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PMF IAS® General Science First Edition

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PMF IAS® General Science First Edition

Author: Rajashree Borah
Publisher: PMF IAS
Typesetting: PMF IAS
Printed and Marketed by PMF IAS
Email: admin@pmfias.com
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Rajashree Borah is an academic, researcher, and content expert known for her
profound contributions to Geography, Climatology, and Environmental Studies. A
graduate of the prestigious Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi, she holds
a postgraduate degree in Geography, where she honed her expertise in spatial
dynamics and human-environment interactions. Driven by her passion for climate
studies, she pursued an MPhil from JNU, focusing on rainfall variability and
producing valuable insights into climatic patterns and their implications.

Rajashree serves as the Lead Content Writer at PMF IAS, a leading platform for
competitive exam preparation. In this role, she crafts high-quality, learner-centric
content designed to simplify complex topics for aspirants of UPSC civil services and
other competitive exams.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Writing this book has been an incredibly enriching journey, and it would not have
been possible without many remarkable individuals' support, encouragement, and
contributions.

First and foremost, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to Manjunath Thamminidi, the

founder of PMF IAS, whose vision, leadership, and unwavering belief in the power of
knowledge have been a constant source of inspiration. His guidance has shaped the
direction of this project and motivated me to bring this work to life.

I am deeply thankful to Pratik Jadhav, Esha Attreya, and Gaurav Kumar Sharma, who
have meticulously designed the incredible infographics. I would also like to thank Dr.
Vishwjeet Kawar for his valuable insights. It is a privilege to work alongside such
talented individuals.

Lastly, I thank the readers who inspire me to continue learning, sharing, and growing.
I hope this book serves as a valuable resource and ignites curiosity, understanding,
and success in all who read it.

With gratitude and appreciation,

Rajashree Borah
 PREFACE

The UPSC Civil Services, State PCS, and other similar competitive examinations demand a
comprehensive understanding of a wide range of subjects, and General Science forms an
integral part of this demanding endeavour. This book is meticulously curated to excel in this
crucial area by equipping aspirants with the necessary knowledge and analytical skills.

The challenges of preparing for competitive exams are understandable. Time is of the
essence, and information overload can be overwhelming. Therefore, this book takes a
learner-centric approach, covering all important concepts and topics in a holistic, simplified,
clear, and concise manner. The book also takes an exam-centric approach, ensuring that
only relevant information is presented to the readers.
The book is organised into four main sections:

1. Physics: Covering the principles that govern motion, energy, and the forces of nature,
along with real-world applications that make these concepts tangible.
2. Chemistry: Exploring the composition, properties, and transformations of matter, this
section connects theoretical insights with practical relevance.
3. Biology: Delving into the living world, from cellular biology to ecosystems, this section
provides a holistic understanding of life processes and biodiversity.
4. Astronomy: Taking the reader beyond Earth, this section unveils the mysteries of space,
including celestial bodies, cosmic phenomena, and the science of the universe.

The strengths and distinguishing features of this book are:

1. Simplified Complex Concepts: Core scientific principles are presented in clear and
concise language, making them easier to grasp and retain.
2. Color-Coded Important Facts: Key concepts, formulas, and important points are
highlighted using colour-coding to enhance learning and improve information recall.
3. Coherent and Holistic Approach: The content is organised in a logical and
interconnected manner, providing a holistic understanding of scientific concepts.
4. Competitive Exam Focus: The content is tailored to the specific requirements and
expectations of various competitive exams, ensuring you are well-prepared for the
challenges that lie ahead.

Whether you are a beginner aiming to build a solid foundation or an advanced learner
seeking to refine your knowledge, this book is designed to cater to your needs. It blends
clarity with precision, helping you save time while mastering the essentials.

Hope that this book serves as a reliable companion on your journey to success. With
determination, focus, and the right tools, there is no limit to what you can achieve.

Happy learning, and best wishes for your exam preparations!

- Rajashree Borah

Note: Topics like biotechnology and nuclear energy will be covered in the upcoming PMF
IAS Science and Technology book. The book is an extension of PMF IAS General Science.
 PMF IAS General Science – Biology – First Edition

1. Cell: The Unit of Life ........................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. What is a Cell? ............................................................................................................................ 1

1.2. Types of Organisms Based on Cells .............................................................................................. 1
1.3. Cell Theory .................................................................................................................................. 1
1.4. Shape and Size of Cells ................................................................................................................ 1
Shape of Cells ...................................................................................................................................1
Size of Cells.......................................................................................................................................2

1.5. Cell Organelles ............................................................................................................................ 2

Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane .............................................................................................2
Transport Mechanisms through the Cell Membrane ........................................................................3
Cell Wall ...........................................................................................................................................6
Nucleus ............................................................................................................................................8
Cytoplasm ........................................................................................................................................8
Endomembrane System ...................................................................................................................8
Mitochondria .................................................................................................................................10
Plastids ...........................................................................................................................................10
Ribosomes ......................................................................................................................................11
Cytoskeleton ...................................................................................................................................11
Cilia and Flagella ............................................................................................................................11
Centrosome and Centrioles ............................................................................................................11

1.6. Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes ........................................................................................................ 13

1.7. Animal Cell vs Plant Cell ............................................................................................................ 13
1.8. Cell Cycle and Cell Division ........................................................................................................ 15
Mitosis ...........................................................................................................................................15
Meiosis ...........................................................................................................................................17 i
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

2. Tissues ............................................................................................................................................. 20

2.1. Plant Tissues ............................................................................................................................. 20

Meristematic Tissue .......................................................................................................................20
Permanent Tissue ...........................................................................................................................21
Simple Permanent Tissue ...............................................................................................................22
Complex Permanent Tissue ............................................................................................................23
 Protective Tissue ............................................................................................................................24

2.2. Animal Tissues .......................................................................................................................... 25

Epithelial Tissue..............................................................................................................................25
Connective Tissue ...........................................................................................................................28
Muscle Tissue .................................................................................................................................31
Neural Tissue..................................................................................................................................32

2.3. Vascular and Avascular Tissue ................................................................................................... 33

Vascular and Avascular Tissue in Plants .........................................................................................33
Vascular and Avascular Tissue in Plants .........................................................................................34

3. Classification of Organisms .............................................................................................................. 35

3.1. Some Scientific Bases of the Classification of Organisms ........................................................... 35

Organisation of Nucleus .................................................................................................................35
Number of cells ..............................................................................................................................36
Mode of Nutrition ..........................................................................................................................36
Level of Organisation .....................................................................................................................36
Evolution ........................................................................................................................................37

3.2. Taxonomic Classification of Organisms...................................................................................... 37

Levels of Taxonomic Classification ..................................................................................................38

3.3. Five Kingdom Classification by Robert Whittaker ...................................................................... 38

Kingdom Monera ...........................................................................................................................39
Kingdom Protista............................................................................................................................39
Kingdom Fungi ...............................................................................................................................40
Kingdom Plantae ............................................................................................................................40
Kingdom Animalia ..........................................................................................................................40
Viruses, Viroids, Prions and Lichens................................................................................................41

3.4. Classification of Kingdom Monera............................................................................................. 43 ii

PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Archaebacteria ...............................................................................................................................43
Eubacteria ......................................................................................................................................44

3.5. Classification of Kingdom Protista ............................................................................................. 44

Chrysophytes ..................................................................................................................................44
Dinoflagellates ...............................................................................................................................44
Euglenoids ......................................................................................................................................44
 Slime Moulds..................................................................................................................................45
Protozoans .....................................................................................................................................45

3.6. Classification of Kingdom Fungi ................................................................................................ 46

Phycomycetes.................................................................................................................................46
Ascomycetes...................................................................................................................................47
Basidiomycetes ..............................................................................................................................47
Deuteromycetes .............................................................................................................................47

3.7. Classification of the Kingdom Plantae ....................................................................................... 48

Cryptogams ....................................................................................................................................48
Phanerogams .................................................................................................................................52
Cryptogams vs Phanerogams .........................................................................................................53

3.8. Classification of the Kingdom Animalia ..................................................................................... 54

Basis of Classification .....................................................................................................................54
Characteristic Features of the Different Phyla of Kingdom Animalia ..............................................56
Vertebrata: A Subphyla of Chordata...............................................................................................60
Salient Features of Different Phyla in the Animal Kingdom ............................................................62

4. Structural Organisation in Plants and Animals ................................................................................. 64

4.1. Morphology of Flowering Plants ............................................................................................... 64

The Root .........................................................................................................................................66
The Stem ........................................................................................................................................66
The Leaf .........................................................................................................................................67
The Flower .....................................................................................................................................69
The Fruit .........................................................................................................................................73
The Seed .........................................................................................................................................73

4.2. Morphology of Animals............................................................................................................. 74

Earthworms....................................................................................................................................74 iii
Cockroaches ...................................................................................................................................75
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Frogs ..............................................................................................................................................75

4.3. Morphology of Humans ............................................................................................................ 76

Body Plan .......................................................................................................................................76
Skeletal System...............................................................................................................................76
Muscular System ............................................................................................................................76
Nervous System ..............................................................................................................................76
 Circulatory System..........................................................................................................................77
Respiratory System.........................................................................................................................77
Digestive System ............................................................................................................................77
Excretory System ............................................................................................................................77
Endocrine System ...........................................................................................................................77
Reproductive System ......................................................................................................................77
Integumentary System ...................................................................................................................78
Lymphatic and Immune System......................................................................................................78

5. Life Processes ................................................................................................................................... 79

5.1. Nutrition ................................................................................................................................... 79

Autotrophic Nutrition .....................................................................................................................79
Heterotrophic Nutrition..................................................................................................................79

5.2. Respiration................................................................................................................................ 79
Types of Respiration .......................................................................................................................80
Aerobic Respiration vs Anaerobic Respiration ................................................................................81
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)........................................................................................................81

5.3. Transportation .......................................................................................................................... 81

Transportation in Plants .................................................................................................................81
Transportation in Animals ..............................................................................................................82
Types of Transportation Across Cell Membrane .............................................................................82

5.4. Excretion ................................................................................................................................... 82

Excretion in Humans ......................................................................................................................82
Excretion in Plants ..........................................................................................................................82

6. Life Processes in Plants ..................................................................................................................... 83

iv
6.1. Respiration in Plants ................................................................................................................. 83
6.2. Nutrition in Plants ..................................................................................................................... 83
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Mineral or Inorganic Plant Nutrition: Macronutrients and Micronutrients ....................................83

Photosynthesis in Higher Plants .....................................................................................................89

6.3. Transportation in Plants ............................................................................................................ 92

Means of Transport ........................................................................................................................92
Ways Roots Absorb Water and Minerals ........................................................................................94
Water Movement up a Plant ..........................................................................................................94
 Plant-Water Relations ....................................................................................................................96

6.4. Excretion in Plants ..................................................................................................................... 97

7. Life Processes in Human Beings ........................................................................................................ 98

7.1. Respiration in Human Beings .................................................................................................... 98

Human Respiratory System ............................................................................................................98
Mechanism of Breathing ................................................................................................................99
Exchange of Gases .......................................................................................................................101
Transport of Gases .......................................................................................................................101
Regulation of Respiration .............................................................................................................102
Disorders of the Respiratory System.............................................................................................102

