure the speed of transmission. Generally, 1BAUD is
This is the process of converting data signals to a form that can be transmitted
1bit/second.
over a transmission medium.
Baud rate:
E.g., a modem converts a digital signal to an analog signal, which can be
This is the rate at which data is transferred or transmitted. It is measured in
transmitted over analog telephone lines. This process is called modulation. A
Bits per second (bps).
modem at the receiving end converts the analog signal into a digital signal, a
process known as demodulation.
Band:
The rate of change of a signal on a transmission line.
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:
Multiplexing is the process of sending multiple data signals over the same
Bandwidth:
medium, e.g., a wire conductor can be made to carry several data signals
either simultaneously or at different times.

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A Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium can
carry at any one time. E.g., a certain cable may have a bandwidth of 100 Half duplex transmission:
Mbps (Mega bits per second). This refers to communication in both directions, but one direction at a time.
A sender must first send the data before the recipient can reply, e.g., if two
Guardband: police officers are communicating using a ‘walkie talkie’ radio, one has to say
This is the range of frequency that is used to separate two channels. “over” to mark the end of every statement in order for the other to respond.
Baseband signal:

This is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the transmission

medium directly without modulation. Full duplex transmission:
This is where communication occurs in both directions simultaneously (as in
Note. A baseband signal utilizes the full capacity of the transmission computers that are sending & receiving data on a network).
medium; hence, at any one time, only one signal can be sent. However,
multiple signals can be sent at different times, if they are multiplexed. Factors to consider when selecting a data transmission system
1. Cost of each type of data transmission method.
Broadband transmission: 2. Distance between the computer & the terminal.
This is where an analog signal is sent over the transmission medium using a 3. Whether data should be transmitted direct to the computer online.
particular frequency. This means that, several data signals can be sent at the 4. Type of data transmission system to be used, i.e., whether the data
same time through the same medium, but at different frequencies so as to transmission will be 1-way or 2-way.
prevent them from overlapping. 5. Volume of data to be processed; and whether it is batched at particular
times, or whether it is collected individually and required to be processed
Attenuation: immediately.
Attenuation is the decrease in magnitude and energy of a signal as it
6. Speed of transmission required.
progressively moves along a transmission medium.
In many cases, it is acceptable to use the ordinary Postal service, Kenyan
If the signal is not boosted, it will totally be lost along the way, and may never
rail, or a private Courier service.
reach the destination.
7. Accuracy and reliability required.
Attenuation (or signal loss) is usually corrected by placing signal amplifiers
PURPOSE OF NETWORKING
(also called repeater stations) along the medium at appropriate distances in
order to receive the weak signal, clean it, amplify it, then retransmit it.
Some of the reasons for setting up computer networks include:
Modes of data communication
1). Resource sharing
There are 3 modes of data communication:
A Network resource refers to any component that can be attached to the
(a). Simplex.
network for access by users.
(b). Half duplex.
(c). Full duplex.
Some of the shared resources include:
Simplex transmission: i). Application programs. vii). Network
This is where communication is only in one direction (as in radio or television Printers
broadcast). The listener or viewer cannot communicate back through the ii). Data and information. viii). Fax
radio or television receiver back to the broadcaster. machines

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 iii). Messages. ix). Modems This implies that, files reside on the user’s computer rather than on a
iv). Graphics. x). Storage central computer, and are only transmitted periodically to update the
devices (optical drives). central computer.
v). Files. xi). Communication
ports. Advantages of distributed processing.
vi). Computer processing power. xii). Disk space 1. Failure of the central computer does not affect the operations of the
other terminals.
2. Processing load is shared equally; hence, no time wastage.
3. There is faster access of data as each machine can process & store its
Users whose computers are connected to a network can, for example, data.
share their files, exchange mails, send faxes, schedule meetings, and print 4. It doesn’t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.
documents from any point on the network. This centralized access to data 5. It can accommodate users with variety of needs.
& information leads to less waste of time, and hence greater productivity.
Disadvantages of distributed processing.
2). Remote communications 1. It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an infected
file and spread it throughout the network.
Remote communication refers to the transmission of data signals between 2. Developing an effective back up plan is more difficult when users
two communication devices located at different geographical locations. store data in their individual systems.
E.g., using remote communication, one can work from home just as if 3. File management (organization) is difficult as the files are stored in
he/she is in the office. different locations.
It is mainly through remote communications that people can be able to 4). Cost effectiveness
share ideas, and pass messages over the Internet. The initial cost of purchasing and laying down of networks components
A computer that tries to access resources from another computer on the may be expensive. However, the savings experienced and the value added
network is called a remote client, while the computer being accessed is to service delivery make networks cost effective.
called a remote host.
Remote communication has been made possible by use of wireless • Networks greatly increase the efficient use of scarce resources. E.g., a
transmission media such as radio waves, microwave, and satellite. large organization with many stand alone computers will need a
printer for each computer. However, if the computers are networked,
3). Distributed processing facilities only one printer is used.
• Computer networks have also enhanced daily communication, i.e.,
Distributed processing refers to the act of running the same programs or they have made the flow of information from one place to another
databases on different computers, which are on the same network but easy. Users can send mails (e.g., e-mails) to each other, without
placed in separate locations. having to bear the cost of stamp duty or delivery charges.
Similarly, company executives can hold electronic video conferences,
Each computer has its own local peripherals, e.g., disks, printers, thus reducing the traveling costs.
terminals, etc.
5). Reliability
For example; A computer network is reliable especially when communicating or
accessing information:
In a large organization, each branch office has its own server that stores
data, information, and other resources required for their daily operations.
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 i). Data can be transferred with minimum errors from source to Review questions.
destination.
ii). Incase one computer breaks down; the user can still access data & 1. List four network systems that are not computer-based networks.
information from the other computers using another computer on 2. Define the following terms:
the network. (a). Computer network.
(b). Data communication.
LIMITATIONS (DISADVANTAGES) OF NETWORKING 3. Differentiate between:
(a). A baseband and broadband signal.
1). Security issues (b). A Network server and a workstation.
(c). Remote client and remote host.
Data & information held on a network is open to many people across the (d). Half duplex and full duplex transmissions.
world, and can easily be accessed illegally. In addition, when information 4. State the factors to be considered while selecting a data transmission
is sent over the network from one place to another, it can be tapped or system.
listened to by unauthorized parties. 5. Give four advantages and two disadvantages of networking.
6. (a) Explain the concept of distributed processing in networking.
2). High initial cost (b) State 3 advantages and 2 disadvantages of distributing processing.
7. Why is a network more reliable than stand alone computers?
The initial cost of buying network hardware & software is very high. 8. What do you understand by the following terms in networking:
(i). Baud.
3). Moral and cultural effects (ii). Baud rate.
(iii). Bandwidth.
Large networks such as the Internet have chat rooms and messaging (iv). Resource.
services. These enable underage children to meet peers and adults on the
net, some of whom may have bad intentions. 9. What name do we give to each of the following:
(a). The computer that is dedicated to serving requests from other
Access to pornographic and other negative material on the Internet has computers in a network.
made the fight against social problems such as HIV/AIDS, bad sexual (b). The computers that sends requests.
behaviour, and drug abuse more complicated.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
4). Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking
Computer networks are usually classified according to size. The three most
The Internet makes it easy for terrorists and drug traffickers to operate. common types of networks are:
This is because; they use information networks for their business
communications. 1. Local Area Network (LAN).
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
5). Over-reliance on networks. 3. Wide Area Network (WAN).
Most organizations have done away with manual operations. This means
that, all business processes, and the society depend on computer networks. Local Area Network (LAN).
Therefore, if by any chance the network fails or goes down, then many
systems in the society will stop working.

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This is a computer network that is formed whenever computers are connected
together in a relatively small geographical area, e.g., in one building or a - Larger than LAN.
school. - Slower than LAN, but faster than WAN with data rates of 100MBps &
above.
LAN is the smallest size of network & it normally covers an area within the - Are more expensive than LANs, since special equipment is needed to
radius of 10M – 3 Km. connect the different networks together.
- Prone to few errors (moderate error rates).
LAN is usually owned by one organization. However, one LAN can be
connected to other LANs over any distance via data transmission lines or Wide Area Network (WAN).
wireless media.
This is the largest size of network.
A LAN connects several Personal Computers to a Server computer. The
server computer makes available the resources requested by the other A WAN covers a large geographical area such as an entire country, a
computers (workstations) on a network. continent, or even the whole world.

In most LANs, each workstation has its own CPU which it uses to execute It consists of many LANs and MANs connected together to form one large
programs, but still the workstation user can also access data & devices network such as the Internet.
anywhere on the network.
Characteristics of WAN
Advantages of LANs.
− They cover an unlimited (a very large) geographical area, e.g., can cover
1). They enable many users to share expensive devices such as Laser printers, the whole world.
as well as data. However, the no. of computers that can be connected & − They are expensive to build since it requires special equipment for
the distance to be covered is limited. connection.
− Their transmission links are also expensive.
2). Have Low cost (requires less expensive equipment). − Long distance transmission.
3). Enable users to communicate with each other, by sending messages or − Have low data transfer rates compared to LANs (i.e., they are slower than
engaging in chat sessions. LANs & MANs)
− More prone to errors (very high possible error rates compared to LANs and
4). LANs transmit data at very fast rates. They are much faster than data MANs).
transmitted over telephone lines.
5). Small error counts (low error rates). Differences between a Local Area Network and a Wide Area Network.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
1. LAN is limited to a small geographical distance.
2. Data transmission speed in LANs is higher.
A MAN is made up of many LANs connected together.
3. Cost of data transmission in LANs is small.
It covers a metropolitan (medium-sized geographical) area, e.g., a town or an 4. There are less transmission errors in LANs.
entire city, within a radius of 5 – 50 Km.
Review questions.
Characteristics of MAN
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1. Describe THREE major data communication models. Two-wire open lines cables.
2. Explain the three most common types of computer networks in use today.
3. Describe a Wide area network. Two-wire open lines cables are made up of 2 parallel copper wires separated
4. List THREE differences between Wide Area Network and Local Area by a plastic insulator.
Network.
5. Determine the type of a network characterized by: Plastic insulator
(a). connection between computers, printers and other resources using Wire conductor
UTP cables.
(b). over 250 computers connected to share resources in a city.

ELEMENTS (COMPONENTS) OF NETWORKING

The Plastic insulator is meant to reduce signal interference called Crosstalk.
A computer network is made up of several standard components, which can However, the linear nature of the wires allows an electromagnetic field to
be classified into three (3) major categories, namely: build around them during heavy data transmission, which may cause
interference to the signal.
1. Data communication media.
2. Communication devices. The wires also capture/pick unwanted environmental frequencies, e.g., radio
3. Networking software. waves, hence causing noise in the transmission channel.

Data communication (Transmission) media. Two-wire open lines cables are used in telecommunication network to
transmit voice (analogue) signals.
A data communication medium is a physical pathway used for carrying data
signals & information from one point to another. Twisted pair cables.

Data communication media can be divided into two: A twisted pair cable is made up of 2 insulated copper wires twisted around
each other in a spiral pattern.
(a). Communication using cable (bound media).
(b). Wireless communication (unbounded media).

Communication using cables (bounded media).

The twisting prevents electromagnetic fields from developing around the two
In bounded media, data signals are transmitted from the source to the wires as they transmit data.
destination through a cable.
Twisted pair cables can be used to transmit both voice & data signals (i.e.,
There are 4 major types of bounded transmission media, namely: analogue & digital signals).
1. Two-wire open lines cables. Types of twisted pair cables.
2. Twisted pair cables.
3. Coaxial cables. The 2 common types of twisted pair cables are:
4. Fibre optic cables.
(i). Unshielded twisted pair (UTP).
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(ii). Shielded twisted pair (STP). transmitting
1 Less than 1 Mbps (i.e., Megabits per Voice
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables. second)
2 1 Mbps Data
UTP cables do not have a shield that prevents electromagnetic interference 3 16 Mbps Data
(also called ‘Electric noise’) from the environment. 4 20 Mbps Data
5 100 Mbps Data

Advantages of Twisted pair cables.

