CHAPTER 1

ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

20. What is reproduction?
 It is the biological process by which new individual organism is produced from
their parents. Each organism exists as a result of reproduction.
 It is the vital process for the existence of species.
 Brings suitable changes through variation in the offspring for their survival on
earth.
 Plant reproduction is important for not only for its own survival but also for the
continuation and existence of all other organisms.

21. List out two sub-aerial stem modifications with example.

Sub aerial stem Modification Example
Runner Centella asiatica
Stolon Mentha & Fragaria
Offset Pistia & Eichhornia (Terror of Bengal)
Sucker Chrysanthemum
Bulbils Dioscorea and Agave

22. What is layering?

 In this method, the stem of a parent plant is allowed to develop roots while still intact.
 When the root develops, the rooted part is cut and planted to grow as a new plant.
Examples: Ixora and Jasminum.
 Mound layering and Air layering are few types of layering.

23. What are clones?

The individuals formed by asexual method is morphologically and genetically identical
are called clones.

24. A detached leaf of Bryophyllum produces new plant. How?

 In Bryophyllum, the leaf is succulent and notched on its margin.
 Adventious buds develop at these notches and are called epiphyllous buds.
 They develop into new plants forming a root system and become independent
plants when the leaf gets decayed.

25. Differentiate grafting and layering.

Grafting Layering
1 Two different plants are involved. Only one parent plant is involved.
2 Parts of two different plants are Stem of the parent plant is allowed to
joined and continue to grow as one develop roots.
plant.
3 Plant used for grafting is called The rooted part is cut and grown as new
scion. plant.
4 Shows the characteristic of scion. Results in propagation of parent plant.
 5 Ex: Citrus, Mango, Apple Ex: Ixora, Jasminum

26. “Tissue culture is the best method for propagating rare and endangered plant species”
– Discuss
Tissue culture is the best method for propagating rare and endangered
Species. Because the regeneration of a whole plant is possible from single cell, tissue or
small pieces of vegetative structures through tissue culture.

27. Distinguish mound layering and air layering.

Mound layering Air layering
1 Applicable for plants with flexible Applicable for plants with flexible and
branches. non-flexible branches.
2 Lower branch is bent to the ground The stem is girdled at the nodal region
and buried in the soil and tip of the and hormones are applied to this region
branch is exposed above the soil. which promotes rooting.
3 Hormones are not required to Hormones are applied to promote
promote rooting. rooting.
4 A cut is made in the parent plant so Branches removed from the parent plant
the buried part grows into a new and grown in a separate pot or ground
plant after root formation. after root formation.

28. Explain the conventional methods adapted in vegetative propagation of higher plants.
The common methods of conventional propagation are cutting, grafting and layering.
a. Cutting:
o It is the method of producing a new plant by cutting the plant parts such as root,
stem and leaf from the parent plant.
o The cut part is placed in a suitable medium for growth. It produces root and grows
into a new plant.
o Depending upon the part used it is called as
root cutting (Malus),
stem cutting (Hibiscus, Bougainvillea and Moringa)
leaf cutting (Begonia, Bryophyllum).
o Stem cutting is widely used for propagation.
b. Grafting:
o In this, parts of two different plants are joined so that they continue to grow as
one plant.
o Of the two plants, the plant which is in contact with the soil is called stock and
the plant used for grafting is called scion.
Examples are Citrus, Mango and Apple.
Bud grafting:
 A T- shaped incision is made in the stock and the bark is lifted.
 The scion bud with little wood is placed in the incision beneath the bark and
properly bandaged with a tape.
Approach grafting:
 In this method both the scion and stock remain rooted.
The stock is grown in a pot and it is brought close to the scion.
Both of them should have the same thickness.
A small slice is cut from both and the cut surfaces are brought near and tied
together and held by a tape.
 After 1-4 weeks the tip of the stock and base of the scion are cut off and detached
and grown in a separate pot.
Tongue grafting:
 A scion and stock having the same thickness is cut obliquely and the scion is fit
into the stock and bound with a tape.
Crown grafting:
 When the stock is large in size scions are cut into wedge shape and are inserted on
the slits or clefts of the stock and fixed in position using graft wax.
Wedge grafting:
 In this method a slit is made in the stock or the bark is cut.
 A twig of scion is inserted and tightly bound so that the cambium of the two is
joined.