7.2. Transportation in Human Beings: Human Circulatory System .................................................. 102

Circulatory Medium: Blood and Lymph ........................................................................................103
Blood Vessels: Arteries, Veins and Capillaries ...............................................................................107
Heart ............................................................................................................................................109
Types of Circulatory Systems ........................................................................................................112
Comparison Between Different Circulatory System Types ............................................................113
Double Circulation in Humans: Explained.....................................................................................113
Circulatory System Disorders ........................................................................................................114

7.3. Nutrition in Human Beings: Digestion and Absorption ............................................................ 114

Digestive System of Human Being ................................................................................................116
Digestive Glands...........................................................................................................................119
Digestion of Food .........................................................................................................................120
Absorption of Digested Products ..................................................................................................123
Disorders of the Digestive System ................................................................................................123

7.4. Excretion in Human Beings ...................................................................................................... 124

v
Nitrogenous Wastes .....................................................................................................................124
Types of Excretion Based on Nitrogenous Waste ..........................................................................125
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Excretory Structures .....................................................................................................................125

Human Excretory System..............................................................................................................125
Urine Formation ...........................................................................................................................127
Function of the Tubules ................................................................................................................128
Regulation of Kidney Function ......................................................................................................128
Micturition ...................................................................................................................................129
Role of Other Organs in Excretion ................................................................................................129
 Disorders of the Excretory System ................................................................................................130

8. Nutrients ........................................................................................................................................ 131

8.1. Biomolecules ........................................................................................................................... 131

Carbohydrates ..............................................................................................................................131
Classification of Carbohydrates ....................................................................................................132
Functions of Carbohydrates..........................................................................................................134
Proteins ........................................................................................................................................134
Classification of Proteins ..............................................................................................................135
Functions of Proteins ....................................................................................................................136
Lipids ............................................................................................................................................137
Classification of Lipids ..................................................................................................................137
Functions of Lipids ........................................................................................................................140
Nucleic Acids ................................................................................................................................141
Classification of Nucleic Acids ......................................................................................................141
Functions of Nucleic Acids ............................................................................................................141
Biomacromolecules vs Biomicromolecules ...................................................................................142

8.2. Vitamins.................................................................................................................................. 143

8.3. Minerals.................................................................................................................................. 149
8.4. Deficiency Diseases and Balanced Diet .................................................................................... 152
8.5. Good Cholesterol and Bad Cholesterol .................................................................................... 152
8.6. Types of Fats ........................................................................................................................... 155
Saturated Fats (SFA) .....................................................................................................................155
Unsaturated Fats .........................................................................................................................155

8.7. Metabolism ............................................................................................................................. 158

Types of Metabolic Pathways .......................................................................................................159

vi
Enzymes .......................................................................................................................................159
Metabolites ..................................................................................................................................161
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

9. Reproduction ................................................................................................................................. 162

9.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 162

9.2. Asexual Reproduction ............................................................................................................. 162
Methods of Asexual Reproduction................................................................................................162

9.3. Sexual Reproduction ............................................................................................................... 167

 Life Cycles and Reproductive Phases ............................................................................................167
Stages of Sexual Reproduction .....................................................................................................168
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants ......................................................................................170
Human Reproduction ...................................................................................................................172

10. Control and Coordination ............................................................................................................... 175

10.1. Neural Control and Coordination in Humans ........................................................................... 175

Neural System ..............................................................................................................................175

10.2. Chemical Coordination and Integration in Humans ................................................................. 183

Endocrine Glands and Hormones .................................................................................................183
Human Endocrine System.............................................................................................................184
Hormones of Heart, Kidney, and Gastrointestinal Tract ...............................................................187

10.3. Coordination in Plants ............................................................................................................. 187

Immediate Response to Stimulus .................................................................................................187
Movement Due to Growth ...........................................................................................................188

11. Locomotion and Movement ........................................................................................................... 190

11.1. Types of Movement................................................................................................................. 190

11.2. Muscles ................................................................................................................................... 190
Structure of Skeletal Muscle .........................................................................................................190

11.3. Skeletal System ....................................................................................................................... 192

Axial Skeleton ...............................................................................................................................192
Appendicular Skeleton..................................................................................................................192
Joints ............................................................................................................................................192

11.4. Disorders of the Muscular and Skeletal System ....................................................................... 194

vii
12. Heredity and Evolution................................................................................................................... 195

12.1. Heredity .................................................................................................................................. 195

PMF IAS – Science – Biology

12.2. Principles of Inheritance and Variation.................................................................................... 195

Mendel’s Experiments on Inheritance ..........................................................................................195
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance .......................................................................................................197
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance ............................................................................................200
Thomas Hunt Morgan's Experiments ...........................................................................................201
Polygenic Inheritance ...................................................................................................................202
 Pleiotropy .....................................................................................................................................203
Sex Determination ........................................................................................................................203
Sex Determination in Humans ......................................................................................................206
Mutation ......................................................................................................................................206
Genetic Disorders .........................................................................................................................206
India and Sickle-Cell Anaemia ......................................................................................................211

12.3. Molecular Basis of Inheritance ................................................................................................ 217

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) ........................................................................................................217
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) .................................................................................................................221
DNA vs RNA ..................................................................................................................................223
Genetic Code ................................................................................................................................225
Process of Protein Synthesis from DNA and RNA..........................................................................225
Regulation of Gene Expression .....................................................................................................226

12.4. Evolution ................................................................................................................................. 227

Theories of Origin of Life ..............................................................................................................227
Evolution of Life Forms: Charles Darwin’s Theory .........................................................................227
Evidences of Evolution ..................................................................................................................228
Adaptive Radiation.......................................................................................................................229
Hardy-Weinberg Principle ............................................................................................................230
A Brief Account of Evolution .........................................................................................................231
Origin and Evolution of Humans ..................................................................................................232

13. Diseases and Immunity .................................................................................................................. 235

13.1. Classification of Diseases ........................................................................................................ 235

Based on Causative Agents ..........................................................................................................235
Based on the Mode of Transmission.............................................................................................235
Based on Duration .......................................................................................................................236
Based on Origin and Nature .........................................................................................................236 viii
PMF IAS – Science – Biology
Based on the System Affected ......................................................................................................236
Based on Immune System Involvement ........................................................................................236
Based on Age Group.....................................................................................................................237
Based on Global Impact ...............................................................................................................237
Based on the Time of Occurrence .................................................................................................237

13.2. Communicable Diseases Caused by Bacteria ........................................................................... 237

13.3. Communicable Diseases Caused by Viruses ............................................................................. 238
13.4. Communicable Diseases Caused by Protozoa .......................................................................... 242
13.5. Non-Communicable Diseases Caused by Genetics ................................................................... 242
13.6. Non-Communicable Diseases Caused by Deficiencies .............................................................. 243
13.7. Non-Communicable Diseases Caused by Lifestyle .................................................................... 244
13.8. Non-Communicable Autoimmune Diseases ............................................................................. 246
13.9. Non-Communicable Degenerative Diseases ............................................................................ 248
13.10. Description of Some Important Diseases ................................................................................ 248
Polio (Poliomyelitis) ......................................................................................................................248
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) .............................................................................250
Japanese Encephalitis ..................................................................................................................252
Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) ............................................................................................................254
Hepatitis.......................................................................................................................................254
Zika Virus Disease.........................................................................................................................257
Dengue .........................................................................................................................................258
Nipah ...........................................................................................................................................260
Influenza ......................................................................................................................................260
Monkeypox (Mpox) ......................................................................................................................263
Marburg Virus Disease (MVD)......................................................................................................265
Covid-19 .......................................................................................................................................265
Malaria ........................................................................................................................................269
Tuberculosis (TB) ..........................................................................................................................271
Diabetes .......................................................................................................................................273
West Nile Virus (WNV) .................................................................................................................275
Elephantiasis (Lymphatic Filariasis) ..............................................................................................276

13.11. Immunity ............................................................................................................................... 276

Innate Immunity...........................................................................................................................276
Acquired Immunity or Adaptive Immunity ...................................................................................277
ix
13.12. Antibodies ............................................................................................................................. 280
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Types of Antibodies ......................................................................................................................280

 PMF IAS General Science – Physics – First Edition

1. Units and Measurements ................................................................................................................... 1

1.1. Physical Quantities ...................................................................................................................... 1

Types of Physical Quantities .............................................................................................................1

1.2. Units ........................................................................................................................................... 1

Types of Units ...................................................................................................................................1

1.3. System of Units ........................................................................................................................... 2

CGS System.......................................................................................................................................2
MKS System ......................................................................................................................................2
FPS System .......................................................................................................................................2
SI System (International System of Units) .........................................................................................2

2. Motion ............................................................................................................................................... 4

2.1. Types of Motion .......................................................................................................................... 4

Based on the Nature of the Movement ............................................................................................4
Based on the Path an Object Follows ...............................................................................................5
Based on Speed ................................................................................................................................6
Based on Dimensions .......................................................................................................................6

2.2. Distance and Displacement ......................................................................................................... 6

Distance ...........................................................................................................................................6
Displacement ...................................................................................................................................7
Distance vs Displacement .................................................................................................................7

2.3. Speed .......................................................................................................................................... 7

Types of Speed .................................................................................................................................8

2.4. Velocity ....................................................................................................................................... 8 x

Types of Velocity...............................................................................................................................8
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

2.5. Relative Velocity ......................................................................................................................... 9

2.6. Acceleration .............................................................................................................................. 10
Types of Acceleration .....................................................................................................................10

2.7. Graphical Representation of Motion ......................................................................................... 10

Distance-Time Graph......................................................................................................................10
 Velocity-Time Graph .......................................................................................................................11
Acceleration-Time Graph ...............................................................................................................12
Displacement-Time Graph ..............................................................................................................12

2.8. Equations of Motion.................................................................................................................. 13

First Equation of Motion ................................................................................................................13
Second Equation of Motion ............................................................................................................14
Third Equation of Motion ...............................................................................................................14

2.9. Motion Under Gravity ............................................................................................................... 14

Equations of Motion Under Gravity................................................................................................14
Free Fall..........................................................................................................................................14
Objects Thrown Upwards ...............................................................................................................15

2.10. Projectile Motion ...................................................................................................................... 15

2.11. Circular Motion ......................................................................................................................... 16

3. Force and Laws of Motion ................................................................................................................ 17

3.1. Force ......................................................................................................................................... 17

3.2. Basic or Fundamental Forces in Nature ..................................................................................... 17
Gravitational Force ........................................................................................................................18
Electromagnetic Force....................................................................................................................18
Strong Nuclear Force ......................................................................................................................18
Weak Nuclear Force .......................................................................................................................18
Comparison Between Four Fundamental Forces of Nature ............................................................19

3.3. Types of Forces .......................................................................................................................... 19

Contact Forces................................................................................................................................19
Non-Contact Forces ........................................................................................................................19
Balanced and Unbalanced Forces ..................................................................................................20
Internal and External Forces...........................................................................................................20 xi
Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces ...................................................................................20
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces .................................................................................................20

Real and Apparent Forces ..............................................................................................................20
Cohesive and Adhesive Forces ........................................................................................................20

3.4. Inertia ....................................................................................................................................... 21

Types of Inertia...............................................................................................................................21
Moment of Inertia ..........................................................................................................................21
 3.5. Momentum ............................................................................................................................... 21
Law of Conservation of Momentum ...............................................................................................21
Impulse ..........................................................................................................................................22

3.6. Newton’s Laws of Motion .......................................................................................................... 22

Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia) ...............................................................................22
Newton's Second Law of Motion ....................................................................................................23
Newton's Third Law of Motion .......................................................................................................23

3.7. Friction ...................................................................................................................................... 23

Types of Friction .............................................................................................................................24
Advantages of Friction ...................................................................................................................25
Disadvantages of Friction ...............................................................................................................26

4. Work, Energy and Heat .................................................................................................................... 27

4.1. Work ......................................................................................................................................... 27

Types of Work.................................................................................................................................27

4.2. Power........................................................................................................................................ 27
4.3. Energy ....................................................................................................................................... 27
4.4. Mechanical Energy .................................................................................................................... 28
Kinetic Energy ................................................................................................................................28
Potential Energy .............................................................................................................................28

4.5. Types of Energy ......................................................................................................................... 29

4.6. Work Energy Theorem ............................................................................................................... 29
Work and Kinetic Energy Relationship ............................................................................................29

4.7. Law of Conservation of Energy .................................................................................................. 29

4.8. Mass-Energy Equivalence .......................................................................................................... 30

xii
4.9. Collision .................................................................................................................................... 30
Types of Collision ............................................................................................................................30
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

4.10. Heat .......................................................................................................................................... 30

4.11. Types of Heat ............................................................................................................................ 31
Sensible Heat .................................................................................................................................31
Latent Heat ....................................................................................................................................31
Specific Heat ..................................................................................................................................31

4.12. Transfer of Heat ........................................................................................................................ 31

 Conduction .....................................................................................................................................31
Convection .....................................................................................................................................32
Radiation........................................................................................................................................33

4.13. Heat and Change in States of Matter ........................................................................................ 33

Melting (Fusion) .............................................................................................................................34
Freezing (Solidification) ..................................................................................................................35
Vaporisation ...................................................................................................................................35
Condensation .................................................................................................................................36
Sublimation ....................................................................................................................................36
Deposition ......................................................................................................................................37

4.14. Temperature ............................................................................................................................. 37

4.15. Scales of Temperature ............................................................................................................... 37
Celsius Scale (°C) ............................................................................................................................37
Fahrenheit Scale (°F) ......................................................................................................................38
Kelvin Scale ....................................................................................................................................38

4.16. Heat vs Temperature ................................................................................................................. 38

4.17. Humidity ................................................................................................................................... 39
Absolute Humidity ..........................................................................................................................39
Relative Humidity ...........................................................................................................................39
Specific Humidity............................................................................................................................39
Factors Affecting Humidity .............................................................................................................40

4.18. Thermal Expansion .................................................................................................................... 40

Types of Thermal Expansion ...........................................................................................................40

4.19. Thermal Conductivity ................................................................................................................ 40

Black Body......................................................................................................................................40

xiii
Newton's Law of Cooling ................................................................................................................41

4.20. Thermodynamic Processes ........................................................................................................ 41

PMF IAS – Science – Physics

Types of Thermodynamic Processes ...............................................................................................41

5. Gravitation ...................................................................................................................................... 42

5.1. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation ..................................................................................... 42

5.2. Characteristics of Gravitational Force........................................................................................ 42
5.3. Gravity of the Earth ................................................................................................................... 43
 Acceleration due to Gravity ............................................................................................................43
Factors Affecting Gravity and Acceleration due to Gravity .............................................................43
Effects of Gravity on the Earth .......................................................................................................43

5.4. Mass and Weight ...................................................................................................................... 44

Mass ..............................................................................................................................................44
Weight ...........................................................................................................................................44

5.5. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion ............................................................................................ 45

Law of Ellipses or Law of Orbits......................................................................................................45
Law of Equal Areas .........................................................................................................................45
Law of Harmonies or Law of Periods ..............................................................................................45

6. Solids and Fluids............................................................................................................................... 46

6.1. Comparison between Solids and Fluids...................................................................................... 46

6.2. Physical Properties of Solids and Fluids ..................................................................................... 46
Mass and Weight ...........................................................................................................................46
Volume ...........................................................................................................................................47
Density ...........................................................................................................................................48
Relative Density..............................................................................................................................48

6.3. Mechanical Properties of Solids ................................................................................................ 48

Elasticity .........................................................................................................................................49
Stress..............................................................................................................................................49
Strain .............................................................................................................................................50
Hooke’s Law ...................................................................................................................................51
Poisson's Ratio ...............................................................................................................................51
Types of Solids Based on Elasticity .................................................................................................51

6.4. Mechanical Properties of Fluids ................................................................................................ 51

Fluid Pressure .................................................................................................................................51 xiv
Pascal's Law ...................................................................................................................................52
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

Atmospheric Pressure.....................................................................................................................52
Buoyancy........................................................................................................................................52
Archimedes' Principle .....................................................................................................................53
Surface Tension ..............................................................................................................................53
Capillarity .......................................................................................................................................54
Viscosity .........................................................................................................................................54
 Flow of Fluids .................................................................................................................................55
Ideal Gas and Ideal Gas Law ..........................................................................................................56
Boyle's Law ....................................................................................................................................57
Charles's Law .................................................................................................................................57
Gay-Lussac's Law ...........................................................................................................................57
Avogadro's Law ..............................................................................................................................58

7. Waves: Mechanical and Electromagnetic ......................................................................................... 59

7.1. Waves ....................................................................................................................................... 59

Key Properties of Wave ..................................................................................................................59

7.2. Types of Waves ......................................................................................................................... 60

Mechanical Waves .........................................................................................................................61
Electromagnetic Waves ..................................................................................................................61

7.3. Types of Mechanical Waves ...................................................................................................... 62

Transverse Waves...........................................................................................................................62
Longitudinal Waves ........................................................................................................................63

7.4. Types of Electromagnetic Waves ............................................................................................... 63

Radio Waves ..................................................................................................................................63
Microwaves ....................................................................................................................................64
Infrared ..........................................................................................................................................64
Visible Light ....................................................................................................................................65
Ultraviolet Waves ...........................................................................................................................67
X-Rays ............................................................................................................................................68
Gamma Rays ..................................................................................................................................69
Comparison Between Types of Electromagnetic Radiations ...........................................................69

8. Light and Optics ............................................................................................................................... 71

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8.1. Characteristics of Light .............................................................................................................. 71
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

Dual Nature (Wave-Particle Duality) ..............................................................................................71

8.2. Reflection of Light ..................................................................................................................... 72

Laws of Reflection ..........................................................................................................................72
Types of Reflection .........................................................................................................................72

8.3. Mirrors ...................................................................................................................................... 72

8.4. Types of Mirrors ........................................................................................................................ 73
 Plane Mirrors .................................................................................................................................73
Concave Mirrors (Converging Mirror) ............................................................................................74
Convex Mirror (Diverging Mirror) ...................................................................................................74

8.5. Types of Images ........................................................................................................................ 75

Real Images....................................................................................................................................75
Virtual Images ................................................................................................................................75

8.6. Refraction of Light..................................................................................................................... 76

Characteristics of Refraction ..........................................................................................................76
Laws of Refraction..........................................................................................................................76
Refractive Index..............................................................................................................................76

8.7. Lens .......................................................................................................................................... 80

Concave Lens..................................................................................................................................81
Convex Lens ....................................................................................................................................81

8.8. Dispersion of Light .................................................................................................................... 81

Principles of Dispersion of Light .....................................................................................................82

8.9. Scattering of Light ..................................................................................................................... 84

Rayleigh Scattering ........................................................................................................................84
Mie Scattering ................................................................................................................................85
Non-Selective Scattering ................................................................................................................85
Comparison Between Different Types of Scattering .......................................................................86
Tyndall Effect ..................................................................................................................................86

8.10. Diffraction of Light .................................................................................................................... 87

8.11. Polarization of Light .................................................................................................................. 87
Applications of Polarization............................................................................................................87

8.12. Interference of Light .................................................................................................................. 87

Types of Interference of Light .........................................................................................................88 xvi
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

8.13. Defects of Vision: Causes and Corrections ................................................................................. 88

Myopia (Near-sightedness) ............................................................................................................88
Hyperopia (Farsightedness)............................................................................................................88
Astigmatism ...................................................................................................................................88
Presbyopia .....................................................................................................................................88
Cataract .........................................................................................................................................89
Night Blindness (Nyctalopia) ..........................................................................................................89
 Colour Blindness .............................................................................................................................89

9. Sound Waves ................................................................................................................................... 90

9.1. Characteristics of Sound Waves ................................................................................................. 90

Speed of Sound Waves ...................................................................................................................90
Tone and Noise ...............................................................................................................................91
Pitch ...............................................................................................................................................92
Intensity and Loudness of Sound ....................................................................................................92

9.2. Classification of Sound Waves ................................................................................................... 94

Infrasonic Waves or Subsonic Waves .............................................................................................95
Audible Waves ...............................................................................................................................95
Ultrasonic Waves ...........................................................................................................................95

9.3. Behaviour of Sound Waves ........................................................................................................ 96

Reflection of Sound ........................................................................................................................96
Refraction of Sound ........................................................................................................................97
Diffraction of Sound Waves ............................................................................................................97
Doppler Effect in Sound Waves.......................................................................................................98
Interference in Sound Waves ..........................................................................................................99

10. Electricity and Magnetism ............................................................................................................. 100

10.1. Electricity ................................................................................................................................ 100

10.2. Main Concepts Related to Electricity ....................................................................................... 100
Electric Charge .............................................................................................................................100
Electric Current.............................................................................................................................100
Voltage (Potential Difference) ......................................................................................................100
Resistance ....................................................................................................................................101

xvii
Resistivity .....................................................................................................................................101
Power in Electricity .......................................................................................................................102
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Energy in Electricity ......................................................................................................................102

Coulomb’s Law .............................................................................................................................102
Ohm’s Law....................................................................................................................................103
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors................................................................................103

10.3. Types of Electricity .................................................................................................................. 104

Static Electricity............................................................................................................................104
 Current Electricity.........................................................................................................................104

10.4. Magnetism.............................................................................................................................. 105

Magnetic Poles.............................................................................................................................105
Magnetic Field .............................................................................................................................106
Laws of Magnetism ......................................................................................................................106

10.5. Types of Magnetism ................................................................................................................ 107

Diamagnetism ..............................................................................................................................107
Paramagnetism ............................................................................................................................107
Ferromagnetism ...........................................................................................................................107
Antiferromagnetism .....................................................................................................................107
Ferrimagnetism ............................................................................................................................108
Superparamagnetism...................................................................................................................108

10.6. Geomagnetism........................................................................................................................ 108

Main Features of Geomagnetism .................................................................................................108
Sources of Geomagnetism............................................................................................................109
Uses of Geomagnetism ................................................................................................................109

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PMF IAS – Science – Physics
 PMF IAS General Science – Chemistry – First Edition

1. Atoms and Molecules: Building Blocks of Matter ............................................................................... 1

1.1. Atoms ......................................................................................................................................... 1

1.2. Structure of an Atom ................................................................................................................... 1
Nucleus: Protons and Neutrons ........................................................................................................1
Electrons ..........................................................................................................................................2

1.3. Characteristics of an Atom .......................................................................................................... 2