1. Can support high data rates (bandwidth) of up to 100 Mbps.

2. Telephone systems use UTP, which is present in most buildings.
Therefore, it is easier to setup network media because; connection is
Twisted pair readily available.
Outer cover
3. Installation equipment is cheap & readily available.

UTP cable is prone to noise & signal interference, and therefore, not suitable 4. It is cheap because; of mass production for telephone use.
for environments that are electrically ‘noisy’.
Noise may come from lightening sparks, radio signal, or radiations from spark Disadvantages of Twisted pair cables.
plugs in motor vehicles.
1. They suffer from high attenuation. Therefore, for every cable length of
Shielded twisted pair (STP) cables. 90m, a “Repeater” is needed to amplify (restore) the signal.
2. It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference & eavesdropping.
In STP cables, a braided shield is wrapped around the wires to protect them 3. It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.
from noise.
Coaxial cables.

A Coaxial cable resembles the cable that is used to connect television antenna
to a television set.

The cable has;

1. A central copper core (which is either solid or stranded wires).

The diameter of the centre core determines the attenuation rate. If the core
is thin, then the attenuation rate will be higher.
Twisted pair cables are grouped into 5 categories according to the type of data
transmitted, and the maximum rate of transmission. 2. An insulator (a dielectric material) surrounding the copper core.
3. A hollow braid (mesh conductor) surrounding the insulator. The braid is
Category Speed (max. limit) Suitable for made of copper or aluminium, and serves as the ground for the carrier
wire.
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4. A shield which covers the braid making the core more resistant to
electromagnetic interference.

The braid together with the insulator & the foil shield protects the carrier wire
from Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI).

Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1 Gbps (Gigabits per second).

Hence, they can be used to link/connect different networks between buildings,
and route trunk calls in telecommunication companies.

The Two types of coaxial cables.

(i). Thin coaxial cable (Thinnet): - it has 1 dielectric insulator around the
core.
Advantages of coaxial cables.

1. They are very stable even under high loads.

2. They have a large bandwidth (up to 1Gbps) compared to twisted pair
cables.
3. They can carry voice, data and video signals simultaneously.
4. They are more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than
twisted pair cables.

Disadvantages of coaxial cables.

1. Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with.

2. Installation cost is higher than twisted pair.
(ii). Thick coaxial cable (Thicknet): - it has 2 dielectric insulators around the 3. They are relatively expensive to buy & install compared to twisted pair
core, and is thicker than the thinnet. cables.

Fibre optic cables.

A fibre optic cable uses light to transmit data signals from one point to another
on the network.

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is used at the source/transmitter (sending

computer) to convert electrical signals to light signals which are then send
along the cable. At the receiving computer, a photosensitive device is then
used to convert the light signals back to electric signals that can be processed
by the computer.
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A fibre optic cable is made up of;
(i). Single mode fibre optic cable.
1. The Core.
The single mode fibre has a very narrow centre core. This implies that,
This is the central part of the cable, and is made of a hollow transparent the light in the cable can take only one path through it.
plastic or glass.

2. Cladding.

This is a single protective layer surrounding the core.

The Cladding is able to bend light rays, (i.e., when light tries to travel
from the core to the cladding, it is redirected back to the core).

3. Buffer.
− It has a very low attenuation rate, and is preferred for long distance
It surrounds the cladding. Its main function is to strengthen the cable. transmission.
4. The Jacket. − It has a very high bandwidth of 50 Gigabits per second.
− It is very expensive, and requires very careful handling during
It is the outer covering of the cable. installation.

Light transmission along a fibre optic cable. (ii). Multimode fibre optic cable.

The light signal travels along the core through a process referred to as Total A multimode fibre has a thicker centre core than the single mode fibre.
internal reflection.

The process that causes total internal reflection is called Refraction.

Refraction is the bending of light when it crosses the boundary of two
mediums that have different densities.

Therefore, when light signal is inserted into the cable, it tries to cross from the
core to the cladding. The light is bent back into the core, hence spreads along
the length of the cable.

Light rays
− It allows several light signals (rays) to be sent through the cable at
the same time. Hence, there are high chances of the signal being
Core Cladding distorted.
Types of fibre optic cables.
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 − It has a high attenuation rate, and is usually used for shorter 2. Radiowaves.
distance transmission. 3. Infrared transmission.
All these waves use different frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum,
and travel at the speed of light.
Advantages of fibre optic cable.

1. It is immune to electromagnetic interference, and eavesdropping.

2. It is fast and supports high bandwidth.
3. It has low attenuation; hence, a long distance can be covered.
4. It does not generate electrical signals; hence can be used in dangerous
(highly flammable) places.
5. It is smaller & lighter than copper cables; hence, suitable for situations
where space is limited.

Disadvantages of fibre optic cable. Below is a diagrammatic representation of the electromagnetic spectrum

1. Requires expensive connectivity devices and media. Radiowaves

Microwaves

Infra-red (IR)

Visible light

Ultra-violet (UV)

X-Rays

Gamma rays
2. Installation is difficult because the cable must be handled carefully.

High Frequency

Frequency (VHF)
Very High

Frequency (UHF)
Ultra-High
(HF)
3. It is relatively complex to configure.
4. A broken fibre optic cable is difficult & expensive to repair.

Review questions.

1. Define the term Transmission media.

2. (a). Give two advantages of coaxial cables.
(b). Explain the importance of the wire braid in coaxial cable.

106 Hz

107 Hz

108 Hz

1010 Hz

1013 Hz

1015 Hz

1016 Hz

1020 Hz

1022 Hz
3. Distinguish between Thinnet and Thicknet coaxial cables.
4. Define the term Pitch as used in twisted pair cabling.
5. (a). Give two advantages of fibre optic media.
(b). Differentiate between single mode and multimode fibre optic cables.

Wireless communication (unbounded media) Microwave transmission

Wireless (unbounded) media is a type of media that is used to transmit data Microwave frequencies have a small wavelength, and can easily release their
from one point to another without using physical connections. energy in water as heat. This is why they are used in making domestic kitchen
In this case, a transmitting antenna & a receiver aerial are used to facilitate appliances, e.g., microwave ovens.
the communication.
In networking, microwaves are suitable for point-to-point transmissions,
Examples of wireless communication media include: whereby a signal is directed through a focused beam from the transmitter to
the receiver station.
1. Microwaves.
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 Line of sight

Transmitter Receiving
earth station earth station

A communication satellite is usually launched into space about 36,000 km

Satellite communication above the earth in such a manner that its speed is almost equal to the rotation
speed of the earth. This makes the satellite appear as if it is stationary in
A Satellite is a microwave relay station. The microwave earth stations have space. Such types of satellites are called geostationary satellites.
parabolic dishes with an antenna fixed on them in order to focus a narrow
beam towards the satellite in space. Advantages of using satellites

A satellite transmission system has 3 main components: 1. A satellite is convenient because; it provides a large constant line of sight
to earth stations. This means that, there is no need to keep on moving the
1. Transmitter earth station - it sets up an uplink to the satellite in order to parabolic dish so as to track the line of sight.
transmit data.
2. The satellite transmits the signal to many recipient earth stations. This is
2. A Satellite that is somewhere in an orbit. It receives, amplifies, and because; the transmitted signal spreads out in all directions to form a
retransmits the signal to a receiving earth station through a downlink Point to Multipoint transmission.
frequency.
The downlink & the uplink frequency are usually different. This is to Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)
prevent the downlink signal from interfering with the uplink signal.
A VSAT is a very small satellite dish used both in data, radio, and TV
3. Receiving earth station - receives the signal sent by the satellite on the communication.
other side of the globe.
It can be set up at home or in a small business. It enables direct access to
satellite communication instead of having to go through state-owned or
licensed satellite gateways.

Satellite in space The dish has an antenna that receives the satellite signals. The signals are
decoded using a decoder which is plugged directly to a television set or a
computer.
Uplink Downlink
Radio communication

Radio waves are used in radio and television broadcasts.

Radio waves travel just like surface water waves, i.e., they start from a central
point and spread outwards in all directions.
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As they travel outwards, their energy spreads outwards over the covered area. They are transmitted along the earth’s surface. However, since the earth is
The waves are radiated into the atmosphere by a radio frequency antenna at somehow curved, the signal tends to attenuate at the horizons of mountains
constant velocity. and buildings. This means that, repeater stations have to be built on raised
areas in order to receive, amplify, and propagate the signal from one area to
The figure below shows a typical radio waves link between two separate another.
geographical locations.
Note. The range of VHF is limited, however, it is preferred to HF because; it
is possible to make a VHF wave follow a narrower & more direct path to the
receiver.
Frequency Modulation (FM) radio transmission
Path
Ultra-High frequency (UHF) radio waves

The UHF radiowaves use the line of sight principle used by the VHF waves.
This means that, there should be no barrier between the sending & the
receiving aerial. However, they require smaller aerials.
Transmitting Receiving
antenna antenna For example;

The Television aerial for VHF is bigger than the one for UHF radio waves.
This is because; UHF radio waves can be made to follow a narrower & a more
Power supply direct path to the receiver than VHF radio waves.
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
Fig.: A typical radio transmitter and receiver link The Bluetooth technology
Radio waves can be of: This is a worldwide and short range radio transmission technology that allows
all personal, hand-held devices to be able to communicate with each other
 High frequency (HF). through wireless technology.
 Very high frequency (VHF).
 Ultra-high frequency (UHF). It enables people to use hand-held communication devices such as mobile
phones & Personal Digital Assistants (PDA’s) to access the Internet.
High frequency (HF) radio waves
The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power two-way radio
The High frequency radio wave signal is transmitted by directing it to the transceiver, which can be inserted in small devices.
ionosphere of the earth. The ionosphere reflects it back to the earth’s surface, Bluetooth enabled devices use a network called the Wireless personal area
and the receiver then picks the signal. network (WPAN) or piconet.

Disadvantage of HF communication Infrared transmission

− The signal can be intercepted by unauthorized parties.
Covers a frequency range of 3*1012 to 4.3*1014HzCommunication through
Very High frequency (VHF) radio waves infrared waves (signals) is achieved by having infrared transmitters &
receivers (transceivers) within a line of sight in the same room. This is
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because; infrared signals cannot penetrate obstacles like walls and ceilings. For a network to be fully operational, communication devices are required,
However, the signal can be reflected off these surfaces until they reach their and act as interfaces between the Terminal devices.
destination. Terminal equipments are the devices at both ends of the communication link,
e.g., computers.
For example;
Some of the data communication devices are:
Most mobile phones have an infrared transceiver. Once activated, two people
in the same room can send messages to each other on their mobile phones 1. Network Interface cards (NIC)
without going through the mobile service provider; hence avoid being A NIC acts as a physical connection (link/interface) between the computer
charged. & a properly terminated transmission cable.

In computer networking environment, infrared technology can be used to A NIC is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard, and
connect devices in the same room to each other without the need for cables, has ports at the back in which the terminated end of a network cable can
e.g., a computer and a printer. However, the computer’s infrared transceiver be plugged.
must maintain a line of sight with the one for the printer. A wireless card has a wirelesss antenna instead of a port installed on it.
Wireless NIC communinicates using radio waves.
Advantages of wireless communication. The NIC assigns the computer a unique physical address which is used to
direct traffic between the computers on a network.
1. Wireless medium is flexible in operation, i.e., devices can be moved
around without losing access to the network.
2. Wireless networks can span large geographical areas easily.
3. Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in very remote
areas that do not have high cost physical infrastructure like telephone
lines.
4. Allows users of a network to roam without loosing access to the network
Disadvantages of wireless communication.

1. The initial cost is very high.

2. Vulnerable to tapping hence security of information can be compromised.
3. Suffer attenuation due to obstacles on the path.
Review questions. 2. A Modem and a Codec

1. Distinguish between radio and microwave transmission. Modem is short for Modulator Demodulator. A Modem converts a digital
2. Describe an electromagnetic spectrum. signal to analogue form so that it can be transmitted over an analogue
3. State two advantages of satellite communication. media.
4. Give one application area of Infrared transmission.
5. Describe the VSAT technology. A Codec converts an analogue signal to digital form so that it can be
6. Explain the concept of a geostationary satellite. transmitted over a digital medium.
7. Explain the line of sight principle in wireless communication.
A modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the motherboard.
Communication devices
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3. Hub (Concentrator) b). To extend the length & number of workstations that a segment can
A Hub is a component that connects computers on a network, and is able support.
to relay signals from one computer to another on the same network. c). To reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the
destination segment of the network.
A Hub usually connects networks that have the same set of The bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular
communication software usually called Protocols. segment are not broadcast in that segment.