c. Layering:
o In this method, the stem of a parent plant is allowed to develop roots while still
intact.
o When the root develops, the rooted part is cut and planted to grow as a new plant.
Examples: Ixora and Jasminum.
Mound layering:
 This method is applied for the plants having flexible branches.
 The lower branch with leaves is bent to the ground and part of the stem is buried
in the soil and tip of the branch is exposed above the soil.
 After the roots emerge from the part of the stem buried in the soil, a cut is made in
parent plant so that the buried part grows into a new plant.
Air layering:
 In this method the stem is girdled at nodal region and hormones are applied to this
region which promotes rooting.
 This portion is covered with damp or moist soil using a polythene sheet.
 Roots emerge in these branches after 2-4 months.
 Such branches are removed from the parent plant and grown in a separate pot or
ground.
29. What is Cantharophily?
Pollination by beetle is known as Cantharophily.

30. List any two strategy adopted by bisexual flowers to prevent self-pollination.
Flowers are bisexual and the special adaptation of the flowers prevents self-
pollination.
i. Dichogamy:
In bisexual flowers anthers and stigmas mature at different times, thus
checking self-pollination. It is of two types.
a. Protandry: The stamens mature earlier than the stigmas of the flowers.
Examples: Helianthus, Clerodendrum
b. Protogyny: The stigmas mature earlier than the stamens of the flower.
Examples: Scrophularia nodosa and Aristolochia bracteata
ii. Herkogamy:
In bisexual flowers the essential organs, the stamens and stigmas, are
arranged in such a way that self-pollination becomes impossible.
For example
 In Gloriosa superba, the style is reflexed away from the stamens
 In Hibiscus the stigmas project far above the stamens

31. What is Endothelium?

In some species (unitegmic tenuinucellate) the inner layer of the integument may become
specialized to perform the nutritive function for the embryo sac and is called as
endothelium or integumentary tapetum
Example: Asteraceae

32. ‘’The endosperm of angiosperm is different from gymnosperm’’ Do you agree? Justify
your answer.
Yes I agree. The endosperm of angiosperm is different from gymnosperm.
ENDOSPERM IN ANGIOSPERM ENDODPERM IN GYMNOSPERM
Triploid endosperm Haploid endosperm
Endosperm is formed by triple fusion Endosperm formed before fertilization
Endosperm surrounds the embryo. It Gymnosperms (Ex: Pine) produce embryo
provides nutrition as starch. with many cotyledons. Primary
endosperm used as food.
33. Define the term Diplospory.
 A diploid embryo sac is formed from megaspore mother cell without a regular
meiotic division.
Examples: Eupatorium and Aerva.
 It is also known as generative apospory.

34. What is polyembryony? How it can commercially exploited?

Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed is called polyembryony.
 The seedlings formed from the nucellar tissue in Citrus are found better clones for
Orchards.
 Embryos derived through polyembryony are found virus free.

35. Why does the zygote divides only after the division of Primary Endosperm cell.
 The zygote needs nourishment during its development
 Fertilized embryo sac offers little nourishment to the zygote
 The Primary Endosperm Cell divides and generates endosperm tissue. This
nourishes the zygote. So the zygote divides primary endosperm cell.

36. What is Mellitophily?

Pollination by bees are called Mellitophily

37. “Endothecium is associated with dehiscence of anther” Justify the statement.

 Endothecium is generally a single layer of radially elongated cells found below
the epidermis.
 The inner tangential wall develops bands (sometimes radial walls also) of α
cellulose (sometimes also slightly lignified).
 The cells are hygroscopic.
The hygroscopic nature of endothecium along with stomium helps in the dehiscence of
anther.

38. List out the functions of tapetum.

 It supplies nutrition to the developing microspores.
 It contributes sporopollenin through ubisch bodies thus plays an important role in pollen
wall formation.
 The pollenkitt material is contributed by tapetal cells and is later transferred to the pollen
surface.
 Exine proteins responsible for ‘rejection reaction’ of the stigma are present in the
cavities of the exine. These proteins are derived from tapetal cells.

39. Write short notes on pollen kitt.

 Pollenkitt is contributed by the tapetum and coloured yellow or orange and is
chiefly made of carotenoids or flavonoids.
 It is an oily layer forming a thick viscous coating over pollen surface.
 It attracts insects and protects damage from UV radiation.
40. Distinguish tenuinucellate and crassinucellate ovules.
Tenuinucellate Crassinucellate
Sporogenous cell is hypodermal with Ovule with sub hypodermal
single layer of nucellar tissue around it. sporogenous tissue.
Have very small nucellus Have fairy large nucellus

41. ‘Pollination in Gymnosperms is different from Angiosperms’- Give reasons.

POLLINATION IN GYMNOSPERM POLLINATION IN ANGIOSPERM
Direct Indirect
Pollens are directly deposit on the Pollens are deposited on the stigma of
exposed ovule. the pistil.
Pollination carried by wind is called Pollination may be by Anemophily,
Anemophilous. Hydrophily and Zoophily.

42. Write short notes on Heterostyly.

 Some plants produce two or three different forms of flowers that are different in
their length of stamens and style.
 Pollination will take place only between organs of the same length.
a. Distyly:
The plant produces two forms of flowers,
o Pin or long style, long stigmatic papillae, short stamens and small pollen
grains;
o Thrum-eyed or short style, small stigmatic papillae, long stamens and
large pollen grains.
Example: Primula.
o The stigma of the Thrum-eyed flowers and the anther of the pin lie in
same level to bring out pollination.
o Similarly the anther of Thrum-eyed and stigma of pin ones is found in
same height. Th is helps in effective pollination.
b. Tristyly:
o The plant produces three kinds of flowers, with respect to the length of the
style and stamens.
o Here, the pollen from flowers of one type can pollinate only the other two
types but not their own type.
Example: Lythrum

43. Enumerate the characteristics features of entomophilous flower.

 Flowers are generally large or if small they are aggregated in dense inflorescence.
Example: Asteraceae flowers.
 Flowers are brightly coloured. The adjacent parts of the flowers may also be brightly
coloured to attract insect. For example in Poinsettia and Bougainvillea the bracts become
coloured.
 Flowers are scented and produce nectar.
  Flowers in which there is no secretion of nectar, the pollen is either consumed as food or
used in building up of its hive by the honeybees. Pollen and nectar are the floral rewards
for the visitors.
 Flowers pollinated by flies and beetles produce foul odour to attract pollinators.
 In some flowers juicy cells are present which are pierced and the contents are sucked by
the insects.

44. Discuss the steps involved in Microsporogenesis.

The stages involved in the formation of haploid microspores from diploid
microspore mother cell through meiosis is called Microsporogenesis.
 The primary sporogeneous cells directly, or may undergo a few mitotic divisions to form
sporogenous tissue.
 The last generation of sporogenous tissue functions as microspore mother cells.
 Each microspore mother cell divides meiotically to form a tetrad of four haploid
microspores (microspore tetrad).
 Microspores soon separate from one another and remain free in the anther locule and
develop into pollen grains.
 In some plants, all the microspores in a microsporangium remain held together called
pollinium.
Example: Calotropis.

45. With suitable diagram explain the structure of ovule.

Integument:
Protective covering (may be one or two)
Funiculus:
Mature ovule consist of a stalk and a body (also called funicle)
Hilum:
Point of attachment of funicle to the body of the ovule
Junction of ovule and funicle
Raphe:
In inverted ovule funicle adnate to the body of the ovule,orming a ridge called raphe
Nucellus:
Body of the ovule consists of centralmass of parenchymatous tissue which has large
reserve food material.
Nucellus enveloped by one or two covering called integument.
Unitegmic Bitegmic
Ovule with one integument Ovule with two integument

Micropyle:
Integument encloses the nucellus completely except at the top where it is free and form a
pore called nucellus.
Chalaza:
Basal region of the body of the ovule where the nucellus, funicle and integument meet or
merge called chalaza.
Embryo sac:
Large, Oval, Sac like structure towards micropyle is present which is called embryo sac
(Female gametophyte)
Embryo sac develops from functional megaspore formed within the nucellus.
Endothelium:
In some species (unitegmic tenuinucellate) the inner layer of the integument may become
specialized to perform the nutritive function for the embryo sac and is called as
endothelium or integumentary tapetum
Example: Asteraceae