Atomic Number ................................................................................................................................2
Mass Number ...................................................................................................................................2
Atomic Mass ....................................................................................................................................3
Atomic Weight (Relative Atomic Mass) ............................................................................................3
Size ...................................................................................................................................................3
Neutrality .........................................................................................................................................3
Energy Levels (or Shells) ...................................................................................................................3
Chemical Behaviour .........................................................................................................................4
Stability ............................................................................................................................................4
Indivisibility ......................................................................................................................................4
Wave-Particle Duality.......................................................................................................................4

1.4. Different Atomic Species ............................................................................................................. 4

Isotopes ............................................................................................................................................4
Ions ..................................................................................................................................................5
Isobars .............................................................................................................................................6
Isotones ............................................................................................................................................7
Allotropes .........................................................................................................................................7

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Isomers ............................................................................................................................................9

1.5. Atomic Models .......................................................................................................................... 10 PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

Dalton's Model (1803): The Billiard Ball Model ..............................................................................10
Thomson's Model (1897): The Plum Pudding Model ......................................................................10
Rutherford's Model (1911): The Nuclear Model .............................................................................10
Bohr's Model (1913) - The Planetary Model ...................................................................................11
Quantum Mechanical Model (1926) - The Modern Atomic Model .................................................11

1.6. Molecules.................................................................................................................................. 12
Types of Molecules .........................................................................................................................12
 1.7. Properties of Molecules............................................................................................................. 13
Size and Shape ...............................................................................................................................13
Molecular Mass..............................................................................................................................13
Polarity ...........................................................................................................................................13
Intermolecular Forces.....................................................................................................................14

2. Matter and its Classification ............................................................................................................ 16

2.1. Matter ...................................................................................................................................... 16

2.2. Characteristics of Matter........................................................................................................... 16
Physical Characteristics of Matter ..................................................................................................16
Chemical Characteristics of Matter ................................................................................................17
Extensive vs Intensive Properties of Matter....................................................................................17

2.3. Physical Classification of Matter ............................................................................................... 17

Solid ...............................................................................................................................................17
Liquid .............................................................................................................................................18
Gas .................................................................................................................................................19
Plasma ...........................................................................................................................................19
Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) .....................................................................................................19

2.4. Chemical Classification of Matter .............................................................................................. 20

2.5. Pure Substances ........................................................................................................................ 20
Characteristics of Pure Substances .................................................................................................20

2.6. Types of Pure Substances .......................................................................................................... 22

Elements ........................................................................................................................................22
Compounds ....................................................................................................................................23

2.7. Mixtures ................................................................................................................................... 24

xx
Characteristics of Mixtures.............................................................................................................24
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
2.8. Types of Mixtures ...................................................................................................................... 24
Homogeneous Mixtures .................................................................................................................24
Heterogeneous Mixtures ................................................................................................................25

2.9. Separation of Mixtures ............................................................................................................. 25

Filtration ........................................................................................................................................25
Distillation ......................................................................................................................................25
Evaporation ....................................................................................................................................26
 Chromatography ............................................................................................................................26
Centrifugation ................................................................................................................................26
Magnetic Separation......................................................................................................................26
Decantation ...................................................................................................................................26
Sedimentation ................................................................................................................................26
Crystallisation ................................................................................................................................26
Sublimation ....................................................................................................................................27

2.10. Changes in Matter .................................................................................................................... 27

Physical Changes ............................................................................................................................27
Chemical Changes ..........................................................................................................................27

3. Chemical Bonding and Reactions ..................................................................................................... 29

3.1. Chemical Bonds ......................................................................................................................... 29

3.2. Types of Chemical Bonds ........................................................................................................... 29
Covalent Bond ................................................................................................................................29
Ionic Bond ......................................................................................................................................30
Metallic Bond .................................................................................................................................30
Hydrogen Bond ..............................................................................................................................30

3.3. Valency ..................................................................................................................................... 31

Characteristics of Valency ..............................................................................................................31
Significance of Valency ...................................................................................................................31

3.4. Octet Rule ................................................................................................................................. 31

3.5. Chemical Formula ..................................................................................................................... 32
Key Components of a Chemical Formula ........................................................................................32
Types of Chemical Formulas ...........................................................................................................32

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3.6. Chemical Reactions ................................................................................................................... 32
Characteristics of Chemical Reactions ............................................................................................33 PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Chemical Equation .........................................................................................................................33

3.7. Types of Chemical Reactions ..................................................................................................... 33

Combination (Synthesis) Reaction ..................................................................................................33
Decomposition Reaction ................................................................................................................33
Displacement (Substitution) Reaction ............................................................................................33
Double Displacement (Metathesis) Reaction..................................................................................35
Combustion Reaction .....................................................................................................................35
 Redox (Oxidation-Reduction) Reaction ...........................................................................................35
Neutralisation Reaction .................................................................................................................35
Precipitation Reaction ....................................................................................................................35
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions .........................................................................................35
Reversible and Irreversible Reactions .............................................................................................36

3.8. Factors Affecting Chemical Reaction ......................................................................................... 36

3.9. Law of Conservation of Mass .................................................................................................... 37
3.10. Oxidising Agent and Reducing Agent ........................................................................................ 37
Oxidising Agent (Oxidant) ..............................................................................................................37
Reducing Agent (Reductant)...........................................................................................................38

3.11. Corrosion, Fermentation, and Rancidity .................................................................................... 38

Corrosion ........................................................................................................................................38
Fermentation .................................................................................................................................38
Rancidity ........................................................................................................................................39

3.12. Catalyst ..................................................................................................................................... 39

Main Features of Catalysts .............................................................................................................39
Types of Catalysts ...........................................................................................................................40

4. Acids, Bases, and Salts ..................................................................................................................... 41

4.1. Acids ......................................................................................................................................... 41

Properties of Acids .........................................................................................................................41
Types of Acids .................................................................................................................................41
Common Examples of Acids ...........................................................................................................41
Applications of Acids ......................................................................................................................42

4.2. Bases ........................................................................................................................................ 42

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Properties of Bases.........................................................................................................................42
Types of Bases ................................................................................................................................42 PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Common Examples of Bases ...........................................................................................................43
Applications of Bases .....................................................................................................................43

4.3. Salts .......................................................................................................................................... 43

Properties of Salt ............................................................................................................................43
Types of Salts .................................................................................................................................44
Common Examples of Salts ............................................................................................................44
Applications of Salts .......................................................................................................................44
 4.4. pH Scale .................................................................................................................................... 45
pH Scale Range ..............................................................................................................................45
Importance of pH ...........................................................................................................................46
Indicators .......................................................................................................................................47

4.5. Buffer Solution .......................................................................................................................... 47

Types of Buffer Solutions ................................................................................................................47
How Buffers Work ..........................................................................................................................47
Applications of Buffer Solutions .....................................................................................................48

5. Metals, Non-Metals, and Metalloids ................................................................................................ 49

5.1. Metals....................................................................................................................................... 50
Properties of Metals .......................................................................................................................50

5.2. Classification of Metals ............................................................................................................. 50

Ferrous Metals ...............................................................................................................................50
Non-Ferrous Metals .......................................................................................................................51
Noble Metals ..................................................................................................................................51
Alkali Metals ..................................................................................................................................52
Alkaline Earth Metals .....................................................................................................................52
Transition Metals ...........................................................................................................................52
Post-Transition Metals ...................................................................................................................53
Rare Earth Metals ..........................................................................................................................53
Actinides ........................................................................................................................................54
Heavy Metals .................................................................................................................................54
Light Metals ...................................................................................................................................54
Classification of Metals Based on Reactivity ..................................................................................54
Classification of Metals Based on Composition ..............................................................................55

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Classification of Metals Based on Physical Properties ....................................................................55
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
5.3. Reactivity Series ........................................................................................................................ 56
5.4. Metallurgy ................................................................................................................................ 56
Processes Involved in Metallurgy ...................................................................................................56

5.5. Alloys ........................................................................................................................................ 59

Types of Alloys ................................................................................................................................59
Common Types of Alloys and Their Applications ............................................................................59
Benefits of Alloys ............................................................................................................................61
 5.6. Non-Metals ............................................................................................................................... 61
Properties of Non-Metals ...............................................................................................................61

5.7. Classification of Non-Metals ..................................................................................................... 62

Reactive Non-Metals ......................................................................................................................62
Noble Gases (Inert Gases) ..............................................................................................................62
Other Non-Metals ..........................................................................................................................63

5.8. Metalloids ................................................................................................................................. 63

Properties of Metalloids .................................................................................................................63
Metalloids and Their Uses ..............................................................................................................63
Applications of Metalloids ..............................................................................................................64

6. Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions ................................................................................................ 65

6.1. Solution..................................................................................................................................... 65
Components of a Solution ..............................................................................................................65
Properties of Solution .....................................................................................................................66
Types of Solution ............................................................................................................................66
Concentration of Solution ..............................................................................................................67

6.2. Colloids ..................................................................................................................................... 68

Components of Colloids ..................................................................................................................68
Properties of Colloids .....................................................................................................................68
Types of Colloids .............................................................................................................................68
Emulsions .......................................................................................................................................69

6.3. Suspension ................................................................................................................................ 70

Characteristics of Suspensions .......................................................................................................70
Types of Suspension .......................................................................................................................70

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6.4. Differences Between Suspensions, Colloids, and Solutions ........................................................ 71
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
7. Organic Compounds ......................................................................................................................... 72

7.1. Characteristics of Organic Compounds ...................................................................................... 72

7.2. Organic Compounds vs Inorganic Compounds ........................................................................... 72
7.3. Important Organic Compounds ................................................................................................. 73
Hydrocarbons .................................................................................................................................73
Alcohols..........................................................................................................................................73
Carboxylic Acids .............................................................................................................................74
 Esters .............................................................................................................................................74
Ketones ..........................................................................................................................................74

8. Chemistry in Everyday Life ............................................................................................................... 76

8.1. Water ........................................................................................................................................ 76

8.2. Detergent .................................................................................................................................. 76
8.3. Dyes .......................................................................................................................................... 77
8.4. Drug .......................................................................................................................................... 78
8.5. Glass ......................................................................................................................................... 79
8.6. Plastic ....................................................................................................................................... 79
8.7. Rubber ...................................................................................................................................... 80
8.8. Fibre.......................................................................................................................................... 81
8.9. Artificial sweeteners ................................................................................................................. 82

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PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
 PMF IAS General Science – Astronomy – First Edition

1. The Universe and The Big Bang Theory .............................................................................................. 1

1.1. The Big Bang of Theory ............................................................................................................... 1

The Evolution of The Universe Since the Big Bang ............................................................................2
Accelerating Expansion of The Universe & Dark Energy ...................................................................3

1.2. Evidence for Big Bang Theory ...................................................................................................... 3

Doppler-Shift or Redshift and Blueshift ............................................................................................3
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMD) ............................................................................................3
Gravitational Waves.........................................................................................................................4

2. Galaxies and Star Formation .............................................................................................................. 8

2.1. Galaxy......................................................................................................................................... 8
Regular Galaxies ..............................................................................................................................8
Our Galaxy (The Milky Way).............................................................................................................9

2.2. Star Formation (Stellar Evolution or Life Cycle of a Star) ............................................................ 10

Protostar ........................................................................................................................................10
Main Sequence Stars ......................................................................................................................10
Red Giant .......................................................................................................................................10
Planetary Nebula ...........................................................................................................................12
White Dwarf ...................................................................................................................................12
Black dwarf ....................................................................................................................................12
Supernova ......................................................................................................................................13
Neutron stars .................................................................................................................................14
Black holes .....................................................................................................................................15

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2.3. Constellations ........................................................................................................................... 15
2.4. The Sun ..................................................................................................................................... 17 PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
The Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere ................................................................................17

2.5. Planets ...................................................................................................................................... 20

Inner Planets ..................................................................................................................................22
Outer Planets .................................................................................................................................26

2.6. Other Solar System Objects ....................................................................................................... 27

Asteroid Belt...................................................................................................................................27
 Kuiper Belt, Pluto, and Charon .......................................................................................................29
Comets ...........................................................................................................................................30
Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite .................................................................................................31

2.7. What’s the Closest Star to the Sun? ........................................................................................... 32

2.8. Heliopause — The Boundary? ................................................................................................... 33
2.9. Distant Artificial Objects Exploring the Solar System ................................................................. 34

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PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
 PMF IAS

Biology
 1. Cell: The Unit of Life

1.1. What is a Cell?

• A cell is the basic structural unit of life. Because it is the smallest unit of life, and all living beings are
made up of cells. Due to this, it is also called the "building block of life".
• The cell is the functional unit of life capable of carrying out all life processes independently. The life
processes include nutrition, excretion, respiration, growth, reproduction, response etc.
• Robert Hooke was the first to discover and coin the term cell. Anton Von Leeuwenhoek was the first
to observe and describe a live cell.