5. Repeater
A Repeater receives a signal from one segment of a network, cleans it to
remove any distortion, boosts it, and then sends it to another segment.
It therefore, enables the network to eliminate attenuation problems.

Note. Repeaters can easily be used to expand a network. This is because;

they broadcast the same message to other network segments.
A Hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all the computers on the
6. Routers
network. After the signal is broadcasted, the computer whose address is on
A Router connects different networks, and directs the transfer of data
the message then picks the message from the network.
packets from source to destination.
Several hubs can be connected together one after another to expand a network.
Note. Routing depends on network addresses. Each network has a
unique address (or identifier) called the IP address.
Intelligent hubs
The router will receive a packet of data from another router on the
Intelligent hubs are able to monitor the way computers are communicating on
network, and check the network address of the destination. If the address
the network, and keep the information in their own database called
is the same as the one on which the router is, the router will then read the
management information base (MIB). The network server can then use this
address of the host and then pass the data packet to the destination,
information to fine-tune the network.
otherwise the packet will be routed to the next network address.
 Intelligent hubs also manage a network by isolating computers that are not NB: Network addressing has been made possible because of the use of a
functioning properly. special interconnecting protocol called the Internet Protocol (IP).

4. Bridges

This is a network device that selectively determines the appropriate

network segment for which a message is meant to be delivered. It does
this through address filtering. 7. Gateways
Purpose of using a Bridge A Gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to a
a). It can divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic. Wide Area Network or the Internet.
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 Note. A gateway may be a router, or a computer configured to provide
access to the Internet.

Fig. A switch on a Local area network

Wireless communication devices

For a long time, networks have been implemented using tangible transmission
media like cables. However, since the cost of wireless technology has gone
down & the quality of service increased, companies & individuals are now
using wireless segments in their communications with the aim of extending
the capability of wired networks.
Fig.: A gateway PC connecting a LAN to a WAN The most common devices (components) used in wireless communication are:
8. Switches Access Points (AP), and Wireless antennae.
Unlike a hub, a Switch forwards a data packet directly to the terminal 1. Access points (AP)
equipment on the network without broadcasting. It does this by
connecting the two nodes point-to-point as if they were linked by a direct An Access point is an entry point into a bounded network.
cable.
It is used by people who have wireless devices such as Personal Digital
Note. Some hubs can also act as switches. Such a hub is referred to as a Assistants (PDA’s), Laptops, and computers with wireless links.
switching hub.

 Switches are more expensive than hubs. This means that, one switch may
be used as a bridge to connect several hubs. This reduces collision
problems caused by broadcasts.

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 Fig. 3.0: Wireless access point Network Operating systems
2. Wireless antennae
These are operating systems specifically designed to enable the networked
The Access point should have antennae so as to detect wave signals in the computers to respond to service requests.
surrounding. The waves may be Radio waves, microwaves or infrared Servers run on a network operating system.
waves.
Most Access points have 2 antennae so that the one that receives the best Functions of network operating systems
signal at any particular time can be used.
A network operating system performs the following network related
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) functions:
card
1. Provides access to network resources, e.g., printers and folders.
A PCMCIA is a card inserted into a device such as a Personal Digital 2. Enables nodes on the network to communicate efficiently with each other.
Assistant (PDA) or a laptop in order to enable wireless communication 3. Enables the various processes on the network to communicate with one
between the device and a wired network server. another.
4. Responds to requests from application programs running on the network.
5. Supports network services such as network card drivers & protocols.
6. Maintains security, ensuring that only users authorized to use the
computer system are allowed access to it.
7. Produces logs, i.e., a record of all the programs as they are run.
8. Organises the use of storage, since this has to be shared among different
users.
9. Works out the resources used by each program. If the user is paying for
Fig.: The PCMCIA card used to connect a device to a wireless LAN the service, then the computer works out the cost of running the program
Review questions. & charges the appropriate account.

1. Describe at least five devices used in data communications. Network OS are normally designed as Multi-user operating systems that run
2. Explain the function of a NIC in networking. the network server program.
3. (a). Explain the importance of a gateway on a network.
(b). Differentiate between a router and a gateway. Examples of network operating systems are:
4. Why is a Switch preferred to a hub on the network?
5. What is the function of a Repeater on a network? − UNIX - Windows NT
6. Give one disadvantage of a Hub on a network. − Linux - Windows 2000
Network software − Novell NetWare - Windows 2003
Protocols
Network software can be classified into 2 main groups:
Protocols are a set of rules and procedures that govern the communication
1. Network Operating systems. between two different devices or people.
2. Network Protocols.
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E.g., a diplomat from a foreign country must adhere to the set rules and 4. Transport Manages data transfer over the network to ensure
procedures of communication when representing his country in the host layer reliability. It ensures that data units are delivered free
country. of errors, in sequence, and without loss or duplication.
3. Network layer Serves the Transport layer by adding address
In computer networking, Protocols are the rules and technical procedures that information to the data packets, and routing it to its
govern communication between the different computers on the network. destination.
2. Data link layer Prepares data for going onto the communication
How Protocols work medium on the physical layer. Adds error checking &
correction information to the data.
The data transmission process over the network is divided into steps, and at 1. Physical layer Transmits raw data packets via the network card
each step, a certain action takes place. through the transmission media in form of bits.
In addition, each step has its own rules and procedures as defined by the Converts frames to electronic signals and vice versa.
network protocols. The work of these protocols is usually coordinated
through protocol layering so as to ensure that there are no conflicts or Protocols at the Application layer:
incomplete operations.
They provide services to application programs such as the E-mail editor
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. program that enables composing or reading of e-mail messages.

Interconnecting of the various hardware & software products from different Examples of protocols at the Application layer include:
manufacturers together into a single network requires that the equipment must
be able to communicate and work with each other. 1. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) - an Internet protocol for
transferring e-mails.
The OSI reference model defines standard (uniform) methods which enable
different systems to interoperate with each other and to be portable across one 2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – an Internet protocol for transferring files.
another.
Network protocols are usually designed using the OSI reference model. To 3. Apple Talk and Apple Share – a networking protocol standard for Apple
facilitate communication between application processes located on different computers.
computers, the model groups similar computer communication protocols into
7 layers, each performing specific functions. Protocols at the Transport layer:
Layer Function They ensure that data is passed between computers more reliably.
7. Application This is where user applications are run. It provides
layer network services such as file sharing, distributed Examples of protocols at the Transport layer include:
processing, file transfer, and network management to
users. It also generates requests for transmission of 1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – enables delivery of sequenced
data or opening of received information data over the network.
6. Presentation Defines data formats to be exchanged & adds
layer formatting, display and encryption information to the 2. Sequential Packet Exchange (SPX) – used in Novell networks for
data being sent. sequenced data.
5. Session layer Sets up data transmission sessions between two
communicating devices on the network.
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3. NetBEUI – used in Microsoft and IBM networks to establish Logical (Signal) topology
communication sessions between computers in LANs.
Logical topology deals with the way data passes from one device to the next
4. Apple Transaction Protocol (ATP) – it is a communication session and on the network.
data transport protocol used in Apple computers.
Examples of logical topologies are:
Protocols at the Network layer:
(a). Ethernet.
They provide link services, e.g., they handle addressing and routing (b). Token ring.
information, error checking and retransmission of requests.
Ethernet topology
Examples of protocols at the Network layer include:
In Ethernet topology, all computers listen to the network media, and a
particular computer can only send data when none of the others is sending.
1. Internet Protocol (IP) – it does packet forwarding and routing. Token ring topology
2. Internetwork Packets Exchange – This is a NetWare’s protocol for packet
forwarding and routing. In Token ring topology, a special package for data called a token goes around
the network. The computer whose address is on the data held in the token
Review questions. picks it up, reads the data, and then releases the token. The token can then be
captured by another computer which needs to transmit data.
1. List two types of network software.
2. Outline four functions of network operating system. Physical topology
Physical topology refers to the physical arrangement of components on the
3. List four examples of network operating systems.
network.
4. Outline the seven open systems interconnection (OSI) reference model
layers. Examples of physical topologies are:
5. Explain the importance of the Physical layer in the open systems
interconnection (OSI) reference model. (a). Star topology.
6. (a). Define the term protocol. (b). Bus topology.
(b). Give three examples of protocols used in networking. (c). Ring topology.
(d). Mesh topology.
Network Topologies (e). Tree (Hierarchical) topology.
The term network Topology refers to the way in which computers, cables, and (f). Daisy chain
other devices have been arranged in the network.
The choice of the topology to adopt depends on factors such as Reliability,
It can also refer to how data is passed from one computer to another in the Expandability, and Performance.
network.

Logical and physical topologies

Network topology can be viewed in 2 ways; Logical or Physical.

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Star topology 5. It can be extended easily, since a workstation is simply connected to the
Star topology consists of computers and other devices, each connected to a hub.
common central server called the a switch or a Hub. However, to connect to 6. Provides flexibility in adding or deleting devices.
the central machine, each computer uses a separate cable.
The wiring hubs increase the flexibility for growth. Addition & removal
Nodes communicate across the network by passing data signals through the of nodes does not involve cutting and joining of cables.
hub, i.e., any two computers (workstations) in the network communicate
through the central machine. 7. Easier to troubleshoot.
When the hub receives data from a transmitting computer, it broadcasts the When something goes wrong with the network, the administrator can
message to all the other nodes on the network. troubleshoot it from the wiring hub.

8. The Hub can support multiple types of cables.

Disadvantages of Star topology.

1. If the central switch node (Hub) fails, it may bring down the entire
network.
2. It is costly because; each workstation is connected to the central
concentrator by is own dedicated cable (i.e., it requires a lot of cables).

3. Installation is time consuming, because each node forms a segment of its

own.
4. May require a special device for signal regeneration across the network.

Bus topology (Daisy-chain topology)

In Bus topology, all the devices in the network are connected directly, through
appropriate interfacing hardware, to a single transmission cable called the Bus
(or Backbone) on which information is broadcast.
Advantages of Star topology.
1. Allows key networking resources such as concentrators & servers to be
centralized.
2. Easy to configure.
3. Enhances operational survivability.

The hub isolates the network cables from each other. Even if a wire
between a workstation and the hub breaks or develops a bad connection,
the rest of the network remains operational.

4. Simple to control.

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 Disadvantages of Bus topology.
1. A cable break in each section brings down the whole network.
2. The performance degrades since there is no signal integration.
3. Troubleshooting the cable fault can be quite difficult because; the fault
could be anywhere on the cable.
4. Heavy network traffic can slow down the network

Ring topology
In a ring topology, the computers are connected to one another in the shape of
a closed loop using a single cable.

Bus topology uses Coaxial cable as transmission medium. The cable can
carry only one message at a time and each workstation on the network must be
able to know when it can and cannot transmit using this cable.

A Terminator is attached to each end of the cable to avoid signals from

bouncing back and forth on the cable causing signal distortion.

For communication to take place, data is addressed to a particular computer &

put in the cable in the form of electronic signal. As the data passes along the
cable, each workstation checks whether the data is addressed to it. If the
address in the data matches that of the machine, it picks up the data and
processes it.
Data flows from one computer to another in one direction, and each computer
Bus topology doesn’t need any special equipment such as switches or actively participates in data transfer from one station to the other. In other
repeaters to amplify the signal. words, each workstation acts as a booster by regenerating and retransmitting
the signals around the network to its neighbour.
Advantages of Bus topology.
1. Easy to install. A token is used to exchange data from one station to another. A token can be
2. Inexpensive (less costly) because; it does not require a complete cable viewed as an envelope or a bag where data is placed for transmission and
length per computer. carried around the network.
3. Can easily be extended.
4. It allows the workstations to communicate independently (separately) of Advantages of Ring topology.
each other. 1. They use a short length cable.
5. Failure of one station on the network does not affect the operations on the 2. Simple to install.
bus. 3. Provides high performance for many users.
4. Provides an orderly network in which every device has access to the token
and can transmit data.