46. Give a concise account on steps involved in fertilization of an angiosperm plant.

The fusion of male and female gamete is called fertilization.
Fertilization in angiosperms is double fertilization type.
The stages involved in double fertilization are:-
 Germination of pollen to form pollen tube in the stigma;
 Growth of pollen tube in the style;
 Direction of pollen tube towards the micropyle of the ovule;
 Entry of the pollen tube into one of the synergids of the embryo sac, discharge of
male gametes;
 Syngamy and triple fusion.
The events from pollen deposition on the stigma to the entry of pollen tube in to
the ovule are called pollen- pistil interaction. It is a dynamic process which involves
recognition of pollen and to promote or inhibit its germination and growth.
47. What is endosperm? Explain the types.
 The primary endosperm nucleus (PEN) divides immediately after fertilization but
before the zygote starts to divide, into an endosperm.
 The primary endosperm nucleus is the result of triple fusion (two polar nuclei and
one sperm nucleus) to produce endosperm.
 Depending upon the mode of development three types of endosperm are
recognized in angiosperms.
 They are nuclear endosperm, cellular endosperm and helobial endosperm

Nuclear endosperm:
 Primary Endosperm Nucleus undergoes several mitotic divisions without cell wall
formation thus a free nuclear condition exists in the endosperm.
 Examples: Coccinia, Capsella and Arachis

Cellular endosperm:
 Primary endosperm nucleus divides into 2 nuclei and it is immediately followed
by wall formation.
 Subsequent divisions also follow cell wall formation.
 Examples: Adoxa, Helianthus and Scoparia

Helobial endosperm:
 Primary Endosperm Nucleus moves towards base of embryo sac and divides into
two nuclei.
 Cell wall formation takes place leading to the formation of a large micropylar and
small chalazal chamber.
 The nucleus of the micropylar chamber undergoes several free nuclear division
whereas that of chalazal chamber may or may not divide.
 Examples: Hydrilla and Vallisneria.

Ruminate endosperm:
 The endosperm with irregularity and unevenness in its surface forms ruminate
endosperm
 Example: Areca catechu, Passiflora and Myristica

Functions of endosperm:
o It is the nutritive tissue for the developing embryo.
o In majority of angiosperms, the zygote divides only after the development of
endosperm.
o Endosperm regulates the precise mode of embryo development.
48. Differentiate Dicot and Monocot seed.
DICOT SEED MONOCOT SEED
Two cotyledons Only one cotyledon
Albuminous and Ex albuminous Mostly albuminous
The seed coat has outer coat testa and Seed is enclosed by husk. The brown
inner tegmen. membranous seed coat is closely adhered to
grains
In pea plant cotyledon stores the food. In Scutellum supplies the food to growing embryo
castor the endosperm stores the reserve absorbed from the endosperm with the help of
food. epithelium.
Coleoptile and Coleorhiza are absent Coleoptile and Coleorhiza are seen.

49. Give a detailed account on parthenocarpy. Add a note on its significance.

o Fruit like structures may develop from the ovary without the act of fertilization.
o Such fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits.
o Invariably they will not have true seeds. Many commercial fruits are made
seedless.
Examples: Banana, Grapes and Papaya.
Significance
 The seedless fruits have great significance in horticulture.
 The seedless fruits have great commercial importance.
 Seedless fruits are useful for the preparation of jams, jellies, sauces, fruit drinks
etc.
 High proportion of edible part is available in parthenocarpic fruits due to the
absence of seeds.

Additional Question:
Do you think Parthenocarpy and apomixis are different process? Justify.
Yes.
Parthenocarpy:
1. The formation of frit from the ovary without the act of fertilization.
2. They will not have true seeds.
3. Many commercial fruits are made seedless.
Ex: Banana, Grapes and Papaya.
Apomixis:
1. A method of reproduction which does not involve the union of male and female gametes.
2. There is a formation of seeds without fertilization.