1.2. Types of Organisms Based on Cells

1. Unicellular organisms: Organisms that are composed of a single cell. E.g., amoeba, chlamydomonas,
paramecium and bacteria.
2. Multicellular organisms: Organisms that are composed of more than one cell. E.g., some fungi, plants,
and animals.
 An organism with billions of cells also begins life as a single cell, the fertilised egg.

1.3. Cell Theory

• In 1838, German botanist Matthias Schleiden observed that all plants are made of cells. Around the
same time, British zoologist Theodore Schwann found that animal cells have a plasma membrane and
noted plant cells have a unique cell wall. They proposed that plants and animals are made of cells,
forming the basis of cell theory. In 1855, Rudolf Virchow expanded this theory by stating that new cells
come from pre-existing cells. Today, cell theory states:
1. All living organisms are composed of cells and cell products
2. All cells arise from pre-existing cell

1.4. Shape and Size of Cells 1

PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• The shape and size of cells are related to their specific function, not the body size.

Shape of Cells
• Cells have various shapes; they may be disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread-like, or irregular.
• The cell membrane (which encloses cell components) provides shape to plant and animal cells. The cell
wall (an additional covering over the cell membrane) in plant and bacterial cells also gives these cells
shape and rigidity.
Size of Cells
• Cell sizes range from micrometres to a few centimetres, but most are microscopic. Mycoplasma (a
type of bacteria) is the smallest cell, while the largest isolated single cell is an ostrich egg.

1.5. Cell Organelles

• The components of the cell are known as cell organelles. They are specialised structures within cells
that perform distinct functions necessary for cell survival and operation.

Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane 2

PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Cell membrane is the outer covering of the cell, separating its contents from the external environment.

Composition of Cell Membrane

• Lipid bilayer: It comprises phospholipids with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. This arrange-
ment (tails inward, heads outward) makes the cell membrane selectively permeable/semi-permeable.
• Proteins: Embedded within the lipid bilayer, proteins can be integral (spanning the membrane) or pe-
ripheral (attached to the surface).
• Carbohydrates: They are attached to proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids) on the mem-
brane's outer surface.

Functions of the Cell Membrane

• Selective permeability: The cell membrane regulates the entry and exit of substances. It allows es-
sential nutrients and oxygen to enter while blocking harmful substances and removing waste products.
• Protection and structural support: The cell membrane provides a protective barrier that maintains
cell integrity. It also supports cell shape by working with the cytoskeleton.
• Cellular communication and signal transduction: The cell membrane has receptor proteins that de-
tect and respond to environmental signals like hormones, influencing cellular processes such as
growth, immune responses, and metabolism.
• Transport of molecules: The membrane contains various transport proteins that move ions, nutrients,
and molecules via passive and active transport mechanisms.
• Cell recognition and interaction: The cell membrane uses glycoproteins and glycolipids for cell-to-
cell recognition, crucial for immune responses, tissue formation, and cellular adhesion.
 Cell adhesion proteins on the cell membrane help cells stick to each other and the extracellular matrix.
This adhesion is crucial for tissue and organ formation, structural support, and organisation in mul-
ticellular organisms. The adhesion proteins also play a role in cell signalling and communication.
 The extracellular matrix is a network of proteins and glycosaminoglycan outside the cell but within a
tissue or organ. It is essential for tissue and organ formation, wound healing, and cell communication.
• Cell compartmentalisation: Cell compartmentalisation in eukaryotic cells, achieved through mem-
brane-bound organelles and internal membranes, enables specialised and efficient biochemical pro-
cesses. Cell membranes play a crucial role in this process by enclosing the cell and its organelles.
• Stable internal environment (Homeostasis): The cell membrane maintains homeostasis by selectively
controlling the entry and exit of substances, which is optimal for various cellular processes.
• Cellular functions: The flexibility and fluidity of the cell membrane enable cell growth, formation of
intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis and exocytosis, cell division, etc.
 Fluid mosaic model: Singer and Nicolson (1972) proposed the fluid mosaic model, which describes the
cell membrane's structure. According to this model, the quasi-fluid nature of lipids allows proteins to 3
move laterally within the bilayer, a property known as membrane fluidity.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Transport Mechanisms through the Cell Membrane

Diffusion
• The exchange of gases like CO2 and oxygen between cells and cells and their external environment oc-
curs through diffusion. Diffusion is the process by which molecules move from an area of higher con-
centration to an area of lower concentration until evenly distributed. It is a passive transport.
• E.g., the exchange of O2 and CO2 in alveoli (tiny, balloon-shaped air sacs in lungs).
 Passive transport is the movement of ions or molecules across a cell membrane without energy input,
typically along a concentration gradient (from higher to lower concentration).
 In pneumonia, the alveoli become filled with pus and fluid, which makes breathing difficult.

Osmosis
• Water also obeys the law of diffusion and moves across the cell membrane by a specialised type of
diffusion called osmosis.
• Osmosis is the movement of a solvent (like water) through a semi-permeable membrane into a so-
lution with a higher solute concentration to equalise solute concentrations on both sides.
• The net direction and rate of osmosis depend on the pressure gradient and concentration gradient.
Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells gain water through osmosis.
 A solute is a substance that can be dissolved into a solution by a solvent.
 A solvent is a substance in which a solute is dissolved.

Reverse Osmosis (RO)

• RO is a water purification technology that removes contaminants from water by using pressure to
force water molecules through a semipermeable membrane. Pressure is applied to impure water to
overcome the osmotic pressure, forcing the pure water molecules to pass through the membrane in
the opposite direction.
• Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure that must be applied to a solution (like impure water) to
prevent the inward flow of its pure solvent (pure water molecules) across a semi-permeable membrane.
Simply, it is the pressure required to stop osmosis.

4
PMF IAS – Science – Biology
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 5
Advantages of RO
 High purification: Highly effective in removing a wide range of impurities, including dissolved salts,
minerals, bacteria, and viruses.
 Prevent scale accumulation: RO systems can remove calcium and magnesium ions, which cause scale
buildup, thereby softening hard water.

Disadvantages of RO
 Removes beneficial minerals: RO removes the electrolytes such as sodium, calcium, magnesium, and
potassium during the filtration process.
 High energy consumption: Significant energy is required to apply the necessary pressure for filtration.
 Water wastage: Substantial amounts of water are wasted; only a fraction of the input water is purified.
 Slow process: The filtration process can be slow, producing purified water at a limited rate.
 Costly: Installation and maintenance of RO systems can be expensive.
 Complex maintenance: Regular maintenance and replacement of membranes and filters are necessary
for optimal performance.
Feature Osmosis Reverse Osmosis
Direction of From low solute concentration (more From high solute concentration (impure)
water flow pure) to high solute concentration to low solute concentration (clean)
Driving force Osmotic pressure Applied pressure
Process type Natural process Artificial technology
Examples Plant roots absorbing water, wrinkling of Desalination of seawater, drinking water
raisins in water purification

Active Transport
• In active transport, ions or molecules are transported across the cell membrane against their concen-
tration gradient (lower to higher concentration) using energy input (ATP). E.g., Na+/K+ pump.

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

• Endocytosis is the process by which cells engulf external substances, enclosing them in a vesicle 6
formed from the plasma membrane. This process allows the cell to take in nutrients, fluids, and other
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

necessary materials. Amoeba acquires its food through this process.

• Exocytosis is the process by which cells expel materials by fusing a vesicle with the plasma mem-
brane, releasing its contents outside the cell. This process allows the cell to expel waste and secrete
substances (e.g., hormones and neurotransmitters).

Cell Wall
• The cell wall is a rigid, non-living outer layer outside the cell membrane. It is found in plants, bacte-
ria, fungi, algae, and archaea cells. The primary cell wall grows in young plant cells, but this ability di-
minishes as the cell matures and the secondary wall forms on the inner.

Composition of the Cell Wall

• The plant cell wall comprises cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.
• The algae cell wall comprises cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate.
• The fungi cell wall comprises glucans, chitin and glycoproteins.
• The bacteria cell wall is composed mainly of peptidoglycan (murein).
• The archaea cell wall is composed of various polysaccharides and glycoconjugates.

Functions of the Cell Wall

• Structural support and shape: It provides rigidity and maintains cell shape, helping cells withstand
physical forces. It is crucial for plant cells in structures like stems and leaves.
• Protection: It acts as a protective barrier against mechanical stress (due to temperature, wind, mois-
ture, etc.), osmotic pressure, and pathogenic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses.

Cell Wall, Hypotonic Environment, and Turgor Pressure

• A hypotonic environment is when the solute concentration outside the cell is less than inside the cell.
• Cell walls allow plant, fungi, and bacterial cells to withstand hypotonic environments without burst-
ing. Cells absorb water through osmosis, swell, and build pressure against the cell wall, which exerts
equal pressure back. The pressure exerted by the fluid in a cell that presses the cell membrane against
the cell wall is called turgor pressure (hydrostatic pressure).
• Benefits of turgor pressure:
 Maintaining structure: This pressure helps the plant cell maintain its shape and rigidity and remain
upright. Without it, plants would become limp and wilted.
 Plant growth: In growing plant tissues, turgor pressure helps cell elongation by causing the cell
wall to expand as water enters, allowing the cell to grow longer.
 Stomatal movement: Turgor pressure is also involved in the opening and closing of stomata, tiny
pores on the plant surface for gas exchange. 7
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• Regulation of cell growth: The cell wall controls and regulates the direction and rate of cell growth.
• Selective permeability and transport: The cell wall selectively allows specific molecules and ions to
pass, helping regulate the cell's internal environment by controlling what enters and exits.
• Communication: The cell wall plays a role in cell-to-cell communication through plasmodesmata,
channels connecting neighbouring cells' cytoplasms. These channels traverse the cell wall and middle
lamellae and allow the exchange of materials and signalling molecules.
 Middle lamella, a layer mainly of calcium pectate, holds or glues the neighbouring cells together.
Nucleus
• Nucleus is a vital membrane-bound organelle within a eukaryotic cell. It is generally spherical and
located in the centre of the cell. It houses the cell's genetic material (DNA).
• Often called the ‘brain of the cell’, the nucleus acts as the control centre, directing cellular reproduc-
tion (the process by which a single cell divides and forms two new cells) and determining cell devel-
opment and maturity by regulating chemical activities.
 Robert Brown had discovered the nucleus.

Composition of the Nucleus

Nuclear membrane or Nuclear Envelope
• A double-membrane structure that encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm. It has
nuclear pores that regulate the exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

Nuclear Matrix or Nucleoplasm

• Nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and chromosomes.
1. The nucleolus is a dense, spherical structure. It is a site for active ribosomal RNA synthesis.
2. Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA coiled around histone proteins. DNA con-
tains genes (DNA’s functional segment) that carry the instructions for an organism’s development,
function, and inheritance.

Cytoplasm
• The jelly-like substance between the nucleus and the cell membrane is called cytoplasm. Cytoplasm
includes the components bound by the cell membrane, i.e., the cytosol (the fluid part), cell orga-
nelles (like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus), and various other particles, ex-
cluding the nucleus.
• The cytoplasm plays a crucial role in maintaining the cell's shape, allowing for movement of materials
within the cell, and facilitating biochemical reactions.
 The protoplasm includes the cytoplasm and the nucleus of the cell. Purkinje, in 1839, coined the term
‘protoplasm’ for the fluid substance of the cell. 8
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Endomembrane System
• The endomembrane system is a network of interconnected organelles and membranes within a eu-
karyotic cell whose functions are coordinated. The system includes the nuclear envelope, endoplas-
mic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, vesicles, and plasma membrane.
• Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and peroxisomes are not part of the endomembrane system because
their functions are not coordinated with the system's components.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
• The ER is an extensive network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It looks like long tubules or
round or oblong bags (vesicles). The ER membrane is similar in structure to the plasma membrane.
• There are two types of ER: rough ER (ribosomes attached to its surface) and smooth ER (lacks ribo-
somes on its surface). The ribosomes, present in all active cells, are the sites of protein manufacture.

Functions of ER
• Protein and lipid synthesis: Proteins are made in the ribosomes on the rough ER. The smooth ER pro-
duces lipids (fat molecules) essential for cell function. Some proteins and lipids help in membrane bio-
genesis (building of cell membrane), while some others function as enzymes and hormones.
• Biochemical activities: The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic framework, providing a surface for some
of the cell's biochemical activities.
• Detoxification: In the liver cells of animals called vertebrates, smooth ER plays a crucial role in detoxify-
ing many poisons and drugs.

Golgi Apparatus/Golgi Bodies/Golgi Complex

• The Golgi apparatus, first described by Camillo Golgi, consists of a system of membrane-bound vesi-
cles (flattened sacs) arranged approximately parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.

Functions of the Golgi Apparatus

• Delivery of proteins and lipids: The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying, and
packaging proteins and lipids produced in the ER into vesicles for delivery to targeted destinations.
• Complex sugar synthesis: Simple sugars are converted into complex sugars in the Golgi apparatus.
• Lysosome formation: The Golgi apparatus assists in creating lysosomes (involved in digestion and
waste removal).

Lysosomes
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes, which the rough ER produces.

Functions of Lysosomes
9
• Digestion: Lysosomes break down macromolecules, old cell parts, and foreign materials (like bacte-
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ria and food) into simpler molecules.

• Waste removal: Lysosomes eliminate cellular waste and debris through enzymatic activity.
• Autophagy: Lysosomes recycle damaged organelles and cellular components.
• Cell death: In programmed cell death (apoptosis), lysosomes can self-destruct the cell by releasing
digestive enzymes into the cytoplasm. Therefore, they are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.

Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are the membrane-bound storage sacs found in the cell's cytoplasm. They contain water, sap,
amino acids, sugars, organic acids, proteins, and excretory products. Vacuoles are bound by a single
membrane called a tonoplast. The tonoplast transports ions and other materials into the vacuole
against concentration gradients in plants.
• Vacuoles are small in animal cells, while plant cells have very large vacuoles. The central vacuole of
some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume.
• In Amoeba, the contractile vacuole is vital for osmoregulation and excretion. In many cells, as in pro-
tists, food vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food particles.

Functions of Vacuoles
• Storage: Vacuoles store a variety of substances, including nutrients, ions, and waste products.
• Structural support: Vacuoles filled with cell sap provide turgidity and rigidity in plant cells.
• Waste disposal: Specialised vacuoles expel excess water and waste in some unicellular organisms.

Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are sausage or cylindrical-shaped double membrane-bound structures. The outer mem-
brane is porous and forms the organelle’s boundary. The inner membrane forms infoldings called cris-
tae, which increase the surface area. Mitochondria's inner compartment is filled with a dense sub-
stance called the matrix.
• The number, shape, and size of mitochondria vary depending on the cell's physiological activity.
• Mitochondria convert glucose and oxygen into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the cell's primary en-
ergy source, through cellular respiration. So, mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.
 ATP is an energy-carrying molecule that captures energy from food breakdown and releases it to fuel
cellular processes. ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.
• Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes, allowing them to produce some of their proteins.
• Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration, and they are divided by fission.

Plastids
Plastids are found in all plant cells and euglenoids. Plastids contain specific pigments that give
10
•
plants their colours. Based on the type of pigments, plastids can be classified into: PMF IAS – Science – Biology

1. Chloroplasts: They contain chlorophyll (which gives plants their green colour) and carotenoid
pigments. These pigments trap light energy essential for photosynthesis.
2. Chromoplasts: They contain fat-soluble carotenoid pigments, such as carotene and xanthophylls,
which give plants yellow, orange, or red colours.
3. Leucoplasts: They are colourless plastids of varied shapes and sizes that store nutrients. Amylo-
plasts store carbohydrates or starch (like in potatoes), elaioplasts store oils and fats, and aleuro-
plasts store proteins.
Other Facts About Chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts, primarily found in the mesophyll cells of leaves, vary in shape (lens, oval, spherical, dis-
coid, or ribbon-like) and size.
• Chloroplasts are double-membraned, with the inner membrane being less permeable. The space inside
the inner chloroplast membrane is called the stroma. The stroma contains enzymes required for car-
bohydrate and protein synthesis, DNA molecules, and ribosomes.
• The stroma houses flattened membranous sacs called thylakoids, arranged in stacks (grana) and con-
nected by stroma lamellae. Chlorophyll pigments are located in the thylakoids.

Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are granular structures composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins, first observed
by George Palade in 1953. They are responsible for protein synthesis.
• Ribosomes lack a membrane, and each ribosome has two subunits: larger and smaller.
• The eukaryotic cell ribosomes are larger than the prokaryotic cell ribosomes. Here, ‘S’ (Svedberg’s
Unit) stands for the sedimentation coefficient, an indirect measure of density and size.

Cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibres in the cytoplasm. It provides structural support,
maintains cell shape, and facilitates the movement and transport of materials within the cell.

Cilia and Flagella

• Cilia and flagella are hair-like extensions of the cell membrane.
 Cilia: They are short and numerous. They move the cell or surrounding fluid like oars.
 Flagella: They are longer and fewer. They drive cell movement.
• The plasma membrane covers both structures, and they have a core called the axoneme.
Feature Microvilli Cilia
Structure Finger-like projections Hair-like projections
Function Increases surface area for absorption and se- Moves fluids or particles across the cell
cretion surface 11
Motility Non-motile Motile
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Location Small intestine, kidney tubules Respiratory tract, fallopian tubes

Centrosome and Centrioles

• A centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called centrioles.
• The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella and spindle fibres that give rise to spindle ap-
paratus during cell division in animal cells.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 12
1.6. Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes

Feature Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Meaning Pro = before; Karyon = nucleus Eu = after; Karyon = nucleus
Evolution 3.5 billion years ago 1.5 billion years ago
Nucleus Absent (Genetic material free-floats in the Present (Genetic material is enclosed
cell's cytoplasm in a region called the nucleoid) within a membrane-bound nucleus)
Organelles No membrane-bound organelles Contain membrane-bound orga-
nelles (mitochondria, endoplasmic re-
ticulum, Golgi apparatus, etc.)
Cell size Smaller Larger
DNA Circular, without histones (proteins that help or- Linear, wrapped around histones to
ganise DNA). form chromatin
Plasmids In addition to genomic DNA, many bacteria have Typically, not present
small circular DNA called plasmids, which con-
fer traits like antibiotic resistance
Cell type Unicellular Unicellular or multicellular
Cell wall Present in most Present only in plants, fungi, algae, and
some protists; not found in animals
Ribosomes Smaller and scattered throughout the cytoplasm Larger, found either free in the cyto-
plasm or attached to the endoplasmic
reticulum
Reproduction Asexual (binary fission and budding) Sexual (like mitosis) or asexual (like
meiosis and fertilisation)
Metabolism Diverse metabolic pathways Not diverse; metabolism is more spe-
Can perform both aerobic (oxygen-requiring) cialised and compartmentalised within
and anaerobic (non-oxygen-based) respiration organelles
Faster metabolic rates, allowing for rapid ad- Primarily rely on aerobic respiration
aptation Slower metabolic rates, resulting in 13
slow adaptation
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Cytoskeleton Less complex and not well-defined Well developed

Examples Bacteria and archaea Animals, plants, fungi, and protists

1.7. Animal Cell vs Plant Cell

Feature Animal Cell Plant Cell

 Cell Wall Absent Present (made of cellulose)
Shape Irregular Fixed, rectangular
Size Smaller Larger
Vacuole Many small vacuoles One large central vacuole (taking up 90% of cell volume)
Chloroplasts Absent Present (for photosynthesis)
Centrioles Present Absent
Lysosomes Present Rare
Cilia Present Rare
Similarities
Both have a nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, cytoplasm, ribosomes, mitochondria, & Golgi complex.

14
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[UPSC 2020] Which of the following statements are correct regarding the general
difference between plant cells and animal cells?
1. Plant cells have cellulose cell walls whilst animal cells do not.
2. Plant cells do not have plasma membrane unlike animals cells which do.
3. Mature plant cell has one large vacuole whilst animal cell has many small vacuoles.

Select the correct answer using the given code below:

 a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation
• Plant cells are surrounded by a rigid cell wall composed mainly of cellulose, which provides structural
support. Animal cells, on the other hand, lack a cell wall and have a flexible cell membrane for struc-
tural support.
• Both plant cells and animal cells have a plasma membrane.
• Mature plant cell has one large vacuole, whilst animal cell has many small vacuoles.

Answer: (c) 1 and 3 only

1.8. Cell Cycle and Cell Division

• The cell cycle is the sequence of events in which a cell duplicates its genome (DNA replication), syn-
thesises cell components, and divides into two daughter cells. It is crucial for cell growth, develop-
ment, and reproduction.
• Types of Cell Division: Mitosis and meiosis are two types of cell division with distinct purposes and
processes.

Mitosis
• Mitosis results in two genetically identical daughter cells from a single parent cell. It begins with nu-
clear division (karyokinesis) and ends with cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis).
• Karyokinesis involves the following four stages:
1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense and become visible, the nuclear envelope dissolves, and the mi-
totic spindle forms with centrosomes moving to opposite sides and extending microtubules.
2. Metaphase: Chromosomes align along the cell's equatorial plane, with spindle fibres attaching to
their centromeres.
3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles & become individual chromosomes. 15
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4. Telophase: Chromosomes unwind into chromatin, and new nuclear envelopes form around each
chromosome set, creating two nuclei.
• After telophase, the cytoplasm divides in cytokinesis, forming two identical daughter cells.

Significance of Mitosis
 Growth and development: Mitosis helps organisms grow by increasing cell numbers. It is crucial for
developing a single fertilised egg into a complex multicellular organism.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 16
 Tissue repair and replacement: This process maintains tissue integrity by replacing cells lost due to
normal wear and tear or injury. It is important for an organism's overall homeostasis.
 Asexual reproduction: Some organisms, like amoebas, reproduce asexually through mitosis.
 Maintenance of genetic consistency: Mitosis ensures each daughter cell gets an identical set of
chromosomes, preserving genetic information and maintaining tissue and organ function.

Meiosis
• Meiosis is the process where a single cell divides twice to produce four haploid daughter cells. A
haploid cell is a cell that contains a single set of chromosomes. It occurs in two main stages: 1) Meiosis I
and 2) Meiosis II.

Meiosis I has four phases

1. Prophase I: Chromosomes condense and become visible, pair with homologous chromosomes to form
tetrads, and exchange genetic material through crossing over. At the same time, the nuclear envelope
breaks down, and spindle fibres form.
2. Metaphase I: Tetrads align along the metaphase plate, and spindle fibres attach to their centromeres.
3. Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles, while sister chromatids stay to-
gether.
4. Telophase I: Chromosomes reach the poles, the nuclear envelope reforms around them, and cytokine-
sis divides the cell into two haploid daughter cells.

Meiosis II also has four phases

1. Prophase II: Chromosomes condense again in each haploid cell, the nuclear envelope dissolves, and
spindle fibres form.
2. Metaphase II: Chromosomes align along the metaphase plate in each haploid cell, and spindle fibres
attach to the centromeres of sister chromatids.
3. Anaphase II: Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of each cell.
4. Telophase II: Chromatids reach the poles, new nuclear envelopes form, and cytokinesis produces four
unique haploid daughter cells.
17
Significance of Meiosis PMF IAS – Science – Biology

 Genetic diversity: Meiosis introduces genetic variation through crossing over and independent as-
sortment, leading to unique combinations of genes in offspring.
 Sexual reproduction: Meiosis produces gametes (sperm and eggs in animals, pollen and ovules in
plants) necessary for sexual reproduction.
 Maintaining genetic stability: Meiosis halves the chromosome number from diploid to haploid in
gametes. This ensures that when two gametes (sperm and egg) fuse during fertilisation, the resulting
zygote has the correct diploid number of chromosomes.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 18
 Evolution and adaptation: The genetic diversity produced by meiosis contributes to populations'
adaptability and evolutionary potential, allowing them to adapt to changing environments.

Mitosis vs Meiosis
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
Purpose Growth, repair, and asexual reproduc- Production of gametes for sexual re-
tion production
No. of Divisions One division (mitotic division) Two divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II)
No. of Daughter Cells Two Four
No. of Chromosomes Diploid (same as parent cell) Haploid (half the parent cell's chromo-
somes)
Genetic Variation No (daughter cells are genetically iden- Yes (daughter cells are genetically
tical to each other and the parent cell) unique)
Occurrence In somatic cells (non-reproductive) In germ cells (reproductive cells that
produce gametes)

---------- End of Chapter ----------

19
PMF IAS – Science – Biology
 2. Tissues

• Tissue is a group of cells with similar structures that function together as one unit.
• The intercellular matrix, a non-living material, fills spaces between cells. It varies in abundance across
tissues. It can include unique substances like salts and fibres that give tissues distinct characteristics.

2.1. Plant Tissues

Meristematic Tissue
• Meristematic tissue is responsible for plant growth. It consists of undifferentiated cells that can di-
vide and give rise to various specialised cells.
• Characteristics of meristematic tissue:
 Continuous division: Cells in this tissue undergo mitosis repeatedly.
 Lack of differentiation: Cells are immature and have not specialised yet. 20
 Dense cytoplasm: The cells are packed with cytoplasm, containing essential organelles.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

 Prominent nucleus: The nucleus is large and clearly visible.

 No intercellular spaces: Cells are tightly packed together.
 Thin cell walls: The cell wall is made of a thin cellular layer.
 No vacuoles: These cells lack vacuoles.
• Meristematic tissues are classified into apical, intercalary, and lateral meristem.

Apical Meristems
• Apical meristems are found at the tips of roots and stems. They are responsible for primary growth
and increase the plant's length. As the stem grows, some cells from the shoot apical meristem develop
into axillary buds, which can become branches or flowers.

Intercalary Meristems
• Intercalary meristems are found between mature tissues, often near the nodes of stems and in grasses.
They lengthen the internodes and regenerate parts damaged by grazing or other factors.
 Both apical and intercalary meristems are called primary meristems because they appear early in a
plant's life and contribute to its primary growth.

Lateral Meristems (Cambium)

• Lateral meristems (also called secondary meristems) are found in mature areas of roots and shoots,
especially in woody plants. They appear later and help with secondary growth, producing tissues that
thicken the plant. E.g., vascular cambium and cork cambium.

21

Permanent Tissue
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Permanent tissue is formed from meristematic tissue. Characteristics of permanent tissues are:
 Loss of division: Cells of this tissue have lost their ability to divide.
 Differentiation: Cells became specialised to perform a specific function and have taken up a
permanent shape and size.
 Varied functions: They perform various functions like support, conduction, storage, and protection.
 Cell type: They may be living or dead cells.
  Cell wall: The cells may have thin or thick cell walls.
 Vacuoles: The cells have vacuoles.
• Permanent tissues are classified into simple permanent tissue and complex permanent tissue.

22
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Simple Permanent Tissue

• Simple permanent tissues are made up of one type of cell. The types of simple permanent tissue are
parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma.

Parenchyma
• Parenchyma is the most common simple permanent tissue. It consists of living cells with thin walls
made of cellulose. Parenchyma cells can be tightly packed or have small spaces between them. Its
functions include photosynthesis, storage, and secretion.
• Types of parenchyma are:
1. Chlorenchyma: Parenchyma which contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis.
2. Aerenchyma: Parenchyma with large air cavities which help aquatic plants float.

Collenchyma
• Collenchyma cells are the living cells found just below dicot plants' epidermis (outer layer). These
cells have thickened corners due to extra cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. Intercellular spaces are
absent. Collenchyma provides mechanical support to growing parts of the plant, like young stems and
leaf stalks. It may contain chloroplasts for food production.

Sclerenchyma
• Sclerenchyma cells have thick, lignified (hardened) walls. These cells are usually dead and lack pro-
toplast. Sclerenchyma's primary function is to provide mechanical support to the plant.
• Sclerenchyma has two types of cells:
1. Fibres: Long, thick-walled cells usually found in groups.
2. Sclereids: Short, thick-walled cells found in parts like nuts shells, fruit pulp (like guava and pear),
seed coats, and tea leaves.

Complex Permanent Tissue

• Complex tissues are made of multiple types of cells which coordinate to perform a common function.
• Examples of complex tissues include the xylem and phloem. They are both vascular tissues (conduct-
ing tissues that transport water, minerals, salts and food materials to various parts of the plant body).

Xylem
• Xylem transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant. It is vital for
transpiration (water vapour loss through stomata). The transpiration pull (negative pressure from leaf
evaporation) drives the upward movement of water in the xylem. 23
• Xylem is composed of four different types of cells:
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

1. Tracheid: Elongated, tube-like dead cells with thick, lignified walls. They help in water transport.
2. Vessels: Long tubes of dead, thick-walled cells that transport water. It is found only in angio-
sperms (flowering plants).
3. Xylem parenchyma: It is the only living cell in xylem tissue, with thin walls, and stores food.
4. Xylem fibres: They consist of dead cells with thick walls that provide additional support.

Phloem
• Phloem transports food (mainly from the leaves) to other plant parts (translocation). It is crucial
for the distribution of nutrients and energy throughout the plant.
• Phloem is made up of four types of cells:
1. Sieve tubes: Tube-like live cells with sieve plates at the ends to allow food transport. They lack a
nucleus but are controlled by companion cells.
2. Companion cells: These live cells are associated with sieve tube elements and aid in their function.
3. Phloem fibres: These dead cells provide mechanical support to the phloem tissues.
4. Phloem parenchyma: These living cells are involved in the storage of nutrients and the lateral
transport of nutrients.

Xylem vs Phloem
Feature Xylem Phloem
Function Transports water and min- Transports sugars (produced by photosynthesis)
erals from roots to leaves from leaves to other parts of the plant
Direction of transport Unidirectional (upwards) Bidirectional
Cell type Primarily dead Primarily living
Transport Mechanism Passive (physical processes) Active (energy-dependent)

Protective Tissue
• Protective tissues defend against physical damage, pathogens, and environmental stresses.
• The types of protective tissue include are epidermis and cork.

Epidermis
• The epidermis, made of a single layer of cells, is the outermost layer of the young plant body/parts.
• Most epidermal cells are relatively flat and form a continuous layer without intercellular spaces.
• Epidermal cells secrete a waxy layer called cuticle, which prevents water loss, mechanical injury, and
fungal invasion and provides waterproofing. Cuticle is thicker in desert plants and absent in roots.
• The leaf's epidermis includes stomata, pores surrounded by kidney-shaped guard cells for gas ex-

24
change and transpiration. Root epidermal cells have hair-like structures that enhance absorption by
increasing absorptive surface area.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Cork
• In older woody plants, the outer tissue changes to cork tissue, formed by secondary meristem.
• Cork tissue protects against physical damage, pathogens, and water loss.
• Cork cells are dead, compactly arranged in multiple layers without intercellular spaces. The cell walls
contain a waxy substance called suberin, making them impervious to gases and water.
2.2. Animal Tissues

Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial tissues are the covering or protective tissues in the animal body. They cover and protect
most organs and cavities in the body, forming barriers that separate different systems. This includes the
skin, mouth lining, blood vessels, lung alveoli, and kidney tubules.
• Epithelial cells are tightly packed with minimal intercellular space and are separated from underlying 25
tissues by an extracellular fibrous basement membrane. Their permeability regulates material ex-
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change between the body, its environment, and different body parts.
• Different types of epitheliums include simple epithelium, stratified epithelium, pseudostratified colum-
nar epithelium, and transitional epithelium.

Simple Epithelium
• Simple epithelium comprises a single layer of cells and functions as lining for body cavities, ducts, and
tubes. The types of simple epithelium tissue are:
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 26
 1. Simple squamous epithelium: A single layer of flat, thin cells. It aids diffusion and filtration. E.g.,
it is found in the lining of blood vessels (endothelium) and air sacs of the lungs (alveoli).
2. Simple cuboidal epithelium: A single layer of cube-shaped cells. It aids in secretion and absorp-
tion. E.g., it is present in glandular ducts, kidney tubules, and the thyroid gland.
3. Simple columnar epithelium: A single layer of tall, column-like cells. The free surface may have mi-
crovilli. It aids in secretion and absorption. E.g., it is found in the lines of the digestive tract, uter-
ine tubes, and gall bladder.
• Ciliated epithelium: It has columnar or cuboidal cells with cilia that move particles or mucus in a spe-
cific direction. It is found in the bronchioles and fallopian tubes.
• Glandular epithelium: It consists of specialised columnar or cuboidal cells for secretion. It is mainly of
two types: unicellular, like goblet cells of the alimentary canal, and multicellular, like salivary glands.
• Types of Glands: Glands are categorised based on their secretion method. They are:
1. Exocrine glands release products like mucus and saliva through ducts.
2. Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into surrounding fluids without ducts.

Stratified Epithelium
• Stratified epithelium comprises multiple layers of cells and has a protective function. Its types are:
1. Stratified squamous epithelium: Multiple layers of flat cells. It protects against abrasion. E.g., it is
found in the skin’s outer layer (epidermis), oral cavity, oesophagus, and vagina.
2. Stratified cuboidal epithelium: Multiple layers of cube-shaped cells. It aids in protection and se-
cretion. E.g., it is located in sweat, mammary, and salivary glands.
3. Stratified columnar epithelium: Multiple layers of column-like cells. It aids in protection and se-
cretion. E.g., it is found in parts of the male urethra and the ducts of some glands.

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium appears stratified but is actually a single layer with varying cell
heights. It facilitates secretion and the movement of mucus (often ciliated). E.g., it is found in lines of
the respiratory tract (trachea, bronchi) and male reproductive system parts.

Transitional Epithelium
27
• Transitional epithelium has multiple layers of cells that can stretch and change shape. It allows for
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

expansion and contraction. E.g., it is found in the urinary bladder, ureters, and part of the urethra.

Cell Junctions
• In nearly all animal tissues, specialised junctions provide both structural and functional links between
individual cells. Three types of cell junctions are found in the epithelium and other tissues. These are:
1. Tight junctions: Prevent leakage between cells.
2. Adhering junctions: Perform cementing to keep neighbouring cells together.
 3. Gap junctions: Allow communication and rapid transfer of ions and molecules between cells by
connecting the cytoplasm of adjoining cells.

Connective Tissue
• Connective tissue is a group of tissues that supports, connects, and protects other tissues and organs.
• Connective tissue cells are widely spaced and embedded in an extracellular matrix (ECM). The matrix
may be jelly-like, fluid, dense or rigid, according to the function of the particular connective tissue. ECM
is produced and maintained by fibroblast cells. It provides structural and biochemical support to the
surrounding cells. It includes:
1. Protein fibres: These include collagen (which provides tensile strength and structural support) and
elastin (which provides elasticity and flexibility).
2. Ground substance: A gel-like material that fills the spaces between cells and fibres. It is made of
proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), and glycoproteins. It cushions and supports cells and fi-
bres and facilitates nutrient and waste exchange.
• Types of connective tissue are connective tissue proper, skeletal tissue, and fluid connective tissue.

Connective Tissue Proper

• Connective tissue proper includes loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue.

Loose Connective Tissue

• Loose connective tissue is characterised by loosely arranged cells and fibres. Its types are:
1. Areolar Tissue: It is a loose arrangement of fibres and cells in a gel-like ground substance. It pro-
vides support and flexibility, holds organs in place, fills the space inside the organs, stores water
and salt, and aids tissue repair. Found under the skin and around blood vessels, nerves, and organs.
2. Adipose Tissue: It comprises fat cells (adipocytes) with minimal extracellular matrix. It stores en-
ergy, insulates the body, and cushions organs. It is located under the skin (subcutaneous fat),
around internal organs (visceral fat), and in bone marrow.
3. Reticular Tissue: It contains a network of reticular fibres (a type of collagen) that form a supportive
mesh. It provides structural support to soft organs and helps filter blood and lymph. It is found
in the liver, spleen, lymph nodes, and bone marrow.

Dense Connective Tissue 28

PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• It is characterised by high-density fibres, which provide strength, elasticity, and resilience. Its types are:
1. Dense Regular Connective Tissue: It comprises closely packed collagen fibres arranged in parallel.
It provides strong, unidirectional tensile strength and support. It is found in tendons (which con-
nect muscles to bones) and ligaments (which connect bones to other bones).
2. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue: It contains collagen fibres arranged in a random, irregular pat-
tern. It provides strength in multiple directions. It is found in the dermis of the skin, the capsules
surrounding organs (e.g., kidneys, liver), and the periosteum (membrane covering bones).
 3. Elastic Tissue: It contains a high density of elastic fibres, allowing it to stretch and recoil. It pro-
vides flexibility and elasticity. It is found in the walls of large arteries (e.g., the aorta), bronchial tubes
of the lungs, and some ligaments.

Skeletal Tissue
• Skeletal tissue provides structural support, protects internal organs, and facilitates movement.
• Skeletal tissue is primarily categorised into cartilage and bone.

Cartilage
• Cartilage is a strong, flexible connective tissue composed of chondrocytes (cartilage cells) embedded
in a matrix of collagen fibres and proteoglycans. The intercellular material of cartilage is solid and plia-
ble and resists compression.
• Cartilage provides flexible support, reduces friction between bones, and absorbs shock in joints.
• Most of the cartilages in vertebrate embryos are replaced by bones in adults.
• There are three primary types of cartilage:
1. Hyaline Cartilage: The most common cartilage, it smooths joint surfaces, supports structures,
and aids bone growth. It is found in the nose, trachea, and bone ends.
2. Elastic Cartilage: This tissue contains elastic fibres, providing flexibility and resilience. It is found
in the external ear (auricle) and epiglottis.
3. Fibrocartilage: It contains thick bundles of collagen fibres, which provide tensile strength and
shock absorption. It is found in intervertebral discs and knee joints.

Bone
• Bone is a hard, dense connective tissue. It has a ground substance rich in collagen fibres (providing
elasticity) and inorganic mineral salts, primarily calcium phosphate (providing hardness and strength).
• Bones support the body, protect internal organs, store minerals and fat, aid movement, and produce
blood cells.
• The bone cells (osteocytes) are present in spaces called lacunae.
• Bone is composed of two main types of tissue:
1. Compact (cortical) bone: Dense, solid outer layer providing strength and rigidity. 29
2. Cancellous (spongy) bone: Inner layer with a honeycomb-like structure containing bone marrow.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• The cells that contribute to bone tissue are:

1. Osteoblasts: They produce a protein mixture called osteoid, which mineralises to become bone.
2. Osteocytes: Mature osteoblasts embedded in the bone matrix. They help maintain bone tissue.
3. Osteoclasts: They break down bone tissue for remodelling.

Bone vs Cartilage
Feature Bone Cartilage
Hardness Hard and non-flexible Flexible
Structure Calcium phosphate and collagen Collagen and proteoglycans
Blood supply Vascular (has blood vessels) Avascular (lacks blood vessels)
Nerve supply Innervated (has nerves) Aneural (lacks nerves)
Cavity Present Absent
Function Support, protection, movement, blood cell produc- Support, cushioning, flexibility
tion, mineral storage

Fluid Connective Tissue

• Fluid connective tissue is characterised by a fluid matrix that allows the transport of cells, nutrients,
and waste products throughout the body. It includes blood and lymph.

Blood
• Blood consists of:
1. Plasma: A liquid matrix of water, proteins, electrolytes, and other solutes.
2. Formed elements:
i) Red blood cells (erythrocytes): Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
ii) White blood cells (leukocytes): Involved in immune response.
iii) Platelets (thrombocytes): Essential for blood clotting.

Lymph (Tissue Fluid)

• When blood passes through capillaries, water and small substances seep into the spaces between cells,
forming interstitial fluid. The lymphatic system collects and returns this fluid to major veins, where it
becomes lymph, a colourless fluid.
Components of lymph are:
1. Lymph plasma: It is composed primarily of water (95%), electrolytes, protein (mainly albumin and
globulins), nutrients (glucose, lipids, etc.), waste products, and a variety of cells. It is similar to blood
plasma but contains less calcium, fewer blood proteins, less phosphorus, & high glucose concentration.
2. Lymph corpuscles: Lymphocytes are primary lymph corpuscles floating on the lymph plasma. Lym-
phocytes are white blood cells that play a crucial role in the immune system (responsible for fighting

30
infections and diseases). The main types of lymphocytes are:
i) T cells: They are involved in cell-mediated immunity. They recognise and destroy infected or can-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

cerous cells.
ii) B cells: They are responsible for the production of antibodies (immunoglobulins) that target spe-
cific antigens (foreign molecules).
iii) Natural Killer Cells (NK Cells): They are called “natural” killers because they can destroy potential
threats without prior exposure to a particular pathogen.
• Functions of lymph are:
 Fluid balance: Lymph returns excess fluid from tissues back into the bloodstream.
  Immunity: It transports white blood cells to fight infection.
 Fat absorption: Lymph carries absorbed fats from the intestines to the bloodstream.
 Removal of waste products: It helps in removing cellular waste.

B Cells vs T Cells
Feature B Cells T Cells
Primary function Antibody production Cellular immunity
Produce in Bone marrow Bone marrow
Mature in Bone marrow Thymus
Type of immunity Humoral immunity Cell-mediated immunity
Mechanism of action Use antibodies to neutralise Use direct cell-to-cell contact to kill infected cells
pathogens and regulate the immune response

Blood vs Lymph
Feature Blood Lymph
Colour Red Colourless
Composition Plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets Plasma-like fluid, white blood cells
Function Transport of O2, CO2, nutrients, waste products, hor- Returns excess fluid to blood, trans-
mones, temperature regulation, immune response ports fats, immune response
Circulation Through blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries) Through lymphatic vessels
Cells RBCs, WBCs, platelets Primarily WBCs (lymphocytes)
Pressure Higher pressure Lower pressure
Flow rate Faster Slower
Direction Closed circulatory system One-way system towards the heart

Muscle Tissue
• Muscular tissue is a tissue of mesodermal origin, which enables movement in the body. They have spe-
cial properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity.

31
• About 40-50% of the body weight of a human adult is contributed by muscles.
• Each muscle comprises many long, cylindrical fibres arranged in parallel arrays. These fibres are com-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

posed of numerous fine fibrils called myofibrils. Muscle fibres contract (shorten) and relax (lengthen) in
response to stimulation, allowing body movement and position adjustment.
• Muscles contain contractile proteins, which contract and relax to cause movement.
• Based on their location, muscles are of three types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.

Skeletal Muscle
• Skeletal muscle is the muscle tissue responsible for voluntary movement, maintaining posture, and
locomotion. Skeletal muscles are attached to bones via tendons, and their contractions cause move-
ment of the skeletal system.
• Skeletal muscle fibres are long, cylindrical, and multinucleated. They have a striated (striped) appear-
ance due to the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments within the cells.

Cardiac Muscle
• Cardiac muscle tissue is a contractile tissue present only in the heart. It is responsible for involuntary
contractions of the heart that pump blood throughout the body.
• Cardiac muscle cells are short, branched, and uninucleated. They also exhibit striations. Cells are con-
nected by intercalated discs (unique to cardiac muscles), facilitating synchronised contractions.

Smooth Muscle (or Visceral Muscle)

• Smooth muscles are located in the inner walls of hollow visceral organs of the body like the alimen-
tary canal, reproductive tract, etc. They are also found in the eye's iris, skin (e.g., hair follicles), etc.
• The smooth muscle cells are long with pointed ends (spindle-shaped) and uninucleated. They exhibit
no striation and are smooth in appearance.
• Smooth muscles are responsible for involuntary movements (not under the nervous system's volun-
tary control), like food transportation through the digestive tract and gametