1. WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?..........................................................................................................

3
1.0.1. PROCESSES OF DEVELOPMENT............................................................................................................................... 3
1.0.2. WHAT CAUSES US TO DEVELOP?......................................................................................................................... 3
1.0.3. WHAT GOALS DO DEVELOPMENTALIST PURSUE.......................................................................................... 3
1.0.4. SOME BASIC OBSERVATIONS ABOUT THE CHARACTER OF DEVELOPMENT............................... 4
1.1.5. ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT............................................................................................................................................5
2. THE RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENT............................................................................................ 6
2.1. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD........................................................................................................6
2.1.1 DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND HIS MAIN PARTS................................................................. 6
2.2. GATHERING DATE: BASIC FACT-FINDING STRATEGIES...................................................... 7
2.3. DETECTING RELATIONSHIPS..................................................................................................8
2.4. TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH...................................................................................................... 9
3. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT...................................................................................................10
3.1. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES...............................................................................................10
3.1.1. SIGMUND FREUD............................................................................................................................................................. 11
3.1.1.1. THREE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY.......................................................................................................... 11
3.1.1.2. FREUDIAN PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES................................................................................................................12
3.1.2. ERIKSON............................................................................................................................................................................. 12
3.1.2.1. EIGHT LIFE CRISES OR PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES...................................................................................... 12
3.2. COGNITIVE THEORIES........................................................................................................... 14
3.2.1. PIAGET................................................................................................................................................................................ 14
3.2.1.1. FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT...........................................................................................14
3.2.2. VIGOTSKY........................................................................................................................................................................ 15
3.2.2.1. THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORIES............................................................................................ 15
3.3. BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL THEORIES..................................................................................15
3.3.1. SKINNER’S OPERANT LEARNING THEORY........................................................................................................ 15
3.3.2. BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY..................................................................................................... 16
3.3.3. BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL........................................................................................................17
3.4. ETHOLOGICAL THEORY......................................................................................................... 17
3.4.1. ASSUMPTIONS OF CLASSICAL ETHOLOGY: KONRAD LORENZ............................................................ 17
ETHOLOGY AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: JOHN BOWLBY................................................................................ 17
3.5. ECOLOGICAL THEORY: URIE BRONFENBRENNER................................................................18
3.5.1. THE MICROSYSTEM..................................................................................................................................................... 18
3.5.2. THE MESOSYSTEM...................................................................................................................................................... 18
3.5.3. THE EXOSYSTEM.......................................................................................................................................................... 18
3.5.4. THE MACROSYSTEM..................................................................................................................................................19
3.5.5. THE CHRONOSYSTEM...............................................................................................................................................19
 UNIT 1. INTRODUCTION.

1. WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?

DEVELOPMENT. Is a systematic continuities and changes in the individual that occur

between conception, growth and death. Moreover, during our life we decline, that
means we lose some skills, abilities while we are growing.

There are 5 areas in chich children’s lives need to be improved which are:
➔​ Health and wellbeing.
➔​ Parenting.
➔​ Education.
➔​ Sociocultural contexts.
➔​ Social policy.

NORMATIVE PROCESSES. It refers to all the general actions we all develop during our life.

IDIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES. It refers to all the individual aspects of a person. For example,
not all babies crawl at the same age.

1.0.1. PROCESSES OF DEVELOPMENT.

★​ BIOLOGICAL. Hormones, walking motor, sensory abilities…

★​ COGNITIVE. Piaget…
★​ SOCIO-EMOTIONAL. Classical conditioning, feelings, self-steam, social skills…

As a conclusion, these processes are deeply intertwined.

1.0.2. WHAT CAUSES US TO DEVELOP?

MATURATION. The biological base of the individual according to the species-typical

biological inheritance and an individual person’s biological inheritance.

LEARNING. The process through which our experiences produce relatively permanent
changes in our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. We learn from observation,
interaction and our own experiences.