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 3. Difficult to add more nodes when the network is large.
Disadvantages of Ring topology. 4. Difficult to isolate faults due to lack of a central control point.
1. Failure of one computer or the cable will affect the rest in the entire
network. Tree (Hierarchical) topology
2. Modification is difficult because; adding or removing a device can disrupt This is a hybrid topology where groups of star-configured networks are
the entire network. connected to a linear bus (backbone).
3. Troubleshooting can be difficult.

Mesh topology
Mesh topology uses separate cables to connect each device to every other
device on the network providing a straight communication path.

It is mostly used in Wide Area Networks where there are many paths between
different locations.

Fig. 3.6: Tree

topology
Review questions.

1. What is a computer network topology?

Advantages of Mesh topology. 2. Distinguish between Logical and Physical network topology.
1. It is fast. 3. Using appropriate diagrams, describe any three types of physical network
2. Failure on one node will not cause communication breakdown. topologies.
3. Easy to troubleshoot cable problems. If two machines are not
communicating, the administrator will only check the cable between them. COMMUNICATION OF DATA IN A NETWORK.
4. Enhances flexibility in communication. Data in a network travels from one computer to the other using laid down
5. Enhances fault tolerance provided by redundant/ excessive links. rules known as Protocols. The protocols used depend on the way the
computers are connected together on the network.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
1. Difficult and expensive to install and maintain. Generally, there are 2 broad ways in which computers communicate with one
2. Very costly as it requires large amounts of cables (or redundant links). another in a network, namely:

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(i). Point-to-point communication.
(ii). Broadcast communication. Advantages of Centralized model
(i). Data is kept in one location, ensuring that every user is working
Point-to-point communication. with the same information.
In point-to-point, the network contains numerous cables or telephone lines, (ii). It is easier to back up data since the information is stored on only
each one connecting a pair of computers. one Server.
(iii). Easier to maintain security. It is only the server which needs to be
The message is received at each intermediate computer in whole, stored there secured since the terminals have no data.
until the required output line is free, and then forwarded. (iv). The terminals do not require floppy drives as all work is stored on a
Server.
A network using this principle is called a point-to-point or store-and-forward (v). Chances of computer being affected by viruses are very minimal as
network. no diskettes are being used.
(vi). It less costly.
Broadcast communication.
Although the Server has to be very powerful with a lot of storage
In broadcast, there is a single communication channel shared by all space, the terminals are inexpensive as they don’t require real
computers. In this case, the messages sent by any computer are received by
processing or storage capability of their own.
all other computers.
Disadvantages of Centralized model
Something in the message itself must specify for whom it is intended. After
receiving a message not intended for itself, a computer just ignores it.
(i). It is very slow as it is the server alone, which does all the
processing.
Review questions.
(ii). In case where the users have varied needs, it would be difficult to
meet these needs in a centralized computing network as each user
1. As regards to communication within a computer network, what do you
application needs to be set up separately.
understand by the following terms:
(iii). Connection is difficult. All the computers have to be connected on
(a) Point-to-point
a central place.
(b) Broadcast
(2 marks)
2). Distributive computing
In this model, data is stored and processed on the local workstation.
NETWORK MODELS
Computers acting as Stand alone systems are connected together for
A Network model describes how the computer processes information on the
increased functionality.
network.
A Stand alone is a computer which is not connected to any other
Data can be processed by a Client, a central Server or by all the computers on
computer equipment other than its own Printer.
the network.
Advantages of Distributive Computing model.
1). Centralized computer model.
(i). Each machine processes and stores its data; hence, data is accessed
Very large computers, usually mainframes, are connected with terminals.
faster.
The users input & output data using the terminals, while the processing is
done by the central computer (mainframe). (ii). It doesn’t need powerful and expensive servers for data storage.
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 (iii). It can accommodate users with variety of needs. − There are 10 or less users.
− The users are located in a general area.
Disadvantages of Distributive Computing model. − Security is not an issue, e.g. in Bulletin boards.

(i). It is more susceptible to virus, as any user could introduce an Advantages of Peer-to-peer networks.
infected file and spread it throughout the network. (i). It is small & inexpensive.
(ii). It is more difficult to develop an effective back up plan, since each (ii). It is easier to maintain.
user stores data in his/her individual system. (iii). It is easier to setup.
(iii). File management (organization) is difficult as the files are stored in
different locations. Disadvantages of Peer-to-peer networks.
(i). It is difficult to locate information stored in the connected
3). Collaborative model. computers due to Shared level security.
In this model, all computers can share processing power across the (ii). Difficult to update documents and files.
network. Applications can be written to use the processing on the (iii). It is expensive to train staff on how to share resources, as each user
computers to complete job more quickly. is an administrator.
(iv). It is difficult to maintain security, as it is the user’s responsibility to
Advantages of Collaborative model. ensure that only authorized individuals can access their data.
(i). It is faster to complete a task as users are not limited to processing (v). It is more tedious as the user has to memorize password for
power of one system. resources, and in case of any change, they have to inform others.
(ii). Variety of users can be accommodated on a collaborative network.
2. Server-based networks.
Disadvantages of Collaborative model. In this network, there is usually a Server, e.g. a company which is
(i). Viruses can easily be transmitted through the network. dedicated to handle files and/or information for clients, make & service
(ii). Backing up of the data is difficult. requests from network clients, and ensure security of files and directories
(iii). File synchronization is difficult. for them.

CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS Server-based networks require a network operating system.

1. Peer-to-Peer network. Advantages of Server based networks.

A Peer is a computer that acts both as the client and a server. (i). There is security since the Server controls the resources the clients
need to access.
In this network, all the connected computers are equal & each machine (ii). It can support a large number of users.
acts as both client and Server. This means that, there is no central storage (iii). The server can be optimized to hand out information as fast as
area for information & no dedicated central Server. possible.
(iv). Fewer connections are required by the clients to get the resources.
No system administrator. Therefore, the user of each computer (v). Easier to maintain backup for files (synchronization of files).
determines what data & resources the computer will shares with other
(vi). Cost effective as client workstations don’t need large hard disk
computers on the network.
(storage capacity).
Peer-to-peer networks are appropriate in an environment where:
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 Disadvantages of Server based networks.

(i). It is dependent on a Network administrator.

(ii). Requires servers, which are expensive.

Review questions.

2. How does each of the following networking models operate?

(i). Centralized computing.
(ii). Collaborative computing.
(iii). Distributed computing.

Network Security

In networking, there are several ways of protecting your data and information
from intruders. They include: Share level and User level security.

Share level security

This model of security is mostly used in peer-to-peer networks. The user can
decide which resources to give for sharing.
Most Windows operating systems such as Windows 9X provide such kind of
security.

User-level security

The User level security is used on server-based networks.

A network administrator assigns accounts to users, i.e., each user is provided

with a unique name and a password which he/she can use to access network
resources.

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 TOPIC 2: APPLICATION AREAS OF ICT • The master file is then updated, payroll system is produced, pay slips are
INTRODUCTION printed for every employee and other reports required by management
• There is rampant use of computers in the society today; offices, or the tax department.
institutions, organizations and homes. • Computers are therefore used to store and process payrolls.
• Tasks that were previously manned manually are now tackled • Backing storage is also essential for payroll systems, since the amount
electronically. of data grows with time.
• It is imperative to therefore understand ways by which computers have • The primary purpose of the payroll system is to therefore process the
been applied in the contemporary society to add great value to the accurate information of employees including gross pay, deductions and
information systems of various organizations. the net pay.
• An information system is a collection of specific human and machine • The payroll system is designed to produce several analysis reports e.g. a
efforts required to support the decision making process, data processing, breakdown of payroll expenses against production/income of the
information output and presentation. company.

APPLICATION AREAS B. ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS

1. Financial systems. 9. Entertainment systems • Accounting is the preparation and analysis of financial records for a
2. Retail systems. 10 Transportation system commercial company, government or other organizations.
• Known as the “business language”, it enables decision makers to
3. Reservation systems 11 Home use
interpret financial information and use the results in planning for the
4. Educational systems 12 Office expert systems
future e.g. foretelling what products or departments are doing well and
5. Communication systems 13 Marketing which ones are doing poorly.
6. Industrial systems 14 Virtual reality systems • It deals mainly with numbers and this is a task well suited for
7. Scientific and research systems 15 Law enforcement systems computers.
8. Library systems • The processing of such tasks is simple and easy to understand to
implement on the computer, and management can establish appropriate
1. FINANCIAL SYSTEMS controls and error-checking procedures to ensure the security and
• Enable organizations to manage their finances and they include: accuracy of the data.
a) Payroll systems.
b) Accounting systems. There are five major/key business accounting activities/subsystems as
c) Banking systems. outlined below:
i) Customer order and entry.
A. PAYROLL SYSTEMS ii) Inventory management.
• Screens are setup to capture the transaction data, with appropriate iii) General ledger accounting.
validations, data is inserted into the transaction file, payroll programs iv) Accounts receivable.
then process the payroll using data from the transaction file, lookup v) Accounts payable.
tables and the master file. vi) Cash book.

I) CUSTOMER ORDERS ENTRY AND BILLING

26
• Used to record incoming customer orders, authorizes delivery of items • The cash book has two accounts i.e. A cash account and the bank
or services ordered and produces invoices for customers who do not pay account.
in advance or on cash basis. • With the help of a cash book, the cash and bank balances can be
checked easily.
II) INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
• Used to keep track of the items in stock and help the management 2. BANKING SYSTEMS
determine which items to re-order, helping the management to have • Since the introduction of the magnetic encoded cheques in the 1960’s,
enough stocks at all times to meet the needs by customers. banks have become dependent on computers for many services.
• The banking industry was one of the earliest consumers of information
III) GENERAL LEDGER ACCOUNTING and communication technology.
• Also known as nominal ledger. • The computerized banking services include:
• Contains a summary of all business accounts i.e. used to keep track of i) Processing customer transactions.
how much a business makes and its worthiness by summarizing the ii) Cheque clearing and processing.
financial transactions in forms of balance sheets, profit and loss account, iii) Electronic funds transfer.
trial balance, day book/journal, list of accounts etc. iv) Internet banking.
• It produces reports on income, sources of income, expenses and the net v) Mobile banking.
profit or loss earned.
• The summary report (balance sheet) is usually generated at the end of an I) PROCESSING CUSTOMER TRANSACTIONS
accounting period. • They are used in banks to carry out financial transactions such as
recording deposits, withdrawals and calculating interests on savings and
IV) ACCOUNTS RECEIVABLE loans.
• Keeps track of money owed to a company by its customers. • Reports are also generated on the current status of accounts.
• This helps the management to make a follow up by billing the customers • The transactions are entered via terminals, which are connected to a
for overdue payments. central computer for centralized processing.
• An example is when goods are sold to a retailer; money owed on the • ATMs are used to offer 24 hour service to customers and more
sales is an accounts receivable item until the payment is received. flexibility in cash deposits and withdrawals.

V) ACCOUNTS PAYABLE II) CHEQUE CLEARING AND PROCESSING

• A system that keeps track of the amount the business owes others e.g. • Computerized cheques clearing and processing is made possible due to
suppliers, tax organizations, transport etc. the characters on cheques printed using ink containing magnetic
• It therefore helps the management to produce cheques for payment of particles.
this amount. • MICR enables the processing of the cheques hence time saving.

VI) CASH BOOK III) ELECTRONIC FUNDS TRANSFER (EFT)

• Used to record daily cash transactions. • This is the movement of money between two different accounts using
• It records the receipts and cash payments. ICT, using a cash dispenser.
• The amount withdrawn by a customer is deducted from his/her account.

