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ASCII’s extension - Also Superset for ASCII & extended

Only the English alphabet can
includes most European ASCII - recognized by various
be represented
languages’ alphabets global languages
Each character encoding takes It has an excellent range of
ASCII extended to 8 bits, hence
up 7 bits, hence 128 possible characters, using 2 or 4 bytes
256 possible characters
characters per character
• The two fundamental characteristics of any number 2 or 4 times more storage
Smaller storage space
system are: space per character

• The number of di�erent digits that a system

can use to represent numbers
• The speci�c-value of a digit based on its
position within a number •
• - Base 10 • De�nition: Bitmap images are created by assigning a
• - Base 2 solid color to each pixel using bit patterns.
• Possible bits (binary digits): 0 and 1 • Encoding:
• All data and characters are represented in binary • Bit patterns are generated by considering each
grid row as a series of binary color codes
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 corresponding to each pixel’s color.
• These bit patterns are ‘mapped’ onto the main
• For example, 65 in binary is 01000001 memory.
• Pixels: The smallest picture element whose color can
be accurately represented by binary code.
•
• File Header: Bitmap images contain a �le header with
metadata, including image size, number of colors,
kilo- (k) ×103 kibi- (Ki) ×210
etc.
mega- (M) ×106 mebi- (Mi) ×220
giga- (G) ×109 gibi- (Gi) ×230
tera- (T) ×1012 tebi- (Ti) ×240
•
• De�nition: the number of pixels that make up an
image. Example:- 4096x3192 pixels.
• E�ect: Higher resolution results in sharper, more
detailed images.

•
• De�nition: The number of pixels that can be viewed
horizontally and vertically on a device’s screen.
• Calculation: N umber of pixels = width × height
(e.g., 1680 × 1080 pixels).

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• •
• De�nition: The number of bits used to represent the • Analogue vs Digital:
colour of a single pixel. • Analogue data consists of continuous electrical
• Calculation: An image with n bits has 2n colours per signals.
pixel (e.g., a 16-color bitmap has 4 bits per pixel • Digital data consists of discrete electrical signals.
because 24 = 16) • Sound Signals: Vibrations through a medium,
• E�ect: Increasing color depth improves color quality inherently analogue due to in�nite detail.
but also increases �le size. • Conversion:
• File Size Calculation: • Analogue signals are converted to digital signals
• File Size = Number of Pixels × Color Depth by sampling.
• Convert bits to bytes by dividing by eight if • The sound wave’s amplitude is sampled at set
necessary. time intervals.
• Applications: Scanned images and general computer • These samples are encoded as a binary number
usage, where small �le sizes and easy manipulation sequence, providing a digital representation of
are bene�cial. the sound wave

• •
• De�nition: Made up of drawing objects. • De�nition: Number of samples taken per unit of time.
• Drawing Objects: Mathematically de�ned constructs • E�ect: Increasing the sampling rate improves the
(e.g., rectangles, lines, circles). accuracy of the digitized sound wave representation
• Drawing List: A set of commands de�ning the vector. but increases �le size.
• Properties: Basic geometric data that determine the
shape and appearance of each object. •
• Encoding: Data is encoded using mathematical • De�nition: Number of bits used to encode each
formulas to generate properties for drawing lines sample.
and curves to create the image. • E�ect: Increasing sampling resolution improves the
• Scalability: Objects can be resized without losing accuracy of digitized sound waves but increases �le
quality, unlike bitmaps. size.
• Applications: Company logos and other graphics that
require scaling.
•
• De�nition: Number of bits used to store 1 second of
sound.
• Calculation: Bit Rate = Sampling Rate ∗
Sampling Resolution
• Length of Sound: Measured in seconds.

• Compression is the process of reducing �le

size without signi�cant loss in quality, resulting in:
• Reduced time needed to search for data.
• Faster transfer of compressed �les, using less
bandwidth than uncompressed �les.

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 • • : Interconnected devices that
• De�nition: A type of compression that allows original enable fast data transmission within a network.
data to be perfectly reconstructed from a • :
compressed �le by utilizing some form of • : Easily share data between di�erent
replacement. interconnected devices.
• Examples: Bitmap (.bmp), vector graphic (.svg), .png • : Use network-connected output
images, text �le compression, database records. devices like printers or share software within the
• Run-Length Encoding (RLE): network.
• Definition: A form of lossless compression • : Files can be stored in network-
used for compressing text �les and bitmap connected storage mediums.
images. •
• Mechanism: Reduces �le size by encoding • : A dedicated server provides
sequences of adjacent, identical elements applications (administration of users, security, and
(characters in text �les and pixels in bitmap resources) for the client computer to utilize.
images) into two values: run count and run value. • :
• Example: RLE of a bitmap image. • : Manages print jobs from client
computers.
• : Clients access software and user
•
data �les stored on the server.
• De�nition: A type of compression that irreversibly
• .
eliminates unnecessary data.
• : For sending, receiving, and storing
• E�ect: File accuracy/quality is lower than with lossless
emails.
compression, but �le size is signi�cantly reduced
• : Manages DBMS.
(often to about 10% of the lossless size).
• :
• Examples: Sound �les (.mp3), .jpeg images.
• Manages user accounts (IDs & passwords).
• Mechanism in Sound Files:
• The client sends a login request to the server,
• Perceptual Coding: Removes parts of the
which processes and grants the request if the
sound that are less audible or discernible to
user ID & password are recognized.
human hearing, as used in .mp3 compression.

