Lecture note on Control Engineering 1 (EEC 324)

Citi Polytechnic
Electrical Electronics Engineering
Control System Definition
A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled for the
purpose of obtaining a desired output with desired performance, given a specified input.
Figure below shows a control system in its simplest form, where the input represents a
desired output.

Simplified description of a control system

A control system manages commands, directs or regulates the behavior of other devices or
systems using control loops. It can range from a single home heating controller using a
thermostat controlling a domestic boiler to large Industrial control systems which are used
for controlling processes or machines. A control system is a system, which provides the
desired response by controlling the output. The following figure shows the simple block
diagram of a control system.

Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine

Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input
signal is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be
on for some duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the
traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined.
Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control system
operates on time basis.
Classification of Control Systems
Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.
Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems
 Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete
time control systems based on the type of the signal used.

 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But, in
discrete time control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.
SISO and MIMO Control Systems
 Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control systems
based on the number of inputs and outputs present.
 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one
output. Whereas, MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems
have more than one input and more than one output.

Automatic Control System

A control system may consist of a number of components. To show the functions performed
by each component, in control engineering, we commonly use a diagram called the block
diagram. This section first explains what a block diagram is. Next, it discusses introductory
aspects of automatic control systems, including various control actions. Then, it presents a
method for obtaining block diagrams for physical systems, and, finally, discusses techniques
to simplify such diagrams.
Block Diagrams. A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions
performed by each component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the
interrelationships that exist among the various components. Differing from a purely abstract
mathematical representation, a block diagram has the advantage of indicating more
realistically the signal flows of the actual system.
In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks.
The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input
signal to the block that produces the output.
 Element of a block diagram

The figure above shows an element of the block diagram. The arrowhead pointing toward
the block indicates the input, and the arrowhead leading away from the block represents
the output. Such arrows are referred to as signals.
Summing Point. Referring a circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing
operation. The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is to be
added or subtracted. It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted have the
same dimensions and the same units.

Summing point
Branch Point. A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes
concurrently to other blocks or summing points.

Open-Loop Systems
In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is
independent of the desired output.
A generic open-loop system is shown below. It starts with a subsystem called an input
transducer, which converts the form of the input to that used by the controller. The
controller drives a process or a plant. The input is sometimes called the reference, while the
output can be called the controlled variable. Other signals, such as disturbances, are shown
added to the controller and process outputs via summing junctions, which yield the
algebraic sum of their input signals using associated signs.
For example, the plant can be a furnace or air conditioning system, where the output
variable is temperature. The controller in a heating system consists of fuel valves and the
electrical system that operates the valves.
 The distinguishing characteristic of an open-loop system is that it cannot
compensate for any disturbances that add to the controller’s driving signal
 (Disturbance 1). For example, if the controller is an electronic amplifier and
Disturbance 1 is noise, then any additive amplifier noise at the first summing
junction will also drive the process, corrupting the output with the effect of the
noise.
 Open-loop systems, then, do not correct for disturbances and are simply
commanded by the input. For example, toasters are open-loop systems, as anyone
with burnt toast can attest. The controlled variable (output) of a toaster is the color
of the toast.
 Other examples of open-loop systems are mechanical systems consisting of a mass,
spring, and damper with a constant force positioning the mass. The greater the
force, the greater the displacement. Again, the system position will change with a
disturbance, such as an additional force, and the system will not detect or correct for
the disturbance.

Open-Loop Transfer Function and Feedforward Transfer Function. Is the ratio of the
feedback signal B(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the open-loop transfer
function. That is,
Open-loop transfer function = B(s)/E(s) = G(s)H(s)
The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the feedforward
transfer function, so that
Feedforward transfer function = C(s)/E(s) = G(s)
If the feedback transfers function H(s) is unity, then the open-loop transfer function and the
feedforward transfer function are the same.

Closed-Loop (Feedback Control) Systems

Figure below shows an example of a block diagram of a closed-loop system. The output C(s)
is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with the reference input R(s). The
closed-loop nature of the system is clearly indicated by the figure. The output of the block,
C(s) in this case, is obtained by multiplying the transfer function G(s) by the input to the
block, E(s). Any linear control system may be represented by a block diagram consisting of
blocks, summing points, and branch points.
The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and
the feedback signal.
When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is
necessary to convert the form of the output signal to that of the input signal. For example,
in a temperature control system, the output signal is usually the controlled temperature.
The output signal, which has the dimension of temperature, must be converted to a force or
position or voltage before it can be compared with the input signal.
The role of the feedback element is to modify the output before it is compared with the
input. (In most cases the feedback element is a sensor that measures the output of the
plant. The output of the sensor is compared with the system input, and the actuating error
signal is generated.) In the present example, the feedback signal that is fed back to the
summing point for comparison with the input is B(s) = H(s)C(s).

Closed-loop system
Closed-Loop Transfer Function. For the system shown above, the output C(s) and input R(s)
are related as follows: since
C(s) = G(s)E(s)
E(s) = R(s) - B(s)
= R(s) - H(s)C(s)
Eliminating E(s) from these equations gives
C(s) = G(s) [R(s) - H(s)C(s)]
C(s)/R(s) = G(s)/1 + G(s)H(s)
The transfer function relating C(s) to R(s) is called the closed-loop transfer function. It
relates the closed-loop system dynamics to the dynamics of the feedforward elements and
feedback elements.

C(s) is given by

Cascaded system

Parallel system

Feedback (closed loop) system

The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems
Open Loop Control System Closed Loop Control System
Control action is independent of the desired Control action is dependent of the desired
output output
Feedback path is not present Feedback path is present
These are also called non-feedback control These are also called feedback control
system system
Easy to design Difficult to design
These are economical These are costlier
Inaccurate Accurate
Types of Feedback
There are two types of feedback –
 Positive feedback
 Negative feedback
Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s)R(s) and feedback output. The following
figure shows the block diagram of positive feedback control system

The transfer function of positive feedback control system is,

Where,
 T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.

 G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.

 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s)R(s) and system
output. The following figure shows the block diagram of the negative feedback control
system.

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

Where,
 T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.
  G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
 H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
Effects of Feedback
Let us now understand the effects of feedback.
Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
 The overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control system is the ratio of 'G'
and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or decrease depending on the value of
(1+GH).
 If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this case, 'GH'
value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.
 If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this case,
'GH' value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.
Effect of Feedback on Stability
 A system is said to be stable, if its output is under control. Otherwise, it is said to be
unstable.
 If the denominator value is zero (i.e., GH = -1), then the output of the control system
will be infinite. So, the control system becomes unstable.
Effect of Feedback on Noise
To know the effect of feedback on noise, let us compare the transfer function relations with
and without feedback due to noise signal alone.
Consider an open loop control system with noise signal as shown below.

The open loop transfer function due to noise signal is

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero

The closed loop transfer function due to noise signal is

It is obtained by making the other input R(s) equal to zero

Comparing the both equation
In closed loop control system, the gain due to noise signal is decreased by a factor of
(1+GaGbH) provided that the term (1+GaGbH) is greater than one.

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as
mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and
mathematical model.
The following mathematical models are mostly used.
 Differential equation model
 Transfer function model
 State space model

TRANSFER FUNCTION REPRESENTATION

Block Diagrams
Block diagrams consist of a single block or a combination of blocks. These are used to
represent the control systems in pictorial form.
Basic Elements of Block Diagram
The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off
point. Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the
following figure to identify these elements.
The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It is
also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of the
flow of signals.
Block
The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input and
single output.
The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function
G(s).

Transfer function

Y(s) = G(s)X(s)
Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or more
inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the
summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs based
on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by one.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y
as sum of A and B i.e. = A + B.
The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B is
having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as the difference of A
and B i.e Y = A + (-B) = A - B.

The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So, the
summing point produces the output Y as
Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.

Take-off Point
The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more
than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input to
one or more blocks summing points. In the following figure, the take-off point is used to
connect the same input, R(s) to two more blocks.
In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the
inputs to the summing point.

Basic Connections for Blocks

There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.
Series Connection
Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two blocks
having transfer functions G1(s)G1(s) and G2(s)G2(s) are connected in series.

For this combination, we will get the output Y(s) as

Y(s) G2(s)Z(s)
Where Z(s) = G1(s)X(s)
Y(s) = G2(s)[G1(s)X(s)]
G1(s)G2(s)X(s)
Y(s) = {G1(s)G2(s)}X(s)
Compare this equation with the standard form of the output equation,
Y(s) = G(s)X(s)
Where G(s) = G1(s)G2(s)
That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those two
blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Parallel Connection
The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following figure,
two blocks having transfer functions G1(s)G1(s) and G2(s)G2(s) are connected in parallel.
The outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point.

Y(s) = Y1(s) + Y2(s)

Y1(s) = G1(s)X(s) and Y2(s) = G2(s)X(s)
Y(s) = G1(s)X(s) + G2(s)X(s)
= {G1(s) + G2(s)}X(s)
G(s) = G1(s) + G2(s)
That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those two
blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Feedback Connection
There are two types of feedback — positive feedback and negative feedback. The following
figure shows negative feedback control system. Here, two blocks having transfer functions
G(s)G(s) and H(s)H(s) form a closed loop.
The output of the summing point is
E(s) = X(s) – H(s)
The output Y(s) is
Y(s) = E(s)G(s)
Substitute E(s) value in the above equation
Y(s) = {X(s) – H(s)Y(s)}G(s)}
Y(s){1+G(s)H(s)} = X(s)G(s)}
Y(s)/X(s) = G(s)/1+G(s)H(s)
Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is:

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
positive feedback, i.e.,

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points

There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks –
 Shifting summing point after the block
 Shifting summing point before the block

Shifting the Summing Point before a Block to after a Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present before the block.

