CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATION: FORMS/MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Objectives

You should be able to:

1. Write reports, minutes, memos and various business correspondences

2. Explain the circumstances under which written form of communication may be the most

appropriate to use.

3. Be able to explain the advantages and disadvantages of using written communication.

Media/Means of
communication)

Non-verbal
Verbal

Oral Written Sign Body Language

Language

Visual Signs Audio Signs

Diagram: 3.1 Forms of communication

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Written communication includes letters, memorandum, reports, abstract, minutes, articles and

press releases. A message constitutes written communication when it is put in “black and white.”

It is a basically a formal type of communication. The sender of the message or his representative

constitutes the writer.

Written communication has advantages in that it provides a written record and evidence of

dispatch and receipts; it is also capable of relaying complex ideas; provides analysis evaluation

and summary, abbreviation information to hard-pressed receivers; can confirm, interpret and

clarify oral communication and also forms the basis of contract agreement.

Written communication is usually considered binding on business organizations and is often used

as evidence.

Technological advancement has enlarged the scope of written communication through email,

WhatsApp, blogging and other such facilities.

Merits

1. Precise and Accurate: Written communication is generally prepared with great care and

precision. The very prospect of writing makes a person conscious. You have to be very

serious and organized while communicating in the written form, because written

communication is open to verification.

2. Easily verified: Since written communication is on paper etc., it can be read and re-read.

It also offers itself to verification. There is also, thus, less chance of someone twisting the

message to his or her own advantage.

 3. Permanent record: Written communication constitutes a permanent record it also acts

like evidence. It proves very useful for future reference as it can be preserved for years.

For example, old orders and decisions can serve as basic for new ones.

4. Suitable for lengthy and complicated messages: Lengthy and complicated messages can

be understood better when they are in the written form rather than in the oral. There is

less chance of misinterpretation and misunderstanding. Also, the language used is less

subject to change.

5. Responsibility can be easily fixed: In written communication, responsibilities of sender

and receiver can be fixed easily. People have the tendency of shifting responsibilities for

mistakes, but this is difficult if the onus is obvious in black and white.

6. Has legal validity: Written communication is acceptable as a legal document. Written

communication has been used as evidence since time immemorial.

Demerits of written communication

1. Slower method of communication: Written communication can be time- consuming

since it may take even two or even three days to reach the receiver (by letters, for

instance). In contrast, oral communication is immediate.

2. Further delay if clarification is required: Written communication hampers quick

clarifications. The receiver may write back for clarifications and wait for a reply, making

the process tedious. Even if clarification is not needed, there is still a delay between the

time the sender writes a message and the receiver receives it.

3. Leads to too much of paperwork: Since written communication is basically done on

paper, one may tend to use it as an escape mechanism paper- free offices remain a dream.
 4. Costly in terms of money and man- hours: Written letters is a costly process not only

because you need to spend money on postage, but also because several persons are

involved in the process of sending out a letter from an organization. Their time costs

organization money. While oral communication can be short and quick, written

communication, because of its very nature, tend to be lengthy.

5. No flexibility: The written word is not subject to instant change after communication.

Therefore, conveying an afterthought may proves very lengthy, and, at times, even

impossible.

6. Literacy essential: It goes without saying that in written communication, the sender as

well as the receiver should be literate. Literacy also means literacy in the language of the

message. The receiver should know the language in which a message has been written: it

is no use receiving a message in English if you are not conversant with that language.

Notwithstanding its limitations, it can be safely concluded that written communication remains

the spine of an organization. Almost all formal communication is in the written form.

Samples of Written Communication

1. Curriculum Vitae

This is a summary of an individual, covering among other areas: personal details, education,

experience, skills, career objectives, hobbies etc. It is aimed at showing the reader what you are

capable of doing.

Preparations

Ask yourself questions like:

  What is your ideal position? (Here think about your perfect job, what you like about it),

do you like a variety or repetitive jobs?

 What kinds of things do you like doing? Think about hobbies, what do you do at home or

leisure?

 Think about your favorite job in the past. What was it you liked about so much?

i) Are there gaps in your employment?

ii) What are your reasons for leaving each position (remember at some point your

employer will contact your former employer).

Content to include:

a) Personal details

 Name: Your official names (as they appear in your official documents such as academic

certificates, National Identification card)

 Date of birth: state the date / month/ year of birth

 Contacts: (Telephone, e-mail address, Postal address etc.)

 Marital status: state whether married or single

 ID No: state your identification/ passport number

 Nationality: state your nationality

 Languages spoken: list the languages you can communicate in an level of fluency

b) Career objectives: State your objectives in relation to career, what do you aim for in

your career?

c) Personal attributes: enthusiastic, goal oriented, team player etc.

 d) Professional training: state the trainings you have had related to the profession

particularly those offered by professional bodies: e.g. CPA, MSK, IHRM …

e) Work experience: Date- Organization,-what experience/duties done (start from the

recent to the earliest)

f) Academic qualification: Date- Institution- qualification attained -starting from the

highest

g) References: Names, Contacts-Address, phone, e-mail etc.

NB References must be people who know you very well, not your relatives and should always be

contacted before including them in your C.V

Dos of C.Vs

 Keep to one page depending on experience

 Describe your main functions, what you did incidentally

 Emphasize those duties that are most relevant to your present application

 Include any specific recognition, accomplishment or projects you were involved with.

 Describe your former/current employer include the size of the company and type of

industry

 Write about yourself in a positive light

 Strive to be concise and target your information to the employer.

C.V’s Don’ts

 Try to fit too much information on the page

 Use personal information such as race, ethnicity

 Leave suspicious gaps in your working history

  Do not include any health information unless requested to do so

 Include reasons for leaving the previous jobs

 Include referees on the same page ( Referees should always be on a separate page unless

otherwise advised)

NB Your C.V must stand out. Remember to show your strengths and minimize weak points.

Front your key selling points.

Start with personal details, careers statements your education, work experience start with the

most relevant and work through to others.

Turn your skills around to show how relevant they are to the job. Your C.V should display

eagerness to learn and high degree of motivation. Employers look for someone eager to learn.

C.Vs are tailor-made, done for specific needs.

2. Letters

Broadly letters are classified as personal or non-personal letters otherwise known as formal and

informal letters or official and friendly letters respectively.

Business/non-personal letters or official/ formal letters.

Functions of a business letter

1) Making a lasting impression.

Oral communication, whether in face to face or over the phones is rarely remembered in

full because its impact is felt mainly during the time it is being heard. Once the next oral

communication is taken up, the effect of the previous one is reduced. However, a letter
 makes a lasting impression on the reader’s mind because it stays with him, goes with him

and does its work effectively every time it is read.

2) Widening the approach/reach.

Frequently, a businessman finds it difficult to send his representatives to all the places of

his business connections. It is the letter that reaches any place at whatever distance. In its

effect, a business letter helps widen the area of operation. Only letters can send the goods

of a businessman to places thousands of miles away, even across the country.

Executives, professionals, politicians, etc. are difficult to be approached in person. But a

letter can find easy access to one and all. A letter knows what the right time to reach

different persons is and it enjoys the advantage of being able to wait till the reader has

leisure and inclination to turn to it.

3) An authoritative proof.

A commitment in writing binds the parties concerned to the text of writing. A letter,

signed by a responsible person, is an authoritative proof of what is said in it. It can even

be treated as a valid document that can be produced as evidence in a court of law in case

of dispute.

Action can be taken, responsibilities can be fixed and mistakes can be pointed out only if

communications over the phone or telegraphic communications are confirmed in writing.

4) Building goodwill.

An important purpose of a business letter is to sell the good reputation and friendliness of

a company. It aims at building goodwill in the customer –company relationship, holding

present customers and capturing new ones, reviving inactive accounts and inviting
 customers to buy more and varied products. The underlying purpose of all letters is to

create customers in order to make profits.

5) Thus business letters are an indispensable means of communication for industry and

commerce. Business letters represent the firm just as much as the personality of the

firm’s salesman and the quality of its goods or services. Therefore business letters must

try to make the best possible impression on those who receive them.

Their function must go beyond those of presenting information clearly and courteously. They

must make friends, build goodwill and add to the company’s prestige.

Types of Business Letters

Business letters may be classified into the following kinds:-

i) Letters of Inquiry

These are simple letters for information prices, literature and favours. This type of letter

is also written to order goods or services.

ii) Letters Answering Request

These are replies to inquiries. Some of these letters are difficult to write because

sometimes the answer being given is negative. They are therefore the most important

letters to write and they require utmost tact and courtesy.

iii) Claim Letters

Claim letters are those written by inconvenienced or offended customers or persons. They

are actually letters of complaint.

iv) Adjustment Letters

 These are letters written in response to clients’ complaints. When the adjustment asked

for is not granted, in refusal the writer has to give satisfactory reasons for refusal. These

letters are most difficult to write and hence require special understanding of people and of

the company which the writer represents.

v) Credit Letter

A large percentage of business transactions is carried on credit basis letters have to be

written in request for credit. When credit is denied because the applicant is not “credit

worthy”, then this requires tactfulness.

vi) Sales Letter

These are also known as introductory letters, which aim at promoting goodwill and

public relations it does not attempt to sells goods or services directly, but first make

friends and in the long run increase purchase.

vii) Employment Letters

Such letters include applications for vacancies, resignation letters and even letters for

thanking an employer for an interview.

viii) Social Letters

There are some letters meant for maintenance of friendly relationships with customers

and business acquaintances. This social business correspondence includes letter of

congratulations, letters of sympathy, invitations, letters of friendships and thank you

letters. They do a great deal to build goodwill.

ix) Collection letters.

 These are letters written to remind those who do not clear their debts in time. Sometimes

they have to be threatened before they will pay what they owe. These are known as

collection letters and are the most difficult and challenging to write . Their effectiveness

is measured by the amount of money they bring in from careless customers.

Parts/components of a business letter

i) Heading

ii) Inside Address

iii) Salutation

iv) Reference/Subject

v) Body of the letter

vi) Signature

vii) Enclosures( Optional depending on situations)

viii) CC (optional depending on situations)

Heading: Most firms have letterheads which will state the name of the company, address,

telephone number, fax numbers and a short description of the firm’s business.

Date: Blank space for inserting the date.

Reference: This is printed on the same line as the date. Sometimes we have both OUR

REF……..and YOUR REF………

Inside Address: This is the address of the firm or the recipient of the letter. If the letter is being

directed to a particular person or official, the phrase “For the attention of” is used.
The Salutation: This is the greeting part which commences a letter, and precedes the message. It

would be written below the inside addresses (or attention of……) and should start from the left

margin and with a comma.

Subject and Reference: This is a brief one-line mention of the major theme of the letter right in

the beginning and adds to its clarity. The usual forms of mentioning the subject and reference

are:

SUB: Overdraft facilities for………………….

Ref: Your letter dated/No…………………….

Or

Ref: Your order dated……………….

SUB: Application for job of Juniour programmer, Grade III.

Body of the letter:

i) Opening paragraph: German proverb- ‘A good beginning is half the battle won’. It

applies doubly when it comes to writing successful business letters. This is where the

reader should be enticed to go ahead with interest and concentration.

Firstly, the letter should open with expression of pleasure, gratitude or acknowledgement or with

reference to the action you have taken in response to the readers’ previous letter if any.

Secondly, a reason for writing this letter should be given.

Thirdly, includes the essential names, dates locations or other data to put the message in

perspective.
 ii) The middle paragraph(s): Develops detailed messages. At this stage the detailed data

which comprises the letter’s message is logically, briefly clearly set down.

In complex letters several middle paragraphs may in turn deal with one principal aspect of an

involved message. This will make it easier for the reader to grasp.

iii) The closing paragraph: It states action needed. The paragraph states simply and clearly

what action the writer needs from the recipient.

Since the action statement is the entire reason for writing letters other than informational ones,

the requirement or request for action appears virtually at the end of the letter and , thus

reminding the recipient of the action to be taken.

Complementary close: This is merely a polite way of ending a letter. Each form of salutation has

an equivalent complementary close. For example,

Dear Sir (s)…….. Yours faithfully

Dear Madam…..

Dear Mr.…………

Dear Miss………. Yours sincerely

Dear Tom Sincerely

Dear Mary In regards

3. Memorandum
A memorandum is a written form of communication that is similar to a letter but it is used for

internal communication purposes only. This includes other branches of an organization.

In a large organization, it may be necessary to pass brief items of information from one office to

another or from one department to another. This is usually done on a memorandum (simply

called memo in short or internal memo).

An internal memo has the following features/parts:

i. Name of the person sending out the memo.

ii. Name of the person(s) the memo is being sent to.

iii. Reference number (optional).

iv. Date.

v. Subject (information heading).

vi. Body- for brief information- not detailed communication.

vii. Sender’s signature or initials—at the bottom of the main text.

A memo is basically used for sending messages which are brief in nature. Such messages are

used for information only and not for decision making. Only used for internal communication

and it is also known as loose minutes.

When to use a memo to communicate:

 To issue instructions to staff

 To communicate decisions and policy changes to staff

 To give or seek suggestions

 To request help or information

 To confirm a decision arrived at on telephone etc.

  To send messages or very brief reports

 Introduce a topic, a person

 Enquire about certain matters/information

 Remind members of an organization any important matters

A memorandum has differs from a letter in that: it has no salutation, no complementary close,

has internal address only. However, like a letter, it has a reference, a date and subject.

A memorandum should be brief and to the point. The structure of a memorandum may vary from

one organization to another.

Structure of a Memorandum

There are various types of memorandum formats e.g.

From: __________________ Date: _______

To: ______

Subject: ____________________________

Body: ___________________________

_________________________________

Initials: __________

OR

Date…………
From…………

To ……………………

Subject…………………………………………………

Body: ……………………………………………

Initials or signature of writer: ………..

4. Business Reports

A business report is an orderly presentation of facts about specific business activity as

programme. A report is a basic management tool used in decision making. In large scale

organizations, top executives can’t keep a personal watch over all the activities, so they have to

depend on reports from the heads of various departments. A report is a communication from

someone who has some information to someone who wants to use that information.

Types of reports

Reports are of different kinds. They depend upon the organization’s business situations. Broadly,

they can be classified as:

a) Routine/ Periodic/Progress reports: These are the most common types of reports

written at regular intervals. These may be weekly reports from the sales/

production/operations/ customer service personnel. The reports facilitate the monitoring

of work and decision making.

b) Informational reports. These are reports that examine business situations/ problems and

provide factual information.

 c) Justification reports with recommendations. Often managers have to justify a decision

that arises out of the facts gathered and relevant to the problem. In such cases, managers

offer recommendations based on the analysis and the interpretation.

d) Situational reports. Managers are also expected to submit reports about their office

trips, conferences, and seminars to keep organization informed about what they have

gained from these activities. Such reports do not follow a formal order. Since they are

informal in nature, letter/ memo format is generally used.

e) Feasibility reports. All business projects may not appear profitable. Therefore, based on

analysis and interpretation of cost, benefits, disadvantages, and future possibilities,

managers have to point out whether it is feasible to proceed with the project.

f) Research reports. Research is the backbone of an organization. Decisions about growth

depend so much on research that it has to be continuously carried out. Often, business

houses commission research studies that must examine the real problem objectively and

completely.

g) Business plan/ proposal. These are persuasive reports that attempt to secure new

business. They answer all the basic questions that the investor might want to know. The

report writer must write convincingly.

Characteristics of a good report

1. Precision: In a good report, the writer is very clear about the exact purpose of writing it.

Hi investigation, analysis and recommendations are directed by this central purpose.

Precision gives a kind of unity and coherence to the report and makes it a valuable

document.

2. Accuracy of facts.
 The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report. Since reports invariably

lead to decision making, inaccurate facts may lead to disastrous decision.

3. Relevance.

The facts presented in a report should be not only accurate but relevant also. While it is

essential that every fact included in a report has a bearing on the central purpose, it is

equally essential to see that nothing relevant has escaped inclusion. Irrelevant facts make

a report confusing; exclusion of relevant facts render it in complete and likely to mislead.

4. Reader-orientation

A good report is always reader-oriented. While drafting a report, it is necessary to keep in

mind the person[s] who is [are] going to read it. A report meant for the layman will be

different from another meant for technical experts.

5. Objectivity of recommendation.

If recommendations are made at the end of a report, they must be impartial and objective.

They should come as logical conclusion to investigation and analysis. They must not

reveal any self-interest on the part of the writer.

6 Simple and unambiguous language.

A good report is written in a simple and unambiguous language. It is a kind of scientific

document of practical utility; hence it should be free from various forms of poetic

embellishment like figures of speech.

7. Clarity.
 A good report is absolutely clear. Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts. The

report writer must proceed systematically. He should make his purpose clear, define his

sources, state his findings and finally make necessary recommendations. He should

divide his report into short paragraphs giving them headings, and insert other suitable

sign posts to achieve greater clarity.

8. Brevity

A report should be brief. It is difficult to define brevity in absolute terms. Nor brevity be

laid down as a rule. All that can be said is that a good report should be as brief as

possible. Brevity should not be achieved at the cost of clarity. Nor should it be at the cost

of completeness. Sometimes the problem being investigated is of such importance that it

calls for a detailed discussion of facts. Then a decision should not be evaded. Brevity in a

report is the kind of brevity one recommends for a précis. Include everything significant

and yet brief.

9. Grammatical accuracy.

The grammatical accuracy of language though listed at number 9 in the characteristics of

a good report is of fundamental importance. It is one of the basic requisites of a good

report as any other piece of composition. Who is going to read a report if its language is

faulty? Besides, faulty construction of sentence makes the meaning obscure and

ambiguous.

Preparing the report

 Once you are clear about the purpose of writing a report, the following five steps are

suggested to write a report.

I. Investigating the source of information.

II. Taking notes

III. Analyzing the data

IV. Making an outline; and

V. Writing report

Investigating the source of information

Investigating the sources of information is a kind of spadework. It is to be done right in the

beginning. The extent of investigation will of course, depend on the length and importance of the

report. Major sources of information are company files, personal observation, interviews, letters,

questionnaires, library research.

Taking notes

In the course of investigations, the writer keeps taking notes of anything that appears to be

related to the subject. Then there is no time to analyze them and determine how they will be of

help in the final report. But as the writer keeps turning them in his mind over and over again, a

kind of pattern starts emerging and he begins to be clear about what is relevant and what is not. It

is very general kind of pattern but it gives the writer at least a starting point.

Analyzing the data

Now is the time to analyze the collected data in the light of the pattern that has evolved. A lot of

data will have to be rejected while a need might be felt to collect more data. The final pattern

will emerge at the stage. The writer should never hurry through this stage, since this is the most

important stage in writing a report.

Making an outline

Once the final pattern of the final report has taken shape in the writer’s mind, he should prepare

an outline to write the report. In this outline, the problem is stated, the facts are recorded, they

are briefly analyzed, and the logical conclusions are arrived at. An outline is note essential, but it

should be found extremely helpful in writing a systematic report.

Writing the report

The last stage is that of writing the report. It will need a complete shutting between the outline

and the notes. First a rough draft of the report is prepared. Then it is revised, pruned and

polished. If the writer has some more time at his disposal, he will find it advantageous to come

back to his rough draft after, say, a couple of days. This short interval will make his revision

work really meaningful. The writer should also be careful that the language of the report is

simple, unambiguous and free from grammatical errors. It is now to type it out in a proper form

and submit it.

Organization of a Report

There are three ways in which a report can be organized:

1. Letter form

2. Memorandum form

3. Letter-text combination form.

Letter form

In case of brief, informal reports, the arrangement followed in business letters is adopted. Its

main parts are the heading or the title, date, address, salutation, the body, complimentary close

and signature. It is usually written in the first person- I or We.

The body of the letter can be further divided into the following parts:

(i) Introduction-The introductory paragraphs present the terms of reference and the

subject to study. Here the writer states the problem confronting him in the light of the

terms of reference and the relevant circumstances.

(ii) Findings-The next few paragraphs present the findings of the investigation.

(iii) Conclusion- It should logically relate to the findings

(iv) Recommendations- Recommendations that logically follow the findings are given in

the last paragraph of the body.

Memorandum form

Adopting the memorandum form is a simpler way of presenting the reports, since here the

formalities of the letter are done away with. The title of the subjects is stated on the top. This is

followed by the name of the writer of the report, the date, the actual text and the conclusion. As

in the letter form, the text of the report is divided into paragraphs with headings and sub-

headings. Large business houses have different types of printed forms to send reports. This

simplifies the procedure and ensures uniformity of style.

Letter-text combination

Long reports are usually written in the letter text combination form. A complete report in this

form includes three major parts:

i) Introductory parts;

ii) The body of the report;

iii) Addenda.

The complete outline of such each of these three parts is as follows:

Introductory parts:

A. Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation

B. Title page

C. Contents page

D. Summary

Body of the report

A. Definition of the problem

B. Methods of procedure

C. Findings

D. Conclusions and recommendations

Addenda.

A. Bibliography

B. Appendix

C. Index

It is not essential that a report contains all these parts. Long reports containing most of these

parts are generally submitted in a book form.

Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation

A letter of transmittal is a routine letter written to transmit the report from the writer to the

reader. It performs several important functions:

[i] It provides a permanent record of transfer.

[ii] It shows the date on which the report was submitted

[iii] It states the name and the position of the writer of the report
 [iv] It also states when and by whom the report was authorized.

[v] It may invite the reader’s comments and suggestions.

A letter of presentation is slightly different from a letter of transmittal. In addition to giving

information contained in the letter of transmittal, it usually states the purpose and scope of the

report, refers to the writer’s sources of information, and highlights special features’. If a letter of

transmittal is written, the additional matter put in the letter of presentation is included in the first

part of the body under the heading ‘Definition of the problem’.

I. Title page:

The title page gives the title or heading of the report, the person [s] to whom it is submitted, the

date of submission and the name of the writer [s].

II. Contents page

This page gives the title and the page number of each chapter. If the report contains illustrations,

the contents page may also contain a table of illustrations with their page numbers.

III. Summary

In case the report is very lengthy, it is advisable to include a summary or synopsis of the report

for ready reference.

IV. Definition of the problem

This is the first part of the body of the report. Here the terms of reference, the subject of the

study and its importance and scope are stated.

V. Method of procedure (Methodology)

This explains how the investigations were made and what the sources of information were.
 VI. Findings

It’s the main part of the report. It contains the facts found out by the writer along with his

comments. It may include charts, graphs, statistical tables and even excerpts from other

published reports.

VII. Conclusions and recommendations

Based on facts and finding, the writer draws some definite conclusions. He puts forward some

concrete suggestions or recommendations or recommendations.

VIII. Bibliography

If the writer of the report consulted some other materials, a list of references and bibliography

should be included.

IX. Appendix

These are statistical data, charts and diagrams that are incorporated in the main body of the

report.

X. Index

In case of lengthy reports, an index of the contents of the report may be included.

XI. Signature

A report must be dated and signed by the person(s) submitting it. In case of a report prepared by

a committee, the signature of the chairman is sufficient

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. It is important for the sender of a message to conduct audience analysis in order to choose

the right form, media, and time among other aspects of communication. In the light of the

above describe the right audience for written messages

2. Explain a memo as a form of written communication.

3. Outline the key components of a report