A client that solely runs on the resources

An independent client that does not require
provided by the server and has no local
the server to run.
storage.
Only provides input and receives output; Thick client processes most of the application
processing is done by the server. locally.
Smaller purchase cost: inexpensive, Can function even if no server is connected
demanding hardware is not required. (works o�ine).
Improved security: Cannot run unauthorized,
No lag related to network problems.
harmful software.

A network that connects devices within a small A network that connects devices within a larger •
geographical area, often within the same geographical area, such as a city, country, or
building. globally. •
Only private ownership. Private or public ownership.
Transmission medium: Twisted Pair Cables , • : A decentralized network where each
Transmission medium: PSTN or Satlink.
Coaxial Cables or Wi-Fi.
Higher data transfer rate. Lower data transfer rate.
connected computer stores data and operates
Less congestion. Higher congestion. independently as a ‘peer’, acting as both a client and
a server.
• : Internet and Ad hoc networks.

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 Centralized backup. Lesser initial setup cost. Can travel over large distances with a Low frequency means less data can be
Lesser network tra�c: Each peer can Radio wide range of wavelengths. Relatively transmitted at one time. A�ected by
Files & resources centralized in server: waves inexpensive. Used for TV signals and interference from radio stations with
simultaneously receive data from di�erent
Prevents illegal resource usage. mobile phone communications. similar frequencies.
sources.
Improved security: Files are stored on a central It can work even if a device goes down, but the Expensive to build emitting towers.
Larger bandwidth allows more data
server, which would be regularly scanned for client-server model can’t work if the server Microwaves Physical obstacles can interfere with
transfer.
malware. goes down. signals.
Cost-e�ective for long-distance
Susceptible to interference. Expensive
Satellites communication, used in satellite phones
setup.
and radio broadcasts.
•
• Network Topologies
•
•
• Use radio waves (including WiFi), microwaves, and
• A single line (bus) connects all devices with
satellites to connect devices to networks without
terminators at each end.
cables.
• Other computers can read data being sent
between any two computers.
Existing digital �les are converted to encoded
• Unsuitable for heavy tra�c due to frequent The event is captured live via a video camera
that is connected to a computer.
bit-streaming format for broadcasting on the
internet by uploading to a dedicated server.
collisions. A link for encoded video is placed on the
Video signal converted to an encoded
website, and the user clicks on the link to view
• streaming video signal.
encoded streaming video.
• Consists of a central server (switch) with all other Encoded video signal uploaded from computer The data is streamed to a bu�er in the user’s
to a dedicated streaming server via cables or computer, and the bu�er stops the video from
computers connected via dedicated connections. high-speed wireless internet connection. being paused as the bits are streamed.
The server then sends live images to all users As the bu�er is emptied, it’s �lled again, thus
• The server can send packets to di�erent devices requesting them as a real-time video. providing continuous viewing.
It cannot be paused, fast-forwarded, etc. Can be paused, fast-forwarded, etc.
simultaneously and bidirectionally.
• No collisions are possible.
•
• Every device (node) is directly interconnected with
each of the other devices (nodes).
• Commonly used for wireless networks, such as
the Internet, through the mesh connection of
routers.
•
• A combination of two or more topologies.
• Example: A connection between two or more
LANs of di�erent topologies.

Less expensive and easier to

Doesn’t perform well with small
Copper Cable install. Flexible. Easier to make
charges. A�ected by electromagnetism.
terminations.
Greater bandwidth, improved security,
Fiber-Optic lightweight, easy to install, and less Needs expensive optical transmitters
Cables signal boosting are required; used in and receivers.
long-distance communications.

•
• Use copper (twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable) or
�ber-optic cables.
• Cables are connected to an Ethernet port on the
network router.

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 Access provided by third-party service Owned and maintained by a single
• providers, shared among multiple users. organization, providing exclusive access.
• The most common wired medium for data Managed by cloud service providers using large Can be managed internally by the organization
server farms. itself, or outsourced.
transmission in LANs or WANs.
• Typically used in bus topology; data collisions are
Less technical knowledge required, easy to Cannot access the resources/data stored on
managed by the CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple implement. the cloud if there are bandwidth issues.

Access with Collision Detection) method. Flexibility to scale with organization’s growth
Poor data privacy, since there may be data
leakage in the multi-tenant architecture (public
mindset.
clouds).
•
• Device checks if the channel is busy before
transmitting. •
• If busy, the device waits a random time before • Collection of web pages stored on
retrying. websites.
• During transmission, the device listens for other • Protocols are used to transmit data across
transmissions. the WWW.
• If a collision occurs, transmission is aborted, and •
both devices wait random times before retrying. • Massive, open network of networks.
• • Uses TCP/IP protocol, which uses IP
• Sequence of digital signals (bits) transferred over a addresses to identify devices connected to the
communication path at high speeds, requiring a fast internet.
broadband connection and bu�ers. • Provided by Internet Service Provider.
• • Wired, radio, and
• Live events captured and transmitted satellite.
directly. •
• Pre-existing �les are converted and • Connects two networks together which
streamed as requested. operate under the same protocols (for example, IP).
• • Allows internal connections between
• The user has to download and display bits at the LANs or external connection from the main LAN to a
same time. WAN.
• Higher quality media requires faster speeds due • Acts as a gateway and �rewall.
to larger data frames as well. • Usually attached to a server or switch in a
• Real-time streaming needs higher speeds due to LAN.
simultaneous data requests coming from multiple • Translates private IP
di�erent users. addresses to public IP addresses and vice versa.

•
• On-demand provision of computing services over the
internet, including infrastructure, and platforms.
• Infrastructure: Storage capacity and higher
processing power.
• Platform: Software, testing & debugging
resources.