1.0.3. WHAT GOALS DO DEVELOPMENTALIST PURSUE.

DESCRIPTION. It is the observation of the behavior of people of different ages, seeking to
specify how people change over time.

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 NORMATIVE DEVELOPMENT. IDEOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT.

Is necessary to focus both on typical It is an individual variation in patterns of

patterns of change. change.

EXPLANATION. To determine why people develop as they typically do and some

people develop differently. It centers both on normative changes within individuals
and variation in development between individuals.

OPTIMIZATION. To apply what they have learned in attempts to help people develop in
positive directions. This is a practical side to the study of human development that has
led to such breakthroughs as ways to:
➔​ Promote strong affectional ties between fussy, unresponsive infants and their
frustrated parents.
➔​ Assist children with learning difficulties to succeed at school.
➔​ Help socially unskilled children and adolescents to prevent the emotional
difficulties that could result from having no close friends and being rejected by
peers.

1.0.4. SOME BASIC OBSERVATIONS ABOUT THE CHARACTER OF DEVELOPMENT.

CONTINUAL AND CUMULATIVE PROCESS. The first 12 years are important, just because it
sets the stage of adolescence and adulthood. Moreover, the one constant is change,
and the changes occur in each phase of life where they have important implications for
the future.

HOLISTIC PROCESS. Is a developmental process which emphasizes important

interrelationships. Furthermore, we have three different camps: physical growth,
cognitive aspects and psychosocial aspects.

PLASTICITY. It refers to a capacity for change in response to positive or negative life

experiences, a developmental state that has the potential to be shaped by experience.

HISTORICAL or CULTURAL CONTEXT. Each culture, subcultural and social generations

transmits a particular pattern of beliefs, values, costumes and skills to each
generations.

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 CHRONOLOGICAL OVERVIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT.

PERIOD OF LIFE. APPROXIMATE AGE RANGE.

PRENATAL PERIOD. Conception to birth.

INFANCY. Birth to 18 months old.

TODDLERHOOD. 18 months old to 3 years old.

PRESCHOOL PERIOD. 3 to 5 years of age.

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD. 5 to 12 or so years of age (until the onset

of puberty).

ADOLESCENCE. 12 or so to 20 years old (many

developmentalists define the end of
adolescence as the point at which the
individual begins to work and is
reasonably independent of parental
sanctions).

YOUNG ADULTHOOD. 20 to 40 years old.

MIDDLE AGE. 40 to 64 years old.

OLD AGE. 64 years old or older.

1.1.5. ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT.

NATURE VS. NURTURE. Is the debate among developmental theorists about the relative
importance of biological predispositions, which is nature and environmental influences,
which is nurture, as determinants of human development. Moreover, these relative
contributions of nature and nurture depend on the aspect of development in question.
However, they stress that all complex human attributes such as intelligence,
temperament and personality are the end products of a long and involved interplay
between biological predispositions and environmental forces.

CONTINUITY VS. DISCONTINUITY. Other back and forth debate. The difference between
continuous and discontinuous development is that continuous development views
development as a slow and continuous process.
In contrast, discontinuous development focuses on how our genetic predispositions
progress human development through distinct stages. Furthermore, we have:
➔​ QUANTITATIVE CHANGES. Are changes in degree or amount.

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 ➔​ QUALITATIVE CHANGES. Are changes in form of kind, that is, changes that age
the individual fundamentally different in some way than he or she was earlier.

However, continuity theorists think that development changes are basically

quantitative in nature, whereas discontinuity theorists tend to portray development
as a sequence of qualitative changes.
➔​ DEVELOPMENTAL STAGE. Is a distinct phase within a larger sequence of
development; a period characterized by a particular set of abilities, motives,
behaviors or emotions that occur together and for a coherent pattern.

EARLY VS. LATER EXPERIENCE. The first one means that the experiences have a more
profound impact on personality traits. While the second one is more influential in
shaping an individual’s skills and knowledge.

2. THE RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENT.

2.1. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD. It refers to the use of objective and replicable methods to gather
data for the purpose of testing a theory of hypothesis. Furthermore, it is useful to
conceptualize a problem, in which we collect some data and then analyse it, to draw
some conclusions and finally revise the research conclusions and theory.

OBJECTIVITY. Everyone who examines the data, will come to the same data and
conclusions.

REPLICABILITY. This means that every time the method is used, it results in the same
date and conclusions.

2.1.1 DEFINITIONS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND HIS MAIN PARTS.

THEORY. Is simply a set of concepts and propositions intended to describe and explain
some aspect of experience.

HYPOTHESES. We make up when we observe a phenomenon that interests us.

As a conclusion, theories generate hypotheses that are tested through observations of

behavior, and new observations indicate which theories are worth keeping.

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2.2. GATHERING DATE: BASIC FACT-FINDING STRATEGIES.

No matter what aspect of development we hope to study, we must find ways to

measure what interests us.

RELIABILITY. Implies the measure that yields consistent information over time
(temporal stability) and across observers (interrater stability).

UNRELIABILITY. This happens when experts yield in highly inconsistent information.

VALID. It measures what it is supposed to measure.

As a result of all this, we have to keep in mind that it is important to establish the
reliability and validity of measures, having different ways in which aspects of human
development might be measured.

★​ SELF-REPORT METHODOLOGIES. In this part we are going to see three different

procedures that allow us to gather information and test hypotheses.

5
 INTERVIEWS & QUESTIONNAIRES.

In general, kids and the child's parents will be asked some questions about the
development of the kid’s behavior, feelings, beliefs, etc. However we have different
types of questions.
➔​ STRUCTURED INTERVIEW AND QUESTIONNAIRE. All the questions are the same
and in the same order, and then it can be compared.
➔​ DIARY STUDY. It’s a creative questionnaire, where people write their answers
on a paper or notebook.

CLINICAL METHOD.

Is very similar to the interview technique, but the investigator asks different questions
according to the participants’ answers. Then, all participants are often asked the
same questions initially, but each participants’ answer determines what he or she is
asked next.

★​ OBSERVATIONAL METHODOLOGIES. This occurs when researchers prefer to

observe people’s behavior directly rather than asking them questions about it.

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION.

This consists of observing people in their common, everyday (that is, natural)
surroundings.

STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS.

In the laboratory, each participant is exposed to a setting that might cue the
behavior in question and is then surreptitiously observed (via a hidden camera or
through a one-way mirror) to see if he or she performs the behavior.

★​ CASE STUDIES. It’s a research method where the investigator gathers extensive
information about the life of an individual and then tests developmental
hypotheses by analyzing the events of the person’s life history.
Any or all the methods we have discussed, can be used to compile a detailed
portrait of a single individual’s development through the case study method.
Much of the information included in anu case history comes from interviews with
and observations of the individual, but a case study can also be used to
describe groups.

★​ ETHNOGRAPHY. This is a form of participant observation often used in the field of

anthropology and is also becoming popular among researchers who hope to
understand the effects of culture on developing children and adolescents.

6
 To recollect this data, ethnographers lived inside this culture community for a
long time, and after that, they draw conclusions about how the community's
unique values and traditions influence their development.

★​ PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL METHODS. In this field they use techniques that

measure the relationship between physiological responses and behavior, to
explore the biological underpinnings of children’s perceptual, cognitive and
emotional responses.
Moreover, these techniques are useful for interpreting the mental and emotional
experiences of infants and toddlers who are unable to report such events.

2.3. DETECTING RELATIONSHIPS.

➔​ CORRELATIONAL DESIGN. The investigator gathers information to determine

whether two or more variables of interest are meaningfully related. If the
researcher is testing a specific hypothesis, he or she will be checking to see
whether these variables are related as the hypothesis specifies they should be.
On these tests, people aren’t manipulated by the investigator, otherwise by the
natural experiences.

➔​ DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN. Aims to observe and record behaviours, cannot prove

what causes it.

➔​ EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN. These study causality, so in an experiment, researchers

carefully regulated procedures in which one or more factors are held constant
and also researchers intercede on the environment of the person who are
investigating.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. Manipulated variable, the cause.

DEPENDANT VARIABLE. It changes in response to the changes in the IV.

CONFOUNDING VARIABLE. It has determined their willingness to hurt a peer and

that the independent variable has had no effect at all.

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT. This means that each research participant has an equal
probability of being exposed to each experimental treatment.

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 FIELD EXPERIMENT.

Researchers seek convergent evidence for that conclusion by conducting a

similar experiment in a natural setting. This approach combines all the
advantages of naturalistic observation with the more rigorous control that
experimentation allows.

NATURAL (OR QUASI-) EXPERIMENT.

The researchers observe the consequences of a natural event that

participants have experienced.

2.4. TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH.

CROSS-SECTIONAL APPROACH. People who differ in age are studied at the same point
in time. Moreover, in this research, participants at each age level are different people.
➔​ COHORT. Is defined as a group of people of the same age who are exposed to
similar cultural environments and historical events as they are growing up.

COHORT EFFECT. DATA ON INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT.

This is the first limitation, that means they This is the second limitation of this design
may have distinct cultural or historical and tells us nothing about the
experiences. This can create an development of individuals because
interpretive problem, as age differences each person is observed at only one
observed in studies may not be due to point in time.
development but rather to
cohort-related factors.

LONGITUDINAL DESIGN. The same participants are observed repeatedly over a period of
time. The time period may be relatively brief (6 months to a year) or it may be very
long, spanning a lifetime. On this research, investigators are focused on one particular
aspect of development, for example intelligence.
➔​ STABILITY. Is the various attributes for each person in the sample. Also it is
identified as a normative development trend and process.
➔​ INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES. In development, particularly if they are able to
establish that different kinds of earlier experiences lead to different outcomes.

8
 PRACTICE EFFECTS. SELECTIVE ATTRITION.

These can also threaten the validity of In this research there are some problems
this study, where participants who are such as the kids moving away or getting
repeatedly interviewed or tested may bored with participating, or they may
become test-wise or increasingly have parents not allow them to continue
familiar with the content of the test itself, on the research. So the end result is a
showing performance improvements smaller and potentially
that are unrelated to normal patterns of nonrepresentative sample, because it
development. will have a limitation in conclusions.

3. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT.

Each theory contributes an important piece to the child development puzzle.

3.1. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES.

Here we have two authors:

FREUD. He made some theories about the psychosexual, early experience and passive.

ERIKSON. Psychosocial, later experience and active.

Despite all these different theories, they had common theories such as
unconsciousness, stages and emotions.

3.1.1. SIGMUND FREUD.

Freud was a neurologist who formulated his theory of human development from his
analyses of his emotionally disturbed patients’ life history. For that, he tries to relieve the
nervous symptoms and anxiety, which he based on hypnosis, free association and
dream analysis, because they gave some indication of unconscious motives that
patients had repressed.

After these theories, he concluded that human development is a conflictual process,

because as biological creatures, we have basic sexual aggressive instincts that must
be served, and these features appeared in the first years by the actions of their parents.

3.1.1.1. THREE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY.

Freud’s psychosexual theory proposes that components of personality, that are id, ego,
superego, develop and gradually become integrated in a series of five developmental
psychosexual stages.

9
 ID. EGO. SUPEREGO.

Is only present at birth. Is the conscious, rational Is the seat of the

FUNCTION. To satisfy component of personality conscience and it
inborn biological instincts, that reflects the childs develops between the
and it will try to do so emerging abilities to ages of 3 and 6 as children
immediately. perceive, learn, remember internalize.
and reason. Once, this step is
FUNCTION. Is to find emerging, children don’t
socially approved means need an adult to tell them
of gratifying instincts. that they have been good
or bad.

