Computer Networks Notes
1. DNS System (Domain Name System)
DNS is a hierarchical and distributed naming system that translates human-friendly
domain names (e.g., www.google.com) into IP addresses (e.g., 142.250.190.78).
- It simplifies how users access resources on the Internet.
- Works using a client-server model.
- Components:
- DNS Resolver: Queries the DNS system on behalf of the client.
- Root DNS Server: Directs to TLD servers.
- TLD Server: Directs to authoritative servers (.com, .org, etc.)
- Authoritative Server: Has the actual IP address for a domain.
- Process: Domain name → Resolver → Root → TLD → Authoritative Server → IP
Address
- Protocol: UDP, Port 53
2. IP Addressing
An IP address is a 32-bit number (in IPv4) that uniquely identifies each device on a
network.
- Written in dotted decimal format, e.g., 192.168.1.1
- Types:
- Public & Private Addresses
- Static & Dynamic Addresses
- Structure:
- Divided into Network ID and Host ID
- Classes (Classful Addressing):
- Class A: 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255
- Class B: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
- Class C: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
- Class D: Multicast
- Class E: Experimental
- Classless Addressing (CIDR): IP/Prefix, e.g., 192.168.1.0/24
3. Network Security
Network security refers to policies, protocols, and technologies designed to protect data
during transmission and storage across a network.
- Ensures Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability (CIA)
- Methods:
- Firewalls
- Encryption (SSL/TLS, IPsec)
- Authentication (Username/Password, Biometrics)
- Antivirus/Antimalware
- Access Control (ACLs)
- Helps prevent unauthorized access, data breaches, denial of service (DoS) attacks, etc.
4. Differentiate Between the Terms
a) Supernetting vs Subnetting
- Subnetting: Dividing a large network into smaller subnetworks. Used for efficient IP
utilization.
- Supernetting: Combining multiple smaller networks into a larger one.
b) Protocols vs Standards
- Protocol: A set of rules defining how data is transmitted across a network. E.g., TCP, IP,
HTTP.
- Standard: Official specifications created by organizations (IEEE, ISO) to ensure
interoperability.
c) Multiplexing vs Demultiplexing
- Multiplexing: Combining multiple signals into one medium/channel.
- Demultiplexing: Extracting original signals from the multiplexed data stream at the
receiver end.
5. Network and Layers (OSI Model)
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection) defines 7 layers for communication in
networks:
1. Physical Layer: Bit transmission, cables, switches
2. Data Link Layer: Framing, MAC addressing, error detection
3. Network Layer: Logical addressing (IP), routing
4. Transport Layer: End-to-end connection, reliability (TCP/UDP)
5. Session Layer: Session control, dialog management
6. Presentation Layer: Data translation, encryption, compression
7. Application Layer: User interfaces, protocols like HTTP, FTP, DNS
6. Multiplexing | Switching
a) Multiplexing
Combines multiple signals for transmission over a single channel.
- Types:
- FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
- TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
- WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
- CDM (Code Division Multiplexing)
b) Switching
Used in networks to forward data to the destination efficiently.
- Types:
- Circuit Switching (fixed path)
- Packet Switching (data divided into packets)
- Message Switching (entire message stored & forwarded)
7. Classful vs Classless Addressing
- Classful Addressing: Divides IP address space into fixed classes (A, B, C)
- Classless Addressing (CIDR): Uses IP and subnet mask (e.g., 192.168.1.0/24)
8. Basic Definitions of Computer Networking & Internet
- Computer Networking: A system where multiple computers are connected for sharing
data and resources.
- Internet: A global network of interconnected computer networks using the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
9. LAN, WAN, MAN, Internet
LAN – Local Area Network (School, Home)
MAN – Metropolitan Area Network (City-wide Wi-Fi)
WAN – Wide Area Network (Internet)
Internet – Interconnection of LANs/WANs globally
10. Five Components of Data Communication
1. Message – Data to be communicated
2. Sender – Device that sends the message
3. Receiver – Device that receives the message
4. Transmission Medium – Path (cables, air)
5. Protocol – Rules for communication
11. Flow Models of Data Communication
- Simplex: One-way
- Half-Duplex: Both directions but one at a time
- Full-Duplex: Simultaneous two-way
12. Effectiveness of Data Communication
- Delivery: Correct receiver
- Accuracy: No alteration
- Timeliness: Real-time delivery
- Jitter: Variation in packet arrival time
13. Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that governs communication.
Examples:
- HTTP (Web)
- FTP (File Transfer)
- TCP/IP (Core Internet)
- SMTP (Email)
14. Topologies
- Bus: Single backbone
- Star: Devices connected to a central hub
- Ring: Each device connected to 2 others
- Mesh: Devices interconnected
- Hybrid: Combination
15. Transmission Media
a) Guided (Wired):
- UTP: Cheap, common in LANs
- Coaxial Cable: TV networks
- Fiber Optic: High-speed, long-distance
b) Unguided (Wireless):
- Radio waves: Wi-Fi, broadcasting
- Microwaves: Satellite
- Infrared: Remote controls
16. Bandwidth Utilization
**a) Multiplexing:** Combine multiple signals
**b) Spreading:** Spread signal over wider frequency (DSSS, FHSS)