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• • Internet-Supporting Hardware:
• •
• Connected to all devices in a LAN. • Allows a device to connect to the Internet via a
• Can simultaneously broadcast information to all telephone line.
devices. • A transmitter uses a modem to convert
• digital signals (from the transmitting device) to
• Device/software that provides speci�c functions analogue signals sent down the telephone line. A
for computers in the network. receiver uses a modem on the other end to
• convert the analogue signals to digital signals so
• Provides each device (end-system) in the wired the receiving device can understand the data.
LAN with a unique MAC address to uniquely •
identify it on the network. • Refers to all telephone networks.
• Allows each device to connect to the network. • Used between two endpoints for the
• call duration via circuit switching.
• Provides each end-system of a wireless (WiFi) LAN • Lines are active even during a power
a unique network address to identify it. outage.
• • Bi-directional.
• Allows devices to connect to the LAN via WiFi •
instead of using a cable. • Telecommunication path between endpoints.
• Usually built into the router. • Not shared with multiple users; it’s bought/
• leased.
• A wired transmission medium that allows • Able to host websites as well as carry
communication in wired networks. phone calls. Allows continuous, uninterrupted
• access to the Web.
• Connects two LANs which work using the same •
protocol, which can be two segments of the same • Wireless networks spread over land areas divided
network. into (hexagonal) cells.
• Stores network addresses for all devices (end- • Each cell is served by at least one
systems) between the two networks. base station (transceiver), which uses a di�erent
• Looks for the receiving device before it sends the frequency range compared to adjacent cells to
message. transmit data.
• • Larger capacity is possible since the
• Connects two cables. same frequencies can be used in non-adjacent
• Regenerates the sent data signal over the same cells.
network before the signal weakens (attenuation) • Radio waves are usually used for
to prevent it from being corrupted. transmission. Can be broadcast in all directions
over a wide area.
• Devices like mobile
phones can communicate and access the internet
via base stations.

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 The 128-bit address is divided into eight 16-bit
32-bit address, split into 4 blocks by “.”
blocks by “:” •
Each block could have a value between 0 and Each block can have 4 hex values ranging from •
255 (00 to FF in hex). 0000 to FFFF.
IPv6 can be shortened by removing at least (≥) 2 • Provided by the ISP.
blocks containing only zeroes. For example:
For example, 255.0.1.255. “2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0070:7334” • Unique and can be accessed across the internet.
can be shortened to
“2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0070:7334" •
• Issued by the LAN’s router.
• • Unique within the LAN and can only be accessed
• within the LAN.
• • Required
• Identi�es the for private IP addresses to access the internet
network to which the host (device) is connected. directly.
• Identi�es the host • Private IPs are more secure than public
within the network. IPs since they are not directly accessible on the
• Used for IPv4, where Internet and are hidden by NAT.
di�erent bit lengths for identi�cation impose • The range of IP addresses used
restrictions on available addresses. for private IP addressing can never be assigned to
• public IP addresses.
• The practice of dividing a network
into two or more networks.
• IP addresses are broken down into IP address never changes. The IP address will change at regular periods.
Static IP addresses are valid when websites Dynamic IP address is relatively more secure,
three parts by not changing the netID but need to remember a device for a long time, e.g hence used where data privacy is quite
VPNs whitelisting. important.
partitioning the host ID into a subnet ID and host Faster upload/download speeds.
Maintaining the cost of the dynamic IP address
is a lesser.
ID.
• These bits are used to identify
•
each subnet within the network.
• Numbers that hide (mask) the
netID of a system's IP address and leave only •
the host part as the machine identi�er, • Unique reference address for the exact location of an
allowing data to be routed within the subnet internet resource on the WWW
to the appropriate host. • Enables the browser to know what protocol is
used to access information in the domain.
• The domain name.
• The path indicating the server
location.
•
• A naming system used for computers or
resources having an internet connection.
• Consists of a hierarchy of DNS servers
which have a URL database and their corresponding
IP addresses.

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• A general-purpose computer system comprises a • Incoming sound waves enter the screen and cause
processor, memory, and I/O functionality. vibrations in the diaphragm
• The following essential features are needed in a • Vibrations cause the coil to move past a magnetic core
computer - • Electrical current is generated, which is then digitized
• Takes in data from the outside world.
• Displays data for human understanding.
• Main memory storing critical
• Takes electrical signals and translates them into physical
program instructions and data.
vibrations to create sound waves
• Non-volatile storage for
• The electric current in the voice coil generates an
noncritical data.
electromagnetic �eld
•
• Change in digital audio signal causes current direction to
• File backup and archives
change, which changes �eld polarity
• Portable transfer of �les to a second device
• Electromagnet is either attracted or repelled to a
•
permanent magnet, causing a diaphragm that is
• Miniature computer systems such as
attached to the coil to vibrate
microprocessors that are often a part of a more
• Vibration transmitted to air in front of the speaker
extensive system.
• The degree of vibration determines the amplitude and
• Each embedded system performs a few speci�c
frequency of the sound wave produced
functions, unlike general-purpose computers.

Di�cult to program functions since there is no

Reliable since there are no moving parts
interface
• Hard disks have platters whose surfaces are covered
Require less power Expensive expert help is needed for the repair
Cheap to mass-produce with a magnetisable material.
• Platters are mounted on a central spindle and rotated at
high speed
• The surface of platters is divided into concentric tracks &
sectors, where data is encoded as magnetic patterns
• Each surface is accessed by read/write heads
• A laser beam and rotating mirrors are used to draw an
• When writing, current variation in the head causes
image of the page on a photosensitive drum
magnetic �eld variation on the disk
• The image is converted into an electric charge, which
• When reading, magnetic �eld variation from the disk
attracts charged toner such that it sticks to the image
produces current variation in the read head
• Electrostatic-charged paper rolled against the drum
• Charge pulls toner away from drum and onto paper
• Heat applied in the fuser to fuse toner to the paper
• The electrical charge was removed from the drum, and • Most use NAND-based �ash memory
excess toner was collected • Consist of a grid of columns & rows that has 2 transistors
at each intersection
• Two transistors:
• Floating Gate: stores electrons, and the presence or
• The process starts with a saved digital �le that holds the
absence of charge (electrons) represents either 1 or 0
blueprint of the object to be printed
• Control Gate: controls charge (electrons) �ow for read/
• The object is then built by sequentially adding layers of a
write
material (e.g. polymer resin) until the object created
• The object is then cured (e.g. resin-made objects are
hardened by UV light)

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 Electrically Erasable
• The disc surface has a re�ective metal layer and is spun Programmable ROM Erasable Programmable ROM
Programmable ROM
• The tracking mechanism moves the laser assembly It can be programmed only
It can be erased by UV light
exposure and can then be
It can be erased by an
electrical signal and can then
once after it is created
• The lens focuses laser onto the disc reprogrammed be reprogrammed
Data cannot be erased or Chip has to be removed for Can update data without
• A laser beam shone onto a disc to read/write deleted reprogramming removing the chip.

• Tracks have sequences of amorphous and crystalline

states on the metallic layer •
• When reading, the re�ected light from the di�erent •
states on the track is encoded as bit patterns • Monitors some state external to the computer
• When writing, the laser changes surface to crystalline system
and amorphous states along the track, corresponding to • No changes were made to the environment by
1s or 0s. the system, and hence, no feedback
•
• Regulates the behaviour of other devices or
systems
• Considered as both an input & output device
• Event-driven system: the controller alters the
• There are two main-types:
system's state in response to some event
• Time-driven system, where the controller takes
Consists of two charged plates Made from materials that store electric charge
action at a speci�c point in time
Pressure causes plates to touch, completing When touched, the charge is transferred to the
the circuit �nger •
Point of contact registered with coordinates
used to calculate the position • Sensor that measures an (analogue) property and
transmits it to a processing unit, generally as an
• electrical or optical signal
• Virtual headsets consist of 2 lenses, (an LCD) display, • Actuators that switch on/o� heavy appliances
a circuit board with sensors, a cover and foam (e.g. heater to heat/fan to cool)
padding • ADC that converts analogue signals to digital
• The display provides a simulation of a 3D signals
environment generated by a 3D graphics package • Transmission cable to transfer signals
• The user can ‘move’ in the virtual environment by •
moving their head or using controllers • Output from the system a�ects the input of
• : sensors
• A queue that temporarily stores data to balance • Ensures the system operates within the given
input/output speed of data, while the cache is the criteria
short-term memory storage that stores frequently • Enabling the system output to a�ect subsequent
used data. system inputs may cause a change in the actions
• Random Access Memory vs. Read-Only Memory taken by the system
• This enables the system to adjust conditions in a
Volatile memory: loses content when power is Non-volatile memory: does not lose content continuous process automatically
turned o� when power is turned o�
It can be read and altered It can only be read
Used for storing OS kernel and boot-up
Used to store currently executing program
instructions

• • use one or more inputs and produce a

single logical output
Doesn’t need to refresh; hence, it uses lessHas to be refreshed; it has slower access times •
power and faster access time and needs higher power
Only a single transistor & capacitor, hence less
More complex circuitry, hence more expensive
expensive to purchase
Each bit is stored in a �ip-�op Each bit is stored as a charge
Has lower data density Has higher data density
Used in cache memory Used in main memory

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 0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

• OR gate: If either input is high, the output is high (A+B) • NOR gate: (A+B)

0 0 1
0 0 0
0 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 1 0
1 1 1

• XOR gate: (A⨁B)

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
• NOT gate: an inverter (A) 1 1 0

1 0
0 1

• NAND gate: (A•B)

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 • Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): part of the processor
that processes instructions which require some form of
arithmetic or logical operation
• Control Unit (CU): part of the CPU that fetches
instructions from memory, decodes them &
synchronizes operations before sending signals to the
• Von Neumann realized data & programs are computer’s memory, ALU and I/O devices to direct how
indistinguishable and can, therefore, use the same to respond to instructions sent to the processor
memory. • Immediate Access Store (IAS): memory unit that the
• Von Neumann's architecture uses a single processor. processor can directly access
• It follows a linear sequence of fetch–decode–execute • System Clock: a timing device connected to a processor
operations for the set of instructions, i.e. the program. that synchronises all components.
• To do this, the processor uses registers.