These three components of personality inevitably conflict with the mature, healthy
personality, a dynamic balance operates:

★​ ID. Communicates the basic needs

★​ EGO. It limits the impulsive id long enough to find realistic methods of satisfying
these needs.
★​ SUPEREGO. It decides whether the strategies of ego to problem-solving are
morally acceptable.

As a conclusion of all of this, the ego is in the middle, because it must reach a balance
between the id and the superego, at the same time it adapts to the realities of the
external world.

3.1.1.2. FREUDIAN PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES.

ORAL STAGE. ANAL STAGE. PHALLIC STAGE.

Infant’s pleasure centers Child’s pleasure focuses Child’s pleasure focuses
on the mouth. on the anus. on the genitals.

LATENCY STAGE. GENITAL STAGE.

Child represses sexual interest and A time of sexual reawakening; source of
develops social and intellectual skills. sexual pleasure becomes someone
outside the family.

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3.1.2. ERIKSON.

Erikson, as Freud, attracted many followers. However, Freud’s pupils didn’t always agree
with him. and eventually they began to modify some of his ideas and became
important theorists in their own right.

3.1.2.1. EIGHT LIFE CRISES OR PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES.

Erikson believed that people face eight major crises which he named psychosocial
stages, during the course of their lives. Each crisis emerges at a distinct time dictated
by biological maturation and the social demands that developing people experience at
particular points in life.

Each crisis must be resolved successfully to prepare for a satisfactory resolution of the
next life crisis. Moreover, the developmental stages of Erikson don't end on the
adolescence or the adulthood stage as the Freud’s stages, because he believes that
the adolescent and adulthood problems are more different from how their parents are
facing up to the upbringing.

TRUST VS. MISTRUST Infancy (first year).

Infants must learn to trust others to care for their basic
needs, but if the caregivers are rejecting them, they may
view the world as a dangerous place.
So, the primary caregiver is the key social agent.

AUTONOMY VS. SHAME Infancy (1 to 3 years).

AND DOUBT Children must learn to be autonomous, because failure to
achieve this independence may force them to doubt his or
her own abilities and feel ashamed. So, parents are the key
social agents.

INITIATIVE VS. GUILT Early childhood (preschool years, 3 to 5 years).

Children try to act as an adult and take responsibilities that
are beyond their capacity. When they start a goal, they
enter into a conflict with someone, making them feel guilty.
The solution is having a balance between initiative and
learning the privileges, rights, etc. So, family is the key
social agent.

INDUSTRY VS Middle and late childhood (6 years to puberty).

INFERIORITY Children must control important social and academic skills.
This is a period where they compared themselves with
peers. So, teachers and peers are the key social agents.

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 IDENTITY VS. IDENTITY Adolescence (10 to 20 years).
CONFUSION This is between childhood and maturity. In this stage, the
adolescence starts to establish their identity, whether they
don’t do it, they will be confused about the roles they
should play as adults. So, society of peers is the key social.

INTIMACY VS. Young adulthood (20 to 40 years).

ISOLATION The first task is making strong friendships, achieving sense
of love and companionship. So, lovers, spouses and close
friends are the key social agents.

GENERATIVITY VS. Middle adulthood (40 to 65 years).

STAGNATION Adults have to face the tasks of becoming productive in
their work and raising their families or otherwise looking
after the needs of young people. These standards of
generativity are defined by one’s culture.

INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR Old age.

The older adult looks back at life, viewing it as a meaningful,
productive and happy experience or a major
disappointment full of unfulfilled promise.

3.2. COGNITIVE THEORIES.

3.2.1. PIAGET.

Influenced by his background in biology, he defined intelligence. As children mature,

they acquire ever more complex cognitive structures that aid them in adapting to their
environments.

INTELLIGENCE. Is a basic life process that helps an organism adapt to its environment.

ADAPTING. The organism is able to cope with the demands of its immediate situation.

COGNITIVE SCHEME. Is an organized pattern of thought or actions that is used to cope

with or explain some aspect of experience. Moreover, these schemes take different
forms at different ages, younger and older children may often interpret and respond to
the same objects and events in very different ways.
➔​ ASSIMILATION. How new experiences will be interpreted in terms of the current
cognitive schemes. .
➔​ CONTRADICTIONS OR DISEQUILIBRIUMS. This is between the child’s
understanding and the facts.

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 ➔​ ACCOMMODATE. That is to alter her existing schemes so that they provide a
better explanation of the distinction between animate and inanimate objects.

3.2.1.1. FOUR STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.

SENSORIMOTOR STAGE. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE.

Birth to 2 years old. 2 to 7 years old.

The infant constructs an understanding The child begins to represent the world
of the world by coordinating sensory with words and images. These words and
experiences with physical actions. An images reflect increased symbolic
infant professes from reflexive, instinctual thinking and go beyond the connection
action at birth to the beginning of of sensory information and physical
symbolic thought toward the end of the action.
stage.

CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE. FORMAL-OPERATIONAL STAGE.

7 to 11 years old. 11 years old through adulthood.

The child can now reason logically about The adolescent reasons in more abstract,
concrete events and classify objects into idealistic, and logical ways.
different sets.

3.2.2. VIGOTSKY.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory focuses on how culture is transmitted from generation

to generation. Rather than representing children as independent explorers who make
critical discoveries on their own, Vigotsky viewed cognitive growth as a socially
mediated activity. Moreover, he rejected that children progress the same stages of
cognitive growth, because he argued that the new skills children master through their
interactions with more competent people are often specific to their culture rather than
universal cognitive structures.

CULTURE. The beliefs, values, traditions and skills of a social group.

SOCIALLY MEDIATED ACTIVITY. Is one in which children gradually acquire new ways of
thinking and behaving through cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable
members of society.

3.2.2.1. THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORIES.

INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY. The human mind is like a computer into which

information flows, is operated on and is converted to output, that is, answers,

13
inferences, or solutions to problems. Moreover, the theorists view cognitive
development as the age-related changes that occur in the mind's hardware and
software.

➔​ HARDWARE. The brain and the peripheral nervous system.

➔​ SOFTWARE. Mental processes such as attention, perception, memory and

problem-solving strategies.

Also, information-processing theorists recognise that biological maturation is an

important contributor to cognitive growth, in which they hold that maturation of the
brain and nervous system enables children and adolescents to process information
faster. As a result of this, children have a better development and improve some skills.
In what is perhaps their biggest break with Piaget, information-processing theorists
proposed that cognitive development is a continuous process that is not stagelike.

3.3. BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL THEORIES.

3.3.1. SKINNER’S OPERANT LEARNING THEORY.

Skinner believed that learning is the basis for most habits, and for that we have two
elements that are reinforcers and punishers. So Skinner’s theory was that habits
develop as a result of unique operant learning experiences and according to him, there
is no aggressive stage in child development nor and aggressive instinct in people.
Instead he claimed that the majority of habits that children acquire, the very responses
that make up their unique personalities are freely emitted operants that have been
shaped by their consequences.

As a conclusion, the operant learning theory claims that development depends on

external stimuli (reinforcers and punishers) rather than internal forces such as instincts,
drives, or biological maturation.

REINFORCER. Any action that increases the likelihood of a response and this can be
positive, when something is pleasing is given to the actor and negative, when
something unpleasant is removed from the actor.

PUNISHERS. These are the consequences that suppress a response and decrease the
likelihood that it will recur, and again they can be positive, when something unpleasant
is given to the actor and negative, when something pleasant is taken away from the
actor.

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3.3.2. BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY.

Bandura agrees with Skinner that operant conditioning is an important type of learning.
However, he argues that people are cognitive beings, active information processors,
who, unlike animals, think about the relationships between their behavior and its
consequences. They are often more affected by what they believe will happen than by
what they actually experience.

Bandura emphasizes observational learning as a central developmental process and is

a simple learning that results from observing the behavior of other people, called
models. This learning couldn’t occur unless cognitive processes were at work. We must
attend carefully to a model’s behavior, actively digest, or encode, what we observe, and
there store information in memory, in order to imitate what we have observed.

As a conclusion, observational learning permits young people to quickly acquire

thousands of new responses in a variety of settings where their models are pursuing
their own interest and aren’t trying to teach them anything. So Bandura claims children
are continually learning both desirable and undesirable behaviors by observation and
that because of this, child development proceeds very rapidly along many paths.

3.3.3. BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE MODEL.

Early versions of learning theory were largely tributes to Watson’s doctrine of

environmental determinism, where young unknowing children were viewed as passive
recipients of environmental influence, and it is believed that parents, teachers and
society will groom them to be.

However, Bandura disagreed with that, because he said that children and teenagers
are active and thinking beings that contribute in different ways of their own
development. For that reason, Bandura proposed the concept of reciprocal
determinism to describe his view that human development reflects an interaction
among an active person, the person’s behavior and the environment.

Unlike Watson and Skinner, who maintained that the environment shaped a child’s
personality and their behavior, Bandura and others proposed that the links between
people, behaviors and environments are bidirectional.

3.4. ETHOLOGICAL THEORY.

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ETHOLOGY. The scientific study of the evolutionary basis of behavior and the
contributions of evolved responses to the human species’ survival and development.

3.4.1. ASSUMPTIONS OF CLASSICAL ETHOLOGY: KONRAD LORENZ.

The most basic assumption ethologists make is that members of all animal species are
born with a number of biologically programmed behaviors that are products of
evolution and adaptive in that they contribute to survival.

Konrad Lorenz discovered imprinting through experiments with geese, showing that
they could imprint on a human instead of their mother. These biologically programmed
characteristics are a result of the Darwinian process of natural selection.
So ethologists focus on innate responses where all members of a species share and
may control individuals along similar developmental paths.

3.4.2. ETHOLOGY AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: JOHN BOWLBY.

John Bowlby believes that children display a variety of preprogrammed behaviors and
they also have some responses which promote a particular kind of experience that will
help the individual to survive and develop normally.
Ethologists are critical of learning theorists who ignored the biological basis, and that
for John and others ethologists are aware that learning needs the biological
development of the human.

Finally, we are going to talk about the early experiences, in which we have a critical
period and a sensitive period.

CRITICAL PERIOD. Is a limited time span during which developing organisms are
biologically prepared to display adaptive patterns of development.

SENSITIVE PERIOD. Is an optimal time for the emergence of a particular behavior and
where the individual is particularly sensitive to environmental influences. The most
sensitive period of a person is at 3 years of age, because they develop social and
emotionally.

3.5. ECOLOGICAL THEORY: URIE BRONFENBRENNER.

Urie Bronfenbrenner offers a new perspective on child and adolescent development,

where he defines the environment as any and all external forces that shape the
individual’s development.

16
Moreover, his ecological systems theory provides detailed analysis of environmental
influences, so the explanation is that a person influenced by the characteristics of
interaction and environment is forced to shape its development.

3.5.1. THE MICROSYSTEM.

Are the activities and interactions that occur in the person’s immediate surroundings,
and this is because children are influenced by the people in their microsystems. In
addition, their own biologically and socially influenced characteristics influence the
behavior of companions.

3.5.2. THE MESOSYSTEM.

Refers to the connections among such microsystems whose development is likely to be

optimized by strong, supportive links. However, the nonsupportive links between
microsystems can spell trouble.

3.5.3. THE EXOSYSTEM.

This system consists of contexts that children and adolescents are not a part of.
Nevertheless, it influences their development.

3.5.4. THE MACROSYSTEM.

This system is a cultural, subcultural or social class context in which microsystems

and ecosystems are embedded.
These values across culture, can greatly influence the kinds of experiences children
have in their homes, neighborhoods, schools and all other contexts that affect them.

3.5.5. THE CHRONOSYSTEM.

This system emphasizes the change of the child in how the contexts of development
can affect its directions.

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