The summing point has two input R(s) and X(s)

The output of Summing point is {R(s) + X(s)}

The input to the block G(s) is {R(s) + X(s)}

And the output is Y(s) = G(s){R(s) + X(s)}

Y(s) = G(s)R(s) + G(s)X(s) Equation 1

Output of the block G(s) is G(s)R(s)

The output of the summing point is Y(s) = G(s) + X(s) equation 2

Compare Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both the equations. But, there is difference
in the second term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block
G(s)G(s). It is having the input X(s)X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to
summing point instead of X(s)X(s). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.
Shifting summing point before the block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present after the block

Output of this block diagram is

Y(s) = G(s)R(s) + X(s) equation 3

Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the following
figure

Output of this block diagram is Y(s) = G(s)R(s) + G(s)X(s) equation 4

Compare Equation 3 and Equation 4,

The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both equations. But, there is difference in the second
term. In order to get the second term also same, we require one more block 1/G(s). It is
having the input X(s) and the output of this block is given as input to summing point instead
of X(s). This block diagram is shown in the following figure.
Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points

There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks –
 Shifting take-off point after the block
 Shifting take-off point before the block
Let us now see what kind of arrangements is to be done in the above two cases, one by one.
Shifting a Take-off Point from a Position before a Block to a position after the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off point is
present before the block.

Here, X(s) = R(s) and Y(s) = G(s)R(s)

When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But there is
difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get the same X(s) value, we require one more block
1/G(s). It is having the input Y(s) and the output is X(s) this block diagram is shown in the
following figure.
Shifting Take-off Point from a Position after a Block to a position before the Block
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is present
after the block.

Here, X(s) = Y(s) = G(s)R(s)

When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there
is difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get same X(s) value, we require one more block
G(s) It is having the input R(s) and the output is X(s). This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Block Diagram Reduction Rules

Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many blocks,
summing points and take-off points.
Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.

Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.

Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.

Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.

Example 1
Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure 1. Let us simplify (reduce) this
block diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

Step 1 use rule 1 for blocks G 1 and G2. Use rule 2 for blocks G 3 and G4. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 use rule 3 for blocks G1 G2 and H1. Use rule 4 for shifting take-off point after the block
G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.
Step 3 use rule 1 for blocks (G3 + G4) and G5. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Step 4 use rule 3 for blocks (G 3 + G4)G5 and H3. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Step 5 use rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Step 6 use rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure. This is simplified block diagram.

Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram
having multiple inputs.
Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a time and
make the remaining inputs as zero.
Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.

EXAMPLE 2
Consider the system shown in Figure 2 below. Simplify this diagram.
By moving the summing point of the negative feedback loop containing H2 outside the
positive feedback loop containing H1, we obtain Figure 2(b). Eliminating the positive
feedback loop, we have Figure 2(c).The elimination of the loop containing H2/G1 gives
Figure 2(d).Finally, eliminating the feedback loop results in Figure 2(e).
Block Diagram Reduction- Summary

Block Summer Pickoff Point

Y(s) = G(s)E(s)
E(s) = R(s) + H(s)Y(s)
Y(s) = G(s)[R(s) + H(s)Y(s)]
= G(s)R(s) + G(s)H(s)Y(s)
Y(s)/R(s) = G(s)/1 + G(s)H(s)

Example 3
Example 4
Example 5
Simplify the block diagram shown below. Obtain the transfer function relating C(s) and R(s).

The transfer function C(s)/R(s) is thus given by

Example 6
Simplify the block diagram shown below. Then obtain the closed-loop transfer function
C(s)/R(s).
Solution
First move the branch point between G3 and G4 to the right-hand side of the loop
containing G3, G4, and H2. Then move the summing point between G1 and G2 to the left-hand
side of the first summing point. See above Figure (a). By simplifying each loop, the block
diagram can be modified as shown in above Figure (b). Further simplification results in
Figure (c), from which the closed-loop transfer function C(s)/R(s) is obtained as

Basic Elements of Signal Flow Graph

Nodes and branches are the basic elements of signal flow graph.
Node is a point which represents either a variable or a signal. There are three types of nodes
— input node, output node and mixed node.
Input Node − It is a node, which has only outgoing branches.

Output Node − It is a node, which has only incoming branches.

Mixed Node − It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches.
Example
Let us consider the following signal flow graph to identify these nodes.

The nodes present in the signal flow graph are Y1, Y2, Y3 and Y4

Y1 and Y4 are the input and output node respectively

Y2 and Y3 are mixed nodes

Branch
Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes. It has both gain and direction. For example,
there are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These branches have gains of a, b, c
and -d.

Construction of Signal Flow Graph

Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the following algebraic equations –