• Set of parallel wires that allow the transfer of data

• Registers: smallest unit of storage of microprocessor; between components in a computer system
allows fast data transfer between other registers • Data bus: bidirectional bus that carries data
• General Purpose registers instructions between processor, memory, and I/O
• Used to temporarily store data values which have devices.
been read from memory or some processed result • Address bus: unidirectional bus that carries the
• Assembly language instructions can use it address of the main memory location or input/output
• Special Purpose Registers device about to be used, from processor to memory
• Some are accessible by assembly language address register (MAR)
instructions • Control bus
• Only holds either data or memory location, not both • Bidirectional
• Particular purpose registers include: • used to transmit control signals from the control unit
• Program Counter (PC): holds the address of the to ensure access/use of data & address buses by
next instruction to be fetched components of the system does not lead to con�ict
• Memory Data Register (MDR): holds data value
fetched from memory
• Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the
address of the memory cell of the program which
is to be accessed
• Accumulator (ACC): holds all values that are
processed by arithmetic & logical operations.
• Index Register (IX): Stores a number used to
change an address value
• Current Instruction Register (CIR): Once program
instruction is fetched, it is stored in CIR and allows
the processor to decode & execute it
• Status Register: holds results of comparisons to
decide later for action, intermediate and
erroneous results of arithmetic performed

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• Clock Speed • Hardware which provides a physical interface between a
• Number of pulses the clock sends out in a given time device with CPU and a peripheral device
interval, which determines the number of cycles • Peripheral (I/O) devices cannot be directly connected to
(processes) the CPU executes in a given time interval the CPU, hence connected through ports.
• Usually measured in Gigahertz (GHz) • Universal Serial Bus (USB): Can connect both input and
• If the clock speed is increased, then the execution output devices to the processor through a USB port.
time for instructions decreases. Hence, more cycles • High De�nition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)
per unit time, which increases performance. • Can only connect output devices (e.g. LCD) to the
• However, there is a limit on clock speed since the processor through a HDMI port
heat generated by higher clock speeds cannot be • HDMI cables transmit high-bandwidth and high-
removed fast enough, which leads to overheating. resolution video & audio streams through HDMI
• Bus Width ports
• Determines the number of bits that can be • Video Graphics Array (VGA)
simultaneously transferred • Can only connect output devices (e.g. second
• Refers to the number of lines in a bus monitor/display) to the processor through a VGA port
• Increasing bus width increases the number of bits • VGA ports allow only the transmission of video
transferred simultaneously, increasing processing streams but not audio components
speed and performance.
• Cache Memory
• Commonly used instructions are stored in the cache
• Fetch stage
memory area of the CPU.
• PC holds the address of the next instruction to be
• If the cache memory size is increased, more
fetched
commonly executed instructions can be stored, and
• The address on the PC is copied to MAR
the need for the CPU to wait for instructions to be
• PC is incremented
loaded reduces. Hence, the CPU executes more
• Instruction loaded to MDR from the address held in
cycles per unit of time, thus improving performance.
MAR
• Number of Cores
• Instruction from MDR loaded to CIR
• Most CPU chips are multi-core — have more than
• Decode stage: The opcode and operand parts of
one core (essentially a processor)
instruction are identi�ed
• Each core simultaneously processes di�erent
• Execute stage: Instructions executed by the control unit
instructions through multithreading, improving
sending control signals
computer performance.
• Register Transfer Notation (RTN)
• MAR ← [PC]
• PC ← [PC] + 1
• MDR ← [[MAR]]
• CIR ← [MDR]
• Decode
• Execute
• Return to start
• Square brackets: value currently in that register
• Double square brackets: CPU is getting value stored
at the address in the register

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• A signal from a program seeking the processor’s • Assembly language: low-level programming language
attention with instructions made up of an op code and an operand
• Handles the interrupt by controlling the processor • Machine code: code written in binary that uses the
• Di�erent ISRs used for di�erent sources of interrupt processor’s basic machine operations
• Relationship between machine and assembly language:
• A typical sequence of actions when an interrupt occurs: every assembly language instruction (source code)
• The processor checks the interrupt register for translates into exactly one machine code instruction
interrupt at the end of the F-E cycle for the current (object code)
instruction • Symbolic addressing
• If the interrupt �ag is set in the interrupt register, the • Symbols used to represent operation codes
interrupt source is detected • Labels can be used for addresses
• If the interrupt is low priority, then an interrupt is • Absolute addressing: a �xed address in memory
disabled • Assembler
• If interrupting is a high priority: • Software that changes assembly language into
• All contents of registers of the running process machine code for the processor to understand
are saved on the stack • The assembler replaces all mnemonics and labels
• PC is loaded with the ISR and is executed with their respective binary values (that are
• Once ISR is completed, the processor pops the prede�ned before by the assembler software)
registers’ contents from the stack, and the • One pass assembler
interrupted program continues its execution. • Assembler converts mnemonic source code into
• Interrupts re-enabled and machine code in one sweep of program
• Return to the start of the cycle • Cannot handle code that involves forward
referencing
• Two pass assembler: software makes 2 passes through
the code
• On the �rst pass:
• Symbol table created to enter symbolic addresses
and labels into speci�c addresses
• All errors are suppressed
• On the second pass:
• Jump instructions access memory addresses via
table
• Whole source code translates into machine code
• Error reported if they exist
• Grouping the Processor’s Instruction Set

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Addressing
LDM #n Immediate: Load n into ACC
• Binary numbers can be multiplied or divided by shifting
LDD
Direct: load contents at address into • Left shift (LSL #n)
the ACC
Indirect: load contents of address at • Bits are shifted to the left to multiply
LDI
given address into ACC
Indexed: load contents of given
• E.g. to multiply by four, all digits shift two places to
LDX
address + IR into ACC left
Data Movement
STO Store contents of ACC into address • Right shift (LSR #n)
Arithmetic
Operations
• Bits are shifted to the right to divide
ADD Add contents of register to ACC • E.g. to divide by four, all digits shift two places to right
INC Add 1 to contents of the register
Comparing • Logical shift: zeros replace the vacated bit position
CMP
Compare contents of ACC with that
of given address
• Arithmetic shift: Used to carry out multiplication and
CMP #n Compare contents of ACC with n division of signed integers represented by bits in the
Conditional Jumps
JPE Jump to address if compare TRUE
accumulator by ensuring that the sign-bit (usually the
JPN Jump to address if compare FALSE MSB) is the same after the shift.
Unconditional
Jumps • Cyclic shift: the bit that is removed from one end by the
JMP Jump to given address
shift is added to the other end.
I/O Data
Input any character and store ASCII
IN
value in ACC
Output character whose ASCII value
OUT
is stored in ACC
Ending
END Return Control to operating system