27
• Credit cards are also used when paying for goods and services where
payment is transferred electronically from the customers account to the II) POINT-OF-SALE TERMINAL (P-OST, E-POST)
recipients account. • Used to input and output data at the point where sales are transacted.
• It has direct data capturing devices like bar code readers, card readers, a
IV) INTERNET BANKING (e-banking) monitor and a receipt printer, where goods are identified by means of
• Enables users to access their bank accounts through the internet. bar codes.
• The user can query account statements, pay bills and transfer funds • Transactions at the P-OST may involve the following steps:
electronically. a) The BCR (wand) is passed over the item’s bar code.
b) The barcode is automatically converted to the item number e.2.
V) MOBILE BANKING (m-banking) 2160, which is read to the computer.
• An account holder in a bank can perform banking transactions using c) Using the number, the computer searches for the item from a master
his/her mobile phone. file with a corresponding number in the products database.
• The transactions may include cash transfers, settling bills electronically d) Once the record is found, its description and price lookup file is
and performing account queries. used for processing the sale.
• Mobile phone companies like Safaricom support electronic cash transfer
services with their M-Pesa service. Advantages:
a) Correct prices are used at the checkout counter.
3. RETAIL SYSTEMS b) It is faster since the attendant does not have to enter details
• Used in supermarkets, distributor outlets and others for: manually.
i) Stock control.
ii) Transactions handling at the EPOST. 4. RESERVATION SYSTEMS:
I) STOCK CONTROL • These are distributed networked systems that are used mainly to make
• Stock control or inventory control enables a user to manage his/her bookings in areas such as airlines, hotels, car-rental, theaters etc.
stock more efficiently by keeping track of the stocks. • Bookings are made from a remote terminal connected to a centralized
• Accurate and up-to-date information on availability of stocks and computer database.
demand are critical for business success. • To access the database, a customer makes enquiries via the remote
• It enables one to reduce the risk of under stocking or overstocking i.e. terminal connected to the central computer.
overstocking ties up valuable space and capital that could have been • It involves online enquiry where an individual directly requests for
used for other valuable items while under stocking causes customer information through a terminal from a central computer and receives an
dissatisfaction. immediate response.
• Stock control systems are therefore used for the following reasons:
a) Storing full details of the items held in stock i.e. immediately 5. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS
available. • Computers are playing an increasingly important role in educational
b) Proving users with up-to-date information regarding stock items and institutions in the following ways:
prices. i) Computer Aided Instruction (C.A.I.)
c) Monitoring stock levels so that items can be ordered in good time. ii) Computer Aided Learning.
d) Storing details of suppliers of stock items. iii) Electronic Learning (e-learning).
e) Storing details of pending orders. iv) Computer based Simulation.
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 • Satellite technology and the Internet are used to provide quality
I) COMPUTER AIDED INSTRUCTION (C.A.I.) educational content from all over the world at an affordable cost.
• Refers to the use of a computer to learn, drill and practice particular • Courses and seminars are beamed by satellite on large screen projectors,
educational principles. TV monitors or computers.
• It entails learning new languages, educational games, typing tutor’s • Students interact with the instructors in real-time using phone, fax and
programs etc. e-mail.
• In a geography map, the student must provide the names of cities,
mountain ranges, names of rivers, lakes etc. 6. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
• A biology student may be asked to name or position internal organs, • Communication refers to the distribution of information or data from
muscles or bones in a picture of the human body. one person or location to another.
• Effective and efficient data communication is achieved by use of high-
speed electronic devices such as computers, cell-phones, radios and
II) COMPUTER AIDED LEARNING (C.A.L.) television.
• It presents educational materials the way a teacher does in a classroom. • The integration of computerized computer devices and
• Most CAL programs have clear graphical presentations such as video telecommunication infrastructure for the purpose of communication is
clips and voice for demonstrating or explaining difficult concepts. referred to as information and communication technology.

III) ELECTRONIC LEARNING (e-learning)

• This is where lectures are presented from a central site and the Examples of communication systems are:
presentation is transmitted to remote conference terminals or displayed i) Facsimile (Fax)
on TV screens. ii) Radio.
• The learner can also access learning materials on the Internet, sit for iii) Television set.
online exams and receive results the same way, also known as Computer iv) Video conferencing.
Based Training (CBT) and Web Based Training (WBT) systems. v) Telecommuting.
• Some of the key benefits are: vi) Internet.
a) Learning time is reduced, thorough and consistent.
b) Instant availability of courses at any time. I) FACSIMILE (FAX)
c) Eliminates the need for classroom instructors. • A computerized system that is capable of transmitting complete images
d) Minimizes travel time, costs and time away from the workplace. from one location to another via telephone lines.
e) Learners do not need to go physically to a college. • Digital images can be transmitted in aerospace programs into digital
code that can be understood by computers.
IV) COMPUTER BASED SIMULATION • The images include pictures, graphs, drawings, photographs, signatures
• Refers to the science of representing the behaviour of a real – life or text.
situation by using computerized models. • Copies of documents are transmitted electronically and the duplicate
• Simulation programs are mostly used in educational areas where received at the recipient’s machine i.e. can be referred to as distant
practical skills have to be learnt like training drivers, pilots, engineers photocopying.
etc have to be instructed using a virtual environment. • To send fax over the internet, a special modem called a fax modem is
attached to the sending and receiving computers.
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Advantages of facsimile communications: b) Videotext (viewdata)
a) The ability to transmit an image over long distances is less than 10 • A two way communication service (half-duplex) over a telephone line
seconds. or cable TV channel.
b) The ability to confirm the receipt of a transmission quickly. • A subscriber can interact with the service provider database and the
c) Low cost for high-volume operations. information is displayed on a home TV screen.
d) There is guaranteed security – the transmitted image is sent as a • Videotex is used in reservation bookings, ordering for goods and
digitized code (which can be scrambled) rather than a usable services as well as sending e-mails.
picture. • Users of videotex can interact with the database to pay bills, order goods
e) Convenience – the ability to store the resultant image on a computer etc.
file instead of apiece of paper. • The services supplied through videotext and Teletext systems include:
✓ Information on weather, TV programmes, sporting events,
II) RADIO COMMUNICATION current news, holiday opportunities, airline schedules and
• Computers can be used in radio broadcasting stations to do the stock market data.
following: ✓ E-mail – transmission of electronic messages to other users.
a) Record and manage radio programmes meant for broadcasting. ✓ Paying bills, ordering goods and purchasing tickets.
b) Manage the radio transmission and track performance.
c) Automate the running of the selected programmes. IV) VIDEO CONFERENCING
d) Create slides, simulated objects and sound effects when preparing • Refers to the use of computers, a digital camera, an audio capturing
electronic and printed media advertisements. equipment and communication networks to enable people in different
e) Download information from Internet that can be used in preparing locations to see and talk to one another.
programmes such as international news. • Each participant’s computer is attached with a video camera
(camcorder), speakers and a microphone.
III) TELEVISION SETS • A person can therefore participate in a virtual conference room.
• Data or information is transmitted via a TV channel and the most • All participants see each other on the computer screen as if they were
common types of data transmitted via TV include: sitting in a real conference room.
a) Teletext (ceefax)
• Video conferencing is popular in TV broadcasting stations where a field
b) Videotext (view data)
reporter interacts with newscasters and in organizations where top
c)
managers in different geographical locations hold meetings via the
Internet or the organizations intranet.
a) Teletext
• Refers to a computerized service whereby news and other information V) TELECOMMUTING
are provided on the television screens to subscribers.
• A situation where an employee works usually at home using a computer
• The TV is configured using a special add-on card or adapter. connected to the workplace network.
• The subscriber can browse for information using a remote controlled • It is an arrangement in which employees use microcomputers and
device. modems to communicate with their business offices while they work
• It is however one way communication (simplex). elsewhere.

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• Telecommuting takes advantage of the growing communication • Fast and efficient means of sending and receiving messages, data, files
networks to reduce unnecessary travel to the place of work, reducing or graphics.
travel expenses and less stress due to commuting inconveniences such • Once you subscribe for Internet Services through a service provider, you
as traffic jams. can send or receive e-mails to or from anyone connected to the Internet
• Telecommuting may be practical for: using a computer or a WAP – enabled cellular phone.
a) Writers. • Documents can be created, distributed, filed, stored and destroyed
b) Engineers. electronically using a computer.
c) Architects. • A user with a micro-computer and a modem types a message and then
d) Mothers with small children. identifies the message recipients, using e-mail addresses.
e) Handicapped workers.
f) Individuals whose fields work take them far from the office. Advantages of e-mail:
✓ You do not create written documents.
• This arrangement can also be practical since employees who ✓ You avoid at least some telephoning, eliminating busy signals, dealing
telecommute: with intermediate secretaries, leaving messages or playing “telephone
a) May use less office supplies like photocopying. tag” i.e. repeatedly missing each others’ calls.
b) Do not occupy valuable office space. ✓ Messages are delivered much faster than postal delivery since they are
c) Do not waste time commuting in cars, trains or buses. sent electronically and therefore received nearly instantaneously.
d) Do not waste time conversing idly or suffering the petty distractions ✓ In many circumstances, e-mail is both cheaper and more convenient
of office life. than phoning.
VI) THE INTERNET ✓ You can time-shift messages, i.e. you can send messages to people in
• A world – wide computer network linking countless thousands of different time zones even though they might not be awake.
computer networks for information transfer and efficient ✓ You can mass-distribute messages using computerized lists of recipients
communication. e.g. sales representatives.
• Some of the services available on the internet are:
a) world wide web (www) 7. INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
b) electronic mail (e-mail) • Industrial plants such as motor vehicle manufactures, chemical plants,
refineries and mining plants use computer systems in the following
a) World wide web (www) ways:
• A collection of web pages held on web servers. i) Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing
• One can access information using a computer or any other ii) Simulation.
communication device such as a mobile phone for WAP (wireless iii) Process control.
Application Protocol).
• A computer connected to the Internet allows the user to access a wide I) CAD and CAM
range of information such as news, entertainment, banking, reservation, 1. CAD/CAM is an integrated system that allows products that have been
business news, e-mails etc. designed to be transmitted into an automated manufacturing system for
the product to be manufactured as per the computer model.
b) Electronic mail (e-mail) 2. The computer model is designed using special software, usually capable
of displaying 3D representations of solid objects, which allows the
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 designer to view the object from different angles and modify the design b) In engineering, models are simulated to test performance under
until it is satisfactory. various conditions e.g. the strength of material to be used for
3. The CAD software will often generate a 3D view from a plan, side building a bridge can be tested using simulators.
elevation and front elevation of the object. c) In medicine, simulation can be used to train doctors on operation
4. The final design can therefore be used directly to create manufacturing techniques.
information and to provide information on quantities of materials
required to produce the item. III) PROCESS CONTROL
• Refers to the use of a computer system to control an ongoing physical
CAD hardware: process especially in manufacturing.
a) a graphics workstation that allows the designer to interactively • Such controls may include regulating temperature, pressure, fluid flow
create a drawing. etc.
b) A high resolution screen (display) to show drawings in colour and in • Computerized process control is mostly used in petroleum refineries,
fine detail. chemical plants and other manufacturing companies to manage machine
c) Fast processors with a great deal of memory. intensive processes.

