Computer Networks - In-Depth Class Notes
1. Introduction to Computer Networks
A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that can share resources and data.
Goals of networking include:
Resource sharing (files, printers)
Communication (email, messaging)
Remote access
Reliability and load balancing
Networks can be classified based on size and range:
LAN (Local Area Network) : Small geographical area, high speed, low latency.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) : Spans a city or large campus.
WAN (Wide Area Network) : Covers large distances, often uses public or leased transmission lines.
2. Network Topologies
Bus Topology:
Single central cable (the bus) connects all devices.
Simple but difficult to troubleshoot.
Star Topology :
All nodes are connected to a central device (hub/switch).
Easy to manage and scale; failure of central device can disrupt the network.
Ring Topology :
Each device is connected to two others, forming a circle.
Data travels in one direction (or both in dual ring).
Mesh Topology :
Devices are interconnected; offers high fault tolerance.
Used in WANs and critical systems.
Hybrid Topology :
Combination of different topologies to leverage the strengths of each.
3. OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection)
A conceptual framework that standardizes network communication into 7 layers:
1. Physical Layer – Transmission of raw bitstream via physical medium (cables, switches).
2. Data Link Layer – Ensures node-to-node delivery, handles MAC addressing, framing, and error detection (e.g., Ethernet).
3. Network Layer – Responsible for packet forwarding and logical addressing (e.g., IP).
4. Transport Layer – Ensures reliable or best-effort delivery (TCP, UDP), segmentation, flow control.
5. Session Layer – Controls dialogues (sessions) between computers, manages session initiation and termination.
6. Presentation Layer – Formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network (e.g., compression, character encoding).
7. Application Layer – End-user interface; includes protocols like HTTP, SMTP, FTP.
4. TCP/IP Model
Real-world model used in the internet:
1. Link Layer – Physical + Data Link layer functionalities.
2. Internet Layer – Packet routing, addressing (e.g., IP, ICMP).
3. Transport Layer – Ensures reliability (TCP) or best-effort delivery (UDP).
4. Application Layer – Direct communication with software (e.g., HTTP, SMTP, DNS).
5. IP Addressing
IPv4: 32-bit address written in dotted decimal (e.g., 192.168.0.1)
Classes: A (0-127), B (128-191), C (192-223), D (multicast), E (experimental)
IPv6: 128-bit address in hexadecimal (e.g., 2001:0db8::1)
Provides vastly larger address space, improved routing and security features.
Private IP Ranges :
10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
Subnetting: Technique to divide a network into smaller parts using subnet masks (e.g., 255.255.255.0).
Subnetting: Technique to divide a network into smaller parts using subnet masks (e.g., 255.255.255.0).
CIDR Notation: Expresses IP address with subnet (e.g., 192.168.1.0/24).
6. Routing
Determines the path data packets take from source to destination.
Routing Table : Maintains routes for destinations.
Static Routing : Manual configuration, simple, less flexible.
Dynamic Routing: Routers use algorithms to find best path dynamically.
Routing Protocols:
RIP: Distance vector protocol, uses hop count.
OSPF : Link state protocol, faster convergence.
BGP: Path vector protocol used in internet routing between ISPs.
7. Transport Layer Protocols
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) :
Connection-oriented: 3-way handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK)
Reliable, ordered delivery
Congestion and flow control (windowing)
UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
Connectionless, lightweight
No error recovery
Useful for streaming, VoIP, DNS
8. Application Layer Protocols
HTTP/HTTPS: Protocols for web traffic; HTTPS adds SSL/TLS encryption.
FTP/SFTP: File Transfer Protocol (cleartext) and Secure FTP.
DNS : Resolves domain names (e.g., google.com) to IP addresses.
SMTP/IMAP/POP3: Email sending (SMTP) and retrieval (IMAP/POP3).
9. Network Devices
Router: Connects different networks, directs packets.
Switch: Connects devices in a LAN, works at data link layer.
Hub: Basic, legacy device that broadcasts to all ports.
Modem: Modulates digital signals to analog (and vice versa).
Access Point: Wireless device providing Wi-Fi access.
Firewall: Monitors and filters incoming/outgoing traffic.
10. Network Security Basics
Firewall: Hardware or software that enforces security rules.
Encryption: Protects data during transmission (e.g., TLS).
VPN (Virtual Private Network) : Encrypts traffic between user and remote network.
IDS/IPS:
IDS: Monitors for suspicious activity.
IPS: Detects and blocks threats.
Authentication Methods:
Password-based, Multi-factor, Certificate-based
Common Attacks:
Man-in-the-middle, DDoS, Spoofing, Phishing
11. Common Tools and Utilities
Ping: Tests reachability and round-trip time.
Traceroute: Lists route packets take.
Nslookup/Dig: Queries DNS records.
Netstat: Displays active connections and ports.
Wireshark: Captures and analyzes network traffic.
IPconfig/IFconfig : Displays IP and network info.
Note: This document provides a foundational understanding. Hands-on experience and further reading (e.g., RFCs, textbooks like "Computer Networking: A Top-
Down Approach") are recommended for mastery.