#denotes immediate addressing

B denotes a binary number, e.g. B01001010 & denotes a
hexadecimal number, e.g. &4A

• Modes of Addressing
• Direct Addressing: loads contents at address into ACC
• Indirect Addressing: The address to be used is at
given address. Load contents of this second address
to ACC
• Indexed addressing: form the address to be used as
+ the contents of the IR (Index Register)
• Relative addressing: next instruction to be carried out
is an o�set number of locations away, relative to
address of current instruction held in PC; allows for
relocatable code
• Conditional jump: has a condition that will be
checked (like using an IF statements)
• Unconditional jump: no condition to be followed,
simply jump to the next instruction as speci�ed

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• Each bit can represent an individual �ag. • Need for OS
• ∴ by altering the bits, �ags could be operated upon. • A set of programs designed to run in the background
• Bit manipulation operations: on a computer system which
• Masking: an operation that de�nes which bits you • Controls operation of computer system
want to keep and which bits you want to clear. • Provides a user interface
• Masking to 1: The OR operation is used with a 1. • Controls how computer responds to user’s
• Masking to 0: The AND operation is used with a 0. requests
• Matching: an operation that allows the accumulator • Controls how hardware communicate
to compare the value it contains to the given value in • Provides an environment in which application
order to change the state of the status register. software can be executed
• Practical applications of Bit Masking: • OS hardware is unusable without an OS, as the OS
• Setting an individual bit position: acts as an interface since it controls communication
• Mask the content of the register with a mask between user and hardware
pattern which has 0 in the ‘mask out’ positions
and 1 in the ‘retain’ positions.
• Set the result with the match pattern by using the
• (Main) Memory Management
AND command with a direct address.
• Memory protection to ensure 2 programs do not try
• Testing one or more bits:
to use same memory space
• Mask the content of the register with a mask
• Paging
pattern which has 0 in the ‘mask out’ positions
• Use of virtual memory
and 1 in the ‘retain’ positions.
• File Management
• Compare the result with the match pattern by
• Provides �le naming conventions
using the CMP command or by “Checking the
• Maintains a directory structure
pattern”.
• Allocates space to particular �les
• Checking the pattern
• Security Management
• Use AND operation to mask bits and obtain
• Proves usernames & passwords
resultant.
• Ensures data privacy
• Now subtract matching bit pattern from resultant.
• Prevents unauthorized access
The �nal ‘non-zero’ result con�rms the patterns
• Carries out automatic backup
are not the same else vice versa.
• Hardware (input/output/peripherals) Management
• Installation of appropriate driver software
• Controls access to data sent to and from peripherals
• Receives & handles interrupts from hardware devices
• Process Management
• Enables multiprogramming and multitasking
• Resolution of con�icts when 2 or more processes
requires the same resource
• E.g. via Round-robin method

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• Disk Formatter • Pre-written code that can be linked to a software under
• Prepares a hard disk to allow data to be stored on it development without any amendments
• Deletes any existing data on disk • Can perform common or complex tasks
• Performs formatting, process where computer ‘draws • Takes the form of classes
lines’ on disk surface to split it into small areas • Bene�ts:
• Virus checker • Saves time: less code needs to be written
• Checks for and then removes any viruses found • Smaller testing time: pre-tested and used by others
• Constantly checks all incoming and outgoing �les • Library �le is a complex algorithm which the user
• Defragmentation Software does not need to understand to use it
• Files can be big so have to be stored in multiple • Dynamic Link Library (DLL) �les
sectors, which can result in fragmentation (contents • Shared library �le that contains code and data
of �le scattered across >2 non-contiguous sectors) • Code saved separately from the main .EXE �le,
• Fragmentation slows down disk access and thus the reducing the .EXE �le’s size
performance of the entire computer. • Code only loaded to main memory when required
• Defragmenting software works by physically • DDL �le can be made available to several applications
reorganizing disk contents (�les) such that they are simultaneously, thus reducing strain on memory
stored in contiguous sectors. • DLL �les act as modules in more complex programs,
• This defragmentation reduces number of movements making it easier to install and run updates
of the read/write heads require to access the disk
contents, hence increasing computer performance
• The defragmentation also creates larger contiguous
free space regions • Assembler
• Disk contents analysis/disk repair software • Software that translates assembly language
• Software utility for visualization of disk space usage statements into machine code (binary) for execution
• Gets size for each folder and �les, and generates a • The mnemonics used translates into machine
graphical chart showing disk usage distribution opcodes
according to folders or other user de�ned criteria. • Process simple because assembly language has a
• Allows disk to report errors (e.g. “bad sector”) one-to-one relationship with machine code.
• Software will attempt to o�er a solution • Compiler and Interpreter
• File Compression
• Reduces �le size by removing redundant data in �les
Translates a high-level language program to Translates and executes a high-level language
• Causes improvements in the computer’s machine code. program, line-by-line.
Creates a .exe �le which can be easily
performance by reducing the data that needs to be distributed.
No .exe �le created.

Once compiled, .exe �le does not need to be Execution very slow – translated each time
stored compiled again, resulting in faster execution. program run.
• Back-up Software Reports all errors at the end of compilation:
di�cult to locate errors∴ development
Debugging easier/faster, since it stops
translating when it reaches an error. This
• Makes copy of �les on another storage medium in process long. allows real time error correction.
Can run program any time, even before code
the event of a hard drive failure, user error, disaster Only be produced when all errors are �xed.
�nished.
Used when development is completed. Used during development.
or accident.
• Should be a regular process
• Can provide synchronization between devices

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• Two-step translation • Data Security: ensuring data is protected against loss and
• Java and some other high level language programs unauthorized access.
may require two-step translation, i.e., they will be • Data Integrity: making sure that data is valid and does
partially compiled and partially interpreted not corrupt after transmission
• Java code �rst translated to bytecode by Java • Data Privacy: ability to determine what data is shared
compiler with a third party
• Bytecode �nally interpreted by the Java Virtual • Data Security and Computer System Security
Machine to produce machine code
• Integrated Development Environment (IDE) features Protection of data on a computer system Protection of the computer system
• Coding To prevent corruption of data and prevent
To prevent access of viruses to the system and
prevent hackers from entering your computer
hackers from using data
• Context-sensitive prompts: Displays choice of system
E.g. encryption E.g. ID & Password
keywords and available identi�ers appropriate at
current insertion point and provides choices in Threats to Computer & Data Security*
alphabetical order
• Highlights undeclared/unassigned variable • Malware
identi�ers • software intentionally designed to damage a
• Initial Error Detection computer or computer network
• Dynamic syntax checks: Automatic checking and • Includes Virus & Spyware
highlighting of syntax errors, as soon as line typed • Virus: Software that replicates itself by inserting a
• Type checking & parameter checking copy of itself into another piece of software, which
• Presentation may cause the computer to crash and can lead to
• Prettyprint: Automatic indentation and color- deletion or corruption of data
coding of keywords • Spyware: software that gathers information about
• Expand and Collapse code blocks: Saves excessive users' online and o�ine activity, including accessed
scrolling if collapsed, and easy to see global sites, applications, and downloaded �les.
variable declarations and main program body • Risk restriction: Ensure anti-virus and anti-spyware
when collapsed software is installed, regularly updated and run.
• Debugging • Hacking
• Single stepping: Executes program line-by-line to • illegal access to a computer system
see the e�ect of each statement on variables • Hackers can obtain user’s con�dential data which can
• Breakpoints: Pauses program at a speci�c line to cause identity theft
ensure program operates correctly up to that line • Can lead to the deletion or corruption of data
• Variables/expressions Report Window: Monitors • Risk restriction: Use strong passwords and ensure
variables for comparing values. �rewall
• Phishing
• Attempt through emails to obtain user’s con�dential
data which can cause identity theft
• Risk restriction: Ignore suspicious mails and ensure
�rewall criteria include SPAM �lters, blacklist, etc.
• Pharming
• Redirects user to a fake website that appears
legitimate to gain con�dential data
• Risk restriction: use a reliable ISP; check that links are
genuine and ensure https is present in the URL

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• User Accounts and Passwords
• Usernames & passwords to deny access to
unauthorized users
• Data validation and data veri�cation help protect the
• User-assigned privilege, which accesses to only the
integrity of data by checking whether the data entered is
user’s workplace, preventing the user to have admin
sensible and accurate, respectively.
rights.
• Data Validation: checks if data entered is valid, but not its
• Can assign privileges to �les so users with low
accuracy
privileges do not have access.
• Data Validation Methods
• Firewalls
• Range check: data must be between a set of values
• Hardware or software that �lters information
• Format check: data must follow correct pattern/order
travelling between the computer system and the
• Length check: data must have exact no. of characters
internet
• Presence check: checks if some data has been
• (software) �rewall can make decisions about what to
entered
allow and block by detecting illegal attempts by
• Existence check: data entered must exist
speci�c software to connect to the internet
• Limit check: checks whether a value entered is within
• Authentication
acceptable minimum and maximum values.
• Process of determining whether someone is who
• Check digit: A digit is used as the answer to an
they claim to be.
arithmetic operation of other digits in data. If not
• Helps prevent unauthorized access
matched, then data entered incorrectly
• Log-on using digital signatures, passwords and
• Data Veri�cation: checks data entered is accurate during
biometric scans.
data entry and data transfer
• Anti-virus software
• Data Entry Veri�cation Methods
• Runs in the background to detect & remove viruses.
• Visual Check: Person manually compares original
• Checks �les for known malicious patterns
data with that entered to check if correct
• Anti-spyware software: detects & removes spyware.
• Double Entry: Enter data into computer twice and
• Encryption:
compares.
• Conversion of data to code by encoding it
• If di�erences found, go back to raw data to �x error
• It doesn’t stop illegal access but appears meaningless
• Necessary to use decryption software to decode data
• Data Security Measures
• Encryption
• Access Rights to data (authorization): di�erent users
assigned di�erent authorization levels which prevent
them from accessing all data ∴ increases security
• Data Backup
• An exact copy of an original piece of data in case the
original is lost or corrupted
• Within the same computer system or at di�erent site
• Disk-mirroring strategy
• Real-time strategy that writes data to two or more
disks at the same time.
• If one fails, the other is still there to be read o� of