USES OF CAD AND CAM SYSTEMS:

a) Engineering designs for roads, chemical plants, machine parts,
aircrafts, cars etc.
b) Pattern design for clothing, architectural design and kitchen design. 8. SCIENTIFIC AND RESEARCH SYSTEMS
c) Robotics for carrying out assembly line operations, welding, lifting • Computers have a wide variety of applications in science, research and
heavy objects, spray painting of vehicle bodies etc. technology, some of which are:
i) Weather forecasting
II) INDUSTRIAL SIMULATION ii) Medical research
• Computer simulation is the designing of models of an actual or iii) Military and space exploration science.
theoretical physical system, and analyzing the execution output using
digital computers.
• This allows some activities that would otherwise be expensive and I) WEATHER FORECASTING
dangerous in real life situation to be put under test. • Computers help analyze current weather, they help predict the
• It enables manufacturers identify some of the weaknesses of the real impending weather, and they help create the visual images used for
situation or object, hence put the correct reinforcement to their designs. broad cast TV.
• An example is how motor vehicles seat belts are tested for their • Due to the large volume of data collected from rainfall, air pressure,
effectiveness in case of a car crash. humidity, temperature, wind speed and cloud cover, computers help in
• The general name of using computer models in such circumstances is analyzing, processing and predicting weather patterns using such data.
known as non-destructive testing (NDT). • Another application of computers in weather forecasting is the use of
• Computer simulation is widely used in various areas of human geographical information system (GIS) and the geographical positioning
endeavour and some of the applications include: system (GPS) which represent geographical data in graphical form by
a) in aviation where computers are used for training pilots, where a positioning and superimposing it on the world map./
pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual aircraft.
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• GIS is used to represent data on weather patterns in a clearer and a iii) Cataloguing system.
coherent/logical manner on a world map.
I) LENDING SYSTEM:
• Used to manage the issuance and return of borrowed reading materials.
II) MEDICAL RESEARCH • Books, magazines, journals, reports etc are given unique identification
• Medical automation offers great assistance in the areas of automatic numbers or codes.
diagnosis, electrocardiogram screening and monitoring. • Once a member borrows a book, his/her details are recorded and when
• Health professionals use computers technology for diagnosis, keeping the book is returned, the borrower’s record is updated to reflect the new
patients’ data/records, inventory control etc. status.
• Computers are also being used to control devices that help to care for
the handicapped such as the deaf, blind, bedridden etc.
• A doctor needing specialized opinions can now easily retrieve such
information from computer storage. II) INVENTORY CONTROL:
• Computers also allow access to expensive foreign expertise for hospitals • Involves use of computers to manage stock, which includes checking for
in one country to use consultants or even surgeons in another. books currently in the shelves and those on high demand for the purpose
of adding more.
III) POLICE MILITARY AND SPACE EXPLORATION SCIENCE • Books that have become obsolete can be retired to the archives.
• Computers are used in fighting crime.
• Police are now able to keep databases of finger prints which are III) CATALOGUING
automatically analyzed by computers. • A catalogue is a collection of cards with information about each book or
• Computer based face recognition and scene monitoring and analysis reference materials found in the library.
help the police force in leading to arrest of offenders and criminals. • To enhance service delivery and efficiency, computerized cataloguing
• In defense, computers are used in electronic, efficient communication, has replaced the manual cards catalogue.
detection and tracking of targets, radar systems, warning systems and • An electronic catalogue is updated constantly when new reference
military laser and guided missile systems. materials are acquired.
• Computer technology is the backbone of space explorations.
• From studying the movement of stars, surface of mars, we rely heavily 10. ENTERTAINMENT SYSTEMS
on computers. • The advancement in multimedia technology has produced computers
• Space explorations and military research bodies such as America’s that can be used in recreational and entertainment.
national aeronautics and space administration (NASA) make extensive • Some application areas of computers in recreation and entertainment
use of computer systems for research, design, development and control include:
of unmanned spaceships, aero planes and missiles. i) Games.
ii) Music and video.
9. LIBRARY SYSTEMS
• Libraries use computerized systems for a number of tasks e.g. I) GAMES
i) Lending system. • Digital video disks (DVDs) and 3D multimedia games are now used to
ii) Inventory control system. add stereo sound and digital video clips to make games more and more
realistic.
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• There are computer games that simulate sports such as driving, war • Geographical positioning system (GPS) is a computer technology that is
combat etc. used to direct aircrafts to follow the shortest path between two locations.
• Such games give the player maximum pleasure in a virtual environment • Air traffic controllers are used to coordinate the movement of thousands
on the screen. of aircraft, keeping them at safe distances from each other, directing
them during take-off and landing from airports, directing them around
II) MUSIC AND VIDEO bad weather and ensuring that traffic flows smoothly with minimal
• Video compact discs (VCD) and digital video disks (DVDs) have delays.
become a common feature in the entertainment industry. • Details of every flight plan (airline name, flight number, type of aircraft
• In music industry, computers are used in recording, synthesizing, editing and equipment, intended airspeed, cruising attitude and flight routes) are
and adding special effects to music. stored in a computer.
• In video, computers are used to produce highly simulated and animated • The computer generates an flight progress strip that is passed from
movies, generate scenes and actors. controller throughout the flight.
• Many special effects are being created by using computer graphics • All systems within the control tower also make extensive use of
techniques to produce animated, 3D images. microprocessors to track aircrafts and convey information between
different control towers in different air spaces.
11. TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
• Computers play an increasingly important role in transportation industry III) SHIPPING CONTROL
in the following areas: • Computers are widely used to control and guide the paths taken by
i) Automobile traffic control. spaceships and water vessels as they travel to distant lands.
ii) Air traffic control. • The use if It has permeated into the shipping industry for efficient
iii) Shipping control. management of the fleets, cargo handling, communication and much
more.
I) AUTOMOBILE TRAFFIC CONTROL • Ships also make extensive use of computer and communications
• Optimum utilization or road capacity is achieved by good coordination technologies and modern ships have sophisticated microprocessor based
of traffic signals. control systems for steering the ship.
• Traffic control lights are controlled using a computer system.
• Computerized traffic light systems have sensor pads laid underneath the 12. HOME USE
road which detect the pattern of the traffic flow. • Most people are now using computers at home for preparing domestic
• Computers can then be used to automatically generate and implement budgets, entertainment, research and teaching children on education
traffic signal plans. concepts, typing and printing, e-mail, internet etc.
• Data is collected, sent to a computer system which detects and analyses • Also used for storing personal information and databases of inventory
the traffic flow and builds up a simulated image of the actual scene. records.
• Control signals can then be output to the traffic lights or motorists
through their receiver devices to vary the light timings or redirect traffic 13. OFFICE EXPERT SYSTEMS
to less busy roads. • An information system usually developed and installed in the office of a
human expert or knowledge worker.
II) AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL • Such a system is capable of simulating the decision making process and
intelligent problem solution just like a human expert.
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• It also has a set of rules that help it to make conclusion when some • Sales analysis is used to provide information on which products are
parameters are entered. selling well and which are selling poorly, which sales people have the
best and worst sales and which sales people are selling the most and the
14. MARKETING least etc.
• Computers are being used in a number of ways to enhance marketing,
through: 15. VIRTUAL OR ARTIFICIAL REALITY
i) E-commerce or e-business. • VR or AR refers to a condition in which a person becomes
ii) Electronic presentations. psychologically immersed in an artificial environment generated by a
iii) Advertising. computer system.
• Marketing is the planning, pricing, promotion and distribution of goods • It is a way for humans to visualize, manipulate and interact with
and services from producers to consumers computers and extremely complex data.
• Other terms used instead of VR are cyberspace, virtual worlds and
I) E-COMMERCE / E-BUSINESS virtual environment.
• Transactions are carried out electronically without physical interaction • To achieve this effect, the following interactive sensory equipment are
between the seller and the buyer. used:
• A customer can visit a supplier’s website; select an item and placing it i) Head mounted display / head gear.
in a virtual shopping tray. ii) Gloves.
• The website then tracks the whole session as the customer chooses iii) Body suit.
various items and calculates the total bill. iv) Virtual reality software.
• Payment is then made through a cheque, credit card or through
electronic funds transfer and the item is subsequently shipped to the I) HMD/head gear
customer. • It is made up of two tiny display screens and sound systems that channel
images and sound from the source to the eyes and ears thus presenting a
II) ELECTRONIC PRESENTATION stereo 3D sound effect in the virtual world.
• Marketing agents can use computers to create exciting presentations • It uses some sort of helmet visor or goggles to place small video
concerning the products of a business and present them to the audience displays in front of each eye, with special optics to focus and stretch the
using presentation software. perceived field of view.
• Electronic presentations by use of slide transitions add value to • A boom is an alternative to the often – uncomfortable head gear.
traditional marketing techniques because they are attractive. • Screen, optical and sound systems are housed in a box and the user
looks into the box through the two screens to see the virtual world.
III) ADVERTISING
• Using simulation, presentation and animation software, it is possible to II) GLOVES
design catchy advert materials and video clips. • These are worn on hands to allow the user to navigate through the
• Such materials can then be displayed on billboards, broadcasted over a virtual world and interact with virtual objects.
television or placed on the internet. • The gloves have sensors that collect data about the movement of the
• Computers cam also be used in market analysis which focuses on such hands and relays the data into the system.
matters as the product life cycle, sales strategies, market share of • They give the wearer a sense of touch in the virtual world.
competitors and sales call strategies.
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III) BODY SUIT • Some of the devices include video cameras and biometric scanners.
• A body suit, worn during virtual reality session is made up of conductor
wires wound in a rubber suit. PERSONAL NOTES
• The wires sense the body movement and relays the data into the virtual
reality system which in turn adjusts the position of the user in the virtual
reality world.
• Full body suits with position and bend sensors have been used for
capturing motion for character animations, control of music synthesizers
etc.

IV) VIRTUAL REALITY SOFTWARE

• VR software such as body electric gives the wearer of the sensory
devices an interactive virtual sensory experience that makes him/her feel
as if he/she is in a real world.
• The software is responsible for simulation of all aspects of the virtual
reality world.

APPLICATION OF VIRTUAL REALITY

• Used to present any 3D object or ideas that are either real or abstract.
• Real objects include buildings, landscape, underwater shipwrecks, space
crafts, human anatomy, sculptures, crime scene reconstruction, solar
system etc.
• A house can be simulated before the actual building is physically setup
– s client can be allowed to virtually move through the house, pull
drawers and touch objects all in a computer generated environment.
• In entertainment, training in areas such as medicine, military, equipment
operations, education, design evaluation, prototyping, simulation and
assembly of sequences, assistance to the physically challenged etc.

16. LAW ENFORCEMENT SYSTEMS

• Biometric analysis using computers is becoming a preferred tool i.e.
deals with the study, measurement and analysis of human biological
characteristics.
• Biometric devices attached to a computer are used to identify people by
recognizing one or more specific attributes such as fingerprints, voice,
lips, facial features like iris colour etc.
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TOPIC 3: IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ON SOCIETY • An employee is moved to another place or department where
computer skills are not required, especially those not willing to
acquire new skills of using the computerized system.
• To avoid losing competent employees, most employers organize in-
ISSUES RESULTING FROM THE USE OF ICT service training for their employees on regular basis in order to help
An impact is a positive or a negative effect. ICT sector, like any other them keep up with the rapid changes in ICT.
sector has its positive and negative effects at different levels in society.
1. Effects on employment.
2. Effects on automated production.
3. Issues of workers’ health. 2. EFFECTS ON AUTOMATED PRODUCTION:
4. Environmental issues • Refers to substituting mechanical and electronic devices for manual
5. Cultural effects. ones for more productivity i.e. the use of mechanical, electrical and
6. Breakthrough in ICT. electronic devices to improve the quality and speed of office work.
• A number of manufacturing industries such as vehicle assembly
1. EFFECTS ON EMPLOYMENT: plants, oil refineries and food processing companies are using
The introduction of computers in the workplace has resulted in the computers to automate their processes with an aim of increasing
following: production.
a) Creation of new jobs. • Computer controlled robots and assembly lines are a common
b) Replacement of computer illiterate workers. feature in manufacturing industries.
c) Displacement of jobs that were formerly manual.
ADVANTAGES OF USING AUTOMATED PRODUCTION:
A. JOB CREATION: a) Increased efficiency due to the balancing of workload and production
• It has introduced new employment opportunities that never existed capacity.
before. b) Improved customer service because of adequate and high quality
• The use of computers in financial institutions, reservation systems, goods
educational institutions, communications etc. has created new job c) Faster which are produced in time.
titles such as computer operators, programmers, network d) Efficient utilization of resources such as raw materials, personnel
administrators, It or IS managers, database administrators, software and equipment hence
developers, system analysts etc. e) Less operating expenses incurred.
f) Helped in reduction of accidents in sectors like mining and chemical
B. JOB REPLACEMENT: production where much work is potentially hazardous.
• This is a situation whereby certain jobs disappear in an organization
but reappear in another form requiring high skilled manpower. DISADVANTAGES:
• Some clerical and repetitive tasks that required a large number of a) High initial cost of setting up an automated system.
employees have been made redundant. b) May lead to unemployment in some areas that are labour intensive.
• Computer illiterate people have been replaced with those who have c) Possible lack of compatibility with software and hardware.
the desired computer skills. d) Overreliance on automated systems leads to laziness.
e) Resistance to change.
C. JOB DISPLACEMENT:

37
REASONS WHY EMPLOYEES MAY RESIST AUTOMATED • The syndrome is characterized by:
SYSTEMS i) Eye strain.
a) Fear of change: people are creatures of habits and hence are afraid ii) Headaches.
of change. iii) Double vision.
b) Fear of loosing their jobs: people usually associate the computer iv) Fatigue.
with loss of jobs and hence they will be afraid that they might end up
loosing their jobs.
c) Fear of failure: since the computer is very new in a given working Remedies:
environment, the people will be afraid that they might never adapt to i) Use monitors with good resolution.
it. ii) Fit monitors with antiglare screens that filters excess light.
d) Loss of control: the management will be afraid that once a computer iii) Adjust the brightness of the screen to the intensity that is
is implemented they might lose control of the organization. comfortable to the eyes.
e) Lack of understanding: the user may not understand the benefits of iv) Use flat panel screens that do not emit so many radiations.
the computer system in their jobs; hence this will create resistance v) Use good overhead fluorescence tubes.
since the computer will be looked upon as an intruder. vi) Avoid flickering monitors and lighting systems.
vii) Have interludes of rests.
3. ISUES OF WORKERS HEALTH viii) Tilt the monitors to a convenient position.
• Some of the negative effects of ICT on our health include:
a) Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSI) C. ELECTROMAGNETIC EMMISIONS:
b) Eye Strain and Headaches. • These are waves of electrical and magnetic energy that are emitted
c) Electromagnetic emissions. by current carrying conductors.
d) Stress. • Users are advised to use low emission devices in order to avoid
e) Isolation. exposing themselves to excess emissions.
f) Radiation and visual display unit.
g) Computer chip toxin. D. STRESS:
• Mental stress is another compliant.
A. RSI – REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURIES • Many people who work at computer feel that they are expected to
• Injuries resulting from wrist, hand, arm and muscle strain, neck produce more and do it faster because computers themselves are
strains due to forced repetitive movement e.g. when entering data fast.
using keyboard. • Also those being monitored by computers frequently feel additional
pressure.
Remedy for RSI:
i) Resting.
ii) Sitting in a relaxed position.
iii) Changing typing techniques.

B. EYE STRAIN AND HEADACHES:

• Since computer users have their eyes at close range with the
monitor, there is danger of developing computer vision syndrome
(CVS).
38
E. ISOLATION: • There has been concern on the disposal of Nickel-cadmium laptop
• People can conduct business and communication without ever batteries that contain toxic cadmium which when buried in a landfill
coming face to face. can leak into underground water tables and catchment areas.
• Computer operators can work an entire shift, taking their instructions
from a computer screen, sending and receiving memos to each
other electronically without engaging in personal conversation. 5. CULTURAL EFFECTS
• These people feel isolated from other workers. i) Moral effects:
• The rapid growth of ICT also presents challenges to our moral and
F. RADIATION AND VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT: cultural values.
• There have been reports that VDU emits radiations that cause birth • ICT has changed the way we talk, affected our privacy, human rights
defects, blindness, cancer, miscarriages, sterility etc. and integrity.
• Humans are exposed to flaming i.e. writing on-line messages that
G. COMPUTER CHIP TOXIN: use derogatory, obscene or dirty language.
• Workers in computer chip manufacturing industries are exposed to • One can access and view pornographic materials that can lead to
toxic chemicals that may pose health factors similar to those feared moral decadence.
from VDU. • The free flow of immoral information has negatively influenced the
behavior of both young and old in the society.
ERGONOMICS: • To some extend, people with eroded integrity have used computers
• The science of designing the work place for the comfort and safety as a tool to accomplish their vices e.g. forging certificates, passports
of the worker. and other documents. This means that the person is cheating and
• It is the study of how living and working conditions can be adapted to therefore his/her moral integrity has been compromised.
the information technology. • On the contrary, ICT has been used as a campaign platform against
• The need for better working environment has resulted to designing diseases like AIDS and drug abuse.
of special furniture to prevent backaches, and special monitors to
prevent eye strain etc. ii) Computer crimes:
• This is the use of computer software for illegal purpose.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES: • Computer related crimes such as hacking, eavesdropping, piracy are
i) Energy consumption and radiation: on the increase.
Initially, computers consumed a lot of energy thereby generating a lot of
heat and emitting electromagnetic radiations which are harmful to the
user.
Remedy:
• Electronic devices have to be energy star compliant launched by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to encourage minimal use
of power by electronic devices.
ii) Environmental issues:
• Huge garbage dumps of dead computer parts, printers, ink toner
cartridges, monitors and other computer accessories are disposed in
landfills hence causing environmental pollution.

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TYPES OF COMPUTER CRIMES 1. Rapid evolution in computer hardware and software.
a) Data manipulation: Refers to altering data that enter or exit a 2. Artificial intelligence.
computer e.g. changing data on a certificate. 3. Expanded information superhighway.
b) Time bomb: This is the coding of a computer program to destroy
itself after it has been run a certain number of times.
c) Computer virus: A program entered into a computer with the aim of
destroying or altering data and spreading the destruction to other
computers on a network. 1. RAPID EVOLUTION IN COMPUTER HARDWARE AND
d) Trap door: Creating of a special password that gives its creator a SOFTWARE
sole access to the system. • A lot of technological improvements have been made both in
e) Data stealing: Using a computer to steal information that has been hardware and software since the introduction of computers.
gathered for someone else for illegitimate purpose. • Computers will be more intelligent, computers will be able to learn in
f) Eavesdropping: Tapping without authorization into communication their environment, understand human voice, respond etc.
lines over which computer data and messages are sent. • Software will be more versatile and easier to use.
g) Industrial espionage: Using computer to steal designs, marketing • The silicon revolution has seen rapid increase in microprocessor
plans or other trade secrets from one company and selling them to speeds and capabilities due to advanced research in the semi-
another company. conductor industry.
h) Piracy: This is making unauthorized copies of copyrighted computer • Future trends will see reduction in size and cost of components but
software. increase in capability.
i) Fraud: This is the use of computers to cheat other people with the • Improvements in input, processing, storage, output and
intention of gaining money or information. communication devices have led to faster, cheaper and more
j) Sabotage: This is the illegal destruction of data and information with reliable data processing devices.
the aim of causing great loss to an organization. • Industries will become more automated.
k) Logic bomb: It is a program that is executed when a certain set of
• Microprocessors of a thumb’s size can now execute instructions in a
condition is made e.g. a fired employee can load a logic bomb to a
trillionth of a second hence leading to emergence of smaller but
computer to destroy when records are updated in a database.
smart devices.
BREAKTHROUGHS IN ICT:
2. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (A.I.):
There have been a lot of breakthroughs in the fields of:
• A branch of computer science that is concerned with the
• Health care.
development of machines that emulate/copy/mimic human like
• Education. qualities such as learning, reasoning, communicating, seeing and
• Communication – fax, e-mail, internet. hearing.
• Research. • The idea of AI developed from a need to develop computer
• Commerce – shipping imports and exports. programs that would even challenge human beings in playing games
• Art and design. such as chess and scrabble.
• Entertainment – music, video, games. • Computer scientists and engineers are still working hard and
• Transport. carrying out intensive research with the aim of coming up with
smatter computers which can almost simulate human thinking and
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS: learning, instead of relying on static programmed instructions.
Future trends in ICT will be characterized by:
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• There are 4 main application areas of AI namely: d) Voice synthesis.
e) Computer vision
a) Expert systems. f) Artificial neural networks.
b) Natural language processing. g) Robotics/perception systems
c) Voice recognition.

A. EXPERT SYSTEMS: ADVANTAGES OF EXPERT SYSTEMS:

• This is software that is designed to make a computer operate at the 1. They can perform some tasks much faster than a human being.
level of a human expert in a specific narrow area of specialization. 2. They can easily identify faults in equipment.
3. The computer can store much more information than a human.
• Such software simulates/imitates the reasoning process of experts 4. The system gives impartial and consistent recommendations.
in certain well defined areas such as medical diagnosis, financial 5. The computer does not ‘forget’ or make mistakes.
forecasting, maintaining locomotives, locating mineral deposits etc. 6. Data can be kept up to date.
7. Always available 24 hours a day and will never retire.
COMPONENTS OF AN EXPERT SYSTEM: 8. The system can be used at a distance over a network.
i) Knowledge base:
This is the database/store of knowledge about a particular subject. It DISADVANTAGES OF EXPERT SYSTEMS:
contains relevant facts, believes, assumptions and procedures for 1. They can make mistakes and fail to learn from them.
solving a particular problem. 2. They work best when the problem is specific and well defined hence
complex and costly to design.
ii) Inference engine: 3. They lack human touch i.e. they can’t be questioned further.
This is Software that controls the search for knowledge in the 4. Heavy use of them can make human experts lose their jobs.
knowledge base and produces conclusions. It takes the problem
posed/given by the user and seeks to analyze it in order to arrive at a
conclusion.
B. NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING:
iii) User interface; • Aimed at coming up with programming languages that would make
This is the display screen that enables the user to interact with the computers recognize and understand natural languages, whether
system. spoken or written.
EXAMPLES OF EXPERT SYSTEMS: • Currently, there are voice recognition input devices and voice
i) MYCIN: used for diagnosis of blood and treatment of bacterial synthesizers are available but limited to just a few vocabularies.
infections. • Before using them, the computer program must be trained to
ii) DELTA: for maintaining locomotives. recognize the voice and the pronunciation of words by the user.
iii) MUDMAN: predicting mineral deposits in geological exploration by C. VOICE RECOGNITION:
analyzing composition of soil samples. • This is a system that will allow voice input.
iv) STEAMER: training boiler room technicians in the navy. • The user inputs data by speaking into a microphone.
v) R-1: designing computer systems for customers. • A few systems cant satisfactory perform this task because of:-
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 i) Words with similar sounds. In banking, the pattern of credit card usage can be tracked over time to
ii) Different people pronounce same words differently. try and generalize spending patterns of individual card owners. Incase
iii) One word has multiple meanings. of loss or theft, the bank can notice the change of spending pattern
iv) Background noise etc. and conclude that the card is in the wrong hands, hence take
• Computers that can recognize and properly read human voice will appropriate security measures even before loss of the card is reported.
make information systems and other computerized applications
accessible to people who can’t enter data in the normal way i.e. G. ROBOTICS/PERCEPTION SYSTEMS:
blind, handicapped etc. • A robot is a computer controlled device that emulates a human
being in carrying out tasks that would otherwise be dangerous and
D. VOICE SYNTHESIS: difficult.
• These are machines that are able to create human voice or talk • Perception systems are sensing devices that emulate the 5
e.g. a computerized bank teller giving you your account balance in common sense of a human being i.e. sight, hearing, touch, smell
human like voice. and taste.
• Such devices would operate under the control of a microprocessor.
E. COMPUTER VISION: • This development would give robots artificial senses including:
• Scientists hope to develop computers that will process and i) Feeling the shape of an object.
interpret light waves just as the human brain does. ii) Listening to ultra sound.
• Such systems would use scanning devices to sense and interpret iii) Detecting smell of leaking gas/chemicals.
objects, graphics and text character shapes. iv) Testing quality of food.
• It will allow a computer to see as humans do, read and interpret v) Seeing using two miniature video cameras.
text in almost any format.
ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS
F. ARTFIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS: 1. They can work 24/7 all year round without getting bored or taking a
• The use of electronic devices and software to emulate the break.
neurological structure of the human brain. 2. They can work faster than human.
• The human brain works by receiving signals from special sensory 3. Productivity is very high.
cells called neurons. 4. The output is of a consistently high quality.
• When the neurons receive information, they either excite the cell to 5. They can work to great degrees of accuracy than human workers.
send a signal to the brain or not. 6. They can work in conditions that would appear hostile or
• Artificial neurodes in artificial networks work in similar manner by dangerous to humans.
perceiving environmental stimuli and hence deciding whether to
pass it on to the system or not. DISADVANTAGES OF ROBOTS:
• The essential attributes of an artificial neural networks are: 1. They are expensive to build, install and maintain.
i) The neurodes can be trained to distinguish between what 2. Not flexible as they are designed to do one job.
constitutes a signal and what does not. 3. The robot may malfunction and cause a lot of chaos or a batch of
faulty goods.
4. They take up the job of many people, leading to being sacked.
ii) They are capable of recognizing patterns in large amounts of 5. Evil people may use robots in war to manipulate biological material.
data that are too complex for the human brain. From these
patterns, they can make predictions and point out anomalies. THE LAWS OF ROBOTICS:
1. A robot must not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a
EXAMPLE: human being to come to harm.

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2. A robot must always obey orders given to it by a human being,
except where it would conflict with the 1st law.
3. A robot must protect its own existence, except where it would
conflict with the 1st and 2nd law.

EXPANDED INFORMATION SUPERHIGHWAY

• Involves the integration of cabled and wireless technologies for the
purpose of data and information transmission.
• There is vast increase in throughput of various transmission media
like fiber optic and wireless technologies.
• Scientists have demonstrated a fiber optic cable whose diameter is
the size of a single strand of hair which is capable of carrying a
trillion bit per second.
• Internet is growing tremendously causing what is generally referred
to as a growth of the information superhighway to digital explosion
or hurricane.

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 TOPIC 4: CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN INFORMATION
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
b) Liaising with the system analyst.
ICT has created new job titles. Some of the computer career c) Review and control program documentation.
opportunities include: d) Reviews program’s performance.
e) Ensures that all programs are well tested before put into use.
1. SYSTEM ANALYST: f) Reviewing all the system specifications before handover to
Responsible for analyzing a company’s needs or problems then design programmers.
and develop a computer based information system.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD SYSTEM ANALYST: 3. COMPUTER PROGRAMMERS:

a) Should have good problem solving skills and creativity i.e. must have These are people whose work entails coding i.e. formulating instructions
wide experience in solving problems. for the computer to solve given problems.
b) Should have good communication skills i.e. be able to communicate QUALITIES OF PROGRAMMERS:
clearly and precisely to different groups. a) Good command of programming language in use.
c) MUST have business knowledge i.e. understand the environment for b) Knowledge of general programming methodology and relationship
which the system is being developed. between programs and hardware.
d) Must have technical knowledge i.e. well trained in relevant areas of c) Creativity for developing new problem solving methods.
computer science. d) Patience and persistence.
e) Must have general knowledge of the firm including its goals and
objectives. DUTIES OF PROGRAMMERS:
f) Should have knowledge of data processing methods and current a) Coding computer program using appropriate programming language.
hardware and familiarity with available programming language. b) Testing of programs for logical errors, syntax and semantic errors.
c) Debugging of programs.
DUTIES OF A SYSTEM ANALYST: d) Documenting programs i.e. writing manuals.
a) Gather, record and analyze facts of the system. e) Designing and implementing programs.
b) Design new system and recommend changes to existing systems. f) Maintaining and reviewing existing computer programs.
c) Prepare instruction manuals.
d) Co-ordinates training for users of new systems. 4. DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR:
e) Work with programmers to construct and test the system. A person responsible for the design and implementation of the database.
f) Prepares system specifications. The major purpose of computerizing an organization or institution is to
g) Co-ordinates the implementation of new or modified system. store data in an organized way for easy access, retrieval and update.

2. CHIEF PROGRAMMER/PROGRAMMING MANAGER: DUTIES:

Reports to data processing manager what has been reported by a) Responsible for the design and control of organization database.
programming group, junior and senior programmers. b) Controls and monitors database usage through assignment of user
passwords.
DUTIES OF CHIEF PROGRAMMERS; c) Keeping the database up-to-date by adding new records, or deleting
a) Managing the programmers. unnecessary records.
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d) Establishing the appropriate content and format of data records. This is a person who interfaces the user demands to the computer
hardware by use of a set of special instructions known as commands.
5. SOFTWARE ENGINEER:
Person skilled in software development and technical operation of DUTIES:
computer hardware. a) Entering data into the computer for processing.
b) Keeping up-to-date records of all information processing activities.
DUTIES: c) Responsible for the general equipment layout within the computer
a) Developing system and application software. room.
b) Developing user and technical documentation for the new software. d) Activating the computer to obey programs through use of commands.
c) Maintaining and updating the software to meet day-to-day e) Mounting the storage media e.g. disk to their drives.
requirements.
10. COMPUTER TECHNICIAN:
These are members of the technical staff whose job is to service and
6. COMPUTER ENGINEER: repair computers.
Specialized personnel whose duties are to assemble the computer Given that computers require regular maintenance, upgrading as well as
systems. emergency repairs, demand for computer technicians continues to grow
as more people computerize their workplaces and homes.
DUTIES:
a) Design and develop computer components e.g. motherboards, DUTIES:
storage devices etc. a) Troubleshooting computer hardware and software related problems.
b) Design and develop engineering and manufacturing computer b) Ensuring that all computer related accessories such as printers,
controlled devices such as robots. storage media etc are in good condition.
c) Re-engineer computer components to enhance its functionality and c) Assembling and upgrading computers and their components.
efficiency. d) Help hardware engineers in designing and creating some computer
7. WEB DESIGNERS: components such as storage devices, motherboards etc.
They design website using various software tools. These webs contain
pages where individuals and organizations can advertise themselves
when promoting the products.
11. DATA PROCESSING MANAGER:
8. WEB ADMINISTRATORS: This is the person in the data processing department within the
They administrate the organization’s websites by making sure the organization whose major duty is to ensure that the organization’s needs
website is updated periodically to give the right information. are met.

DUTIES: DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES:

a) Developing and testing websites. a) In charge of data and information flow within the department.
b) Monitoring the access and use of internet connection by enforcing b) Responsible in data collection and preparation.
security measurers. c) Purchase of hardware and other facilities and their management.
c) Downloading information needed by an organization from internet d) Software development and maintenance.
website. e) Assessment and evaluation of staff performance.
d) Maintaining, updating and modifying information on the website.
9. COMPUTER OPERATOR: 12. INFORMATION SYSTEM MANAGER:
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This person controls, plans, staffs, schedules and monitors all the Graphic designers and typesetters are required in order to design
activities of the ICT department in the organization. Using computerized graphical objects and professional publications e.g. books, newspapers
management information system (MIS), the manager can test the impact and magazines.
that an alternative course of action might have on business.
16. LIBRARIAN:
RESPONSIBILITIES: Responsible for keeping the files in various storage devices and for the
a) Making sure that all tasks in the IT department are done correctly and physical security of the storage media.
on time.
b) Preparing budgets for the departments. DUTIES:
c) Keeping the department inventory records up-to-date. a) Ensures that there are enough physical files available for use.
d) Managing the human resource within the department. b) Maintains the external files labels.
c) Ensures duplicates files are kept.
13. COMPUTER TRAINER: d) Ensures access of files is restricted to authorized persons.
Specialized personnel in the field of computing and well conversant with
various disciplines and computer related issues which they can execute 17. SELF EMPLOYMENT:
with ease. This can be achieved by using a computer or other ICT devices such as
mobile phones to start bureau services, internet services, consultancy
RESPONSIBILITIES: services and computer hardware and software vendor business.
a) Training people on how to use computers and various application
programs. 18. COMPUTER SALES REPRESENTATIVES:
b) Developing training reference materials. Should have good knowledge in information ands communication
c) Guide learners on how to acquire knowledge through carrying out technology. This would help them to analyze customer needs and advice
research. them accordingly. A good computer salesman needs to be self confident,
d) Advising the learners on the best career opportunities in the broad persuasive and proficient in business communication.
field of ICT.
e) Preparing learners for ICT examinations. FURTHER EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES IN ICT
There are other tertiary institutions in computing where one would further
14. NETWORK ADMINISTRATOR: his or her educational ambitions. They include:
a) Specialist who oversees the smooth running of network system in an 1. Universities.
organization. 2. Polytechnics.
3. Middle level colleges.
RESPONSIBILITIES: 1. UNIVERSITIES:
a) Setup computer network. • Considered as the highest institution in formal education.
b) Maintain and enforce security measures on network. • They are categorized into two major groups i.e. public and private
c) Monitor the use of network resources. universities.
d) Maintain and troubleshoot network related problems. a) Public Universities:
• Established by the state.
• Run by a state appointed management.
15. COMPUTER TYPESETTERS: • Admission to such universities is controlled by either the state or a
recognized body.

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Examples: vii. Bachelor of Science (computer programming).
i. Jomo Kenyatta university of Agriculture and technology.
ii. Kenyatta University. ICT RELATED MASTERS PROGRAMS:
iii. Nairobi University. i. Masters in computer science.
iv. Maseno University. ii. Masters in information technology.
v. Moi University. iii. Masters in hardware engineering.
vi. Egerton University. iv. Masters in science (computer engineering).
vii. Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology.
2. RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS:
• These are the other specialized research institutions that concentrate
b) Private Universities: on narrow fields of study such as computer or ICT technology,
• Self-sponsored institutions set up by individuals, churches or any agriculture, space science etc.
other organization. • It is possible to enroll in such institutions as a research trainee.
• They are privately run.
• Students’ enrolment depends on whether the student is capable of
sponsoring himself/herself.
• For them to operate, they must be registered or accredited by the
commission of higher education or any other quality assurance body
that is recognized worldwide.
• Accreditation leads to public acceptance and confirmation evidenced
by the grant of charters by the state or accrediting bodies.
Examples:
i. Daystar University.
ii. Catholic University of Nazareth.
iii. Mount Kenya University.
iv. Kabarak university.
v. Baraton University.
vi. Catholic University of East Africa.
vii. Kenya Methodist University

Universities are authorized to offer approved Diploma, Undergraduate

and Post graduate programmes.

ICT RELATED DEGREE PROGRAMMES

i. Bachelor of computer science.
ii. Bachelor of Information technology.
iii. Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering.
iv. Bachelor of Science (Computer Networking).
v. Bachelor of Science (Software Engineering).
vi. Bachelor of Business and Information Technology.

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3. POLYTECHNIQUES: i) Kenya Technical Training Institute.
• These are institutions of higher learning that mostly offer Diploma j) Kenya Science Teachers College.
and certificate courses in technical fields such as ICT, mechanics, k) Machakos Technical Training Institute.
food production etc.
• A polytechnic may also be accredited by a university or the state to The most important considerations to make before you join a college to
offer degree programmes. pursue an ICT course:
a) Whether it offers ICT courses recognized both locally and
EXAMPLES OF POLYTECHNICS THAT OFFER ICT IN KENYA: internationally.
i. Mombasa polytechnic. b) The cost of training with such an institution.
ii. Kenya polytechnic.
iii. Eldoret polytechnic. EXAMINATIONS BODIES FOR HIGHER DIPLOMA, DIPLOMA AND
iv. Kisumu polytechnic. CERTIFICATES:
a) Information Technology Standards Association (ITSA)
ICT COURSES OFFERED IN POLYTECHNICS: b) Institute of Management Information Systems (IMIS)
i. Computer repair and assembly. c) Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC).
ii. Computer operator. d) PITMAN.
iii. Management information system.
iv. Computer programming. QUALIFICATIONS GAINED ON STUDY ON SITTING FOR AN EXAM:
v. Computer networking. i. Diploma in computer studies.
vi. Computer software engineer. ii. Diploma in computer science.
vii. Computer studies. iii. Higher diploma in computer studies.
viii. Information technology. iv. Higher diploma in information technology.
ix. Computer science. v. Certificate in computer studies.
x. Computer hardware engineer. vi. Certificate in information technology.
xi. Web administrator

4. COLLEGES:
• These are middle level institutions that offer diploma, certificates and
craft courses in many disciplines such as technical, ICT, teacher
training, business management etc.

EXAMPLES OF COLLEGES:
a) Rift valley Institute of Science and Technology.
b) Kaiboi Technical Training Institute.
c) Thika Institute of Science and Technology.
d) Kiambu Institute of Science and Technology.
e) Coast Institute of Science and Technology.
f) Kirinyaga Technical Training Institute.
g) Nairobi Technical Training Institute.
h) Nyeri Technical Training Institute.

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