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• Errors may occur when data moved in system.
• Parity Check • Free Software Foundation:
• All data transmitted as bits • A license gives users freedom to run, copy, distribute,
• Number of 1s in a byte must always be either an odd study, change, and improve the software.
number or an even number • Condition: any redistributed version of software must
• Parity can be set either as even or odd be distributed with original terms of free use,
• E.g. two communicating devices decide there will modi�cation, and distribution (aka copyleft)
always be an odd number of 1s. A byte is received • The Open Source Initiative:
that has even number of 1s so error occurred and • The source code of open-source software is readily
receiving device would ask for it to be sent again available to users under copyright; it does enable
• Used also when data sent between parts of the CPU users to re-distribute the software.
• Not foolproof: if 2 bits are transposed, data accepted • The concept of an open-source program relies on the
• Checksum Check fact that users can review source code to eliminate
• Data sent from one place to another as block of bytes bugs in it
rather than individual bytes • Shareware:
• Computer adds together all bytes being sent • Demonstration software that is distributed for free
• Any bits lost at most-signi�cant end as carry ignored but for a speci�c evaluation period only
so answer is an 8-bit number • Distributed on a trial basis and with an
• Checksum calculated before and after data sent understanding that sometime later, a user may be
• If two bytes di�erent, error occurred therefore block interested in paying for it
of bytes must be sent again • Used for marketing purposes
• Commercial: Requires payment before it can be used,
but includes all program's features, with no restrictions

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• Arti�cial Intelligence (AI): the ability of a computer to
perform tasks in such a way that is conventionally
associated with human intelligence:
• AI can learn from past mistakes
• they adapt to stop the same problem from • collection of non-redundant interrelated data
occurring again • Software programs that allow databases to be
• they learn to predict what might happen & raise de�ned, constructed and manipulated
alert
• AI can learn to work more e�ciently
• when an action slows the system down, it can
• data stored in relational databases -
prevent this from happening again
tables stored in secondary storage
• when an action increases the speed of the
• contains:
system, it can repeat this when necessary to
• List of all �les in database
improve e�ciency
• No. of records in each �le
• AI Applications
• Names & types of each �eld
• Developing autonomous mechanical products
• analysis of data objects used in
• Machine learning through data sets
database, identifying relationships among them
• AI Impacts
• overall view of entire database,
• Social
includes: entities, attributes and relationships
• Replacement of manual labour with automation
• entire block copied to user’s area when
could lead to massive unemployment.
being changed, saved back when done
• However, it could lead to increased leisure time.
• handles password allocation and
• Economic: Due to increased innovation and e�ciency
veri�cation, backups database automatically, controls
with automation provided by AI, there’d be lower
what certain user’s view by access rights of individuals or
manufacturing costs in general
groups of users
• Environmental: Detrimental impact on the
environment due to robot manufacture with limited
resources and its waste disposal
• Open entire database in – impractical
with several users
• in the table being modi�ed – one user
changing a table, others can only read table
• currently being edited – as someone
changes something, others can only read record
• User speci�es – software warns user of
simultaneous change, resolve manually
• Deadlock 2 locks at the same time, DBMS must
• Data stored in discrete �les, stored on computer, and
recognize, 1 user must abort task
can be accessed, altered or removed by the user

• allows creating and manipulating

• No enforcing control on organization/structure of �les
database in SQL rather than graphically
• Data repeated in di�erent �les; manually change each
• handles high-level queries. It parses,
• Sorting must be done manually or must write a program
validates, optimizes, and compiles or interprets a query
• Data may be in di�erent format; di�cult to �nd and use
which results in the query plan.
• Impossible for it to be multi-user; chaotic
• Security not sophisticated; users can access everything

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 it is in 1NF and every non-primary
• object/event which can be distinctly identi�ed
key attribute is fully dependent on the primary; all the
• contains a group of related entities in rows and
incomplete dependencies have been removed. Example:
columns called an entity set
• a row or a record in a relational database
• a �eld or column in a relational database
• attribute or combination of them that
uniquely de�ne each tuple in relation
• : attribute that can potentially be a
primary key
• attribute or combination of them that
relates 2 di�erent tables
• prevents users or applications
from entering inconsistent data
• candidate keys not chosen as the
primary key
• creating a secondary key on an attribute to
it is in 1NF and 2NF and all non-key
provide fast access when searching on that attribute;
elements are fully dependent on the primary key. No inter-
indexing data must be updated when table data changes
dependencies between attributes.

• MANY-TO-MANY functions cannot be directly normalized

to 3NF, must use a 2 step process e.g.

becomes:

contains no repeating attribute or • Creation/modi�cation of the database structure using

groups of attributes. Intersection of each tuple and attribute this language
contains only 1 value. Example: • written in SQL
•

CREATE DATABASE <database-name>

CREATE TABLE <table-name> (…)

ALTER TABLE <table-name>

PRIMARY KEY (field)

ADD <field-name>:<data-type>

FOREIGN KEY (field) REFERENCES <table>(field)

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CREATE DATABASE ‘Personnel.gdb’
CREATE TABLE Training
(EmpID INT NOT NULL,
CourseTitle VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
CourseDate Date NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (EmpID, CourseDate),
FOREIGN KEY (EmpID) REFERENCES Employee(EmpID))

• Query and maintenance of data done using this language

– written in SQL

SELECT <field-name>
FROM <table-name>
WHERE <search-condition>

> Greater than

< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to
IS NULL Check for null values

ORDER BY <field-name>

GROUP BY <field-name>

INNER JOIN

INSERT INTO <table-name>(field1, field2, field3)

VALUES (value1, value2, value3)

DELETE FROM <table-name>

WHERE <condition>

UPDATE <table-name>
SET <field-name> = <value>
WHERE <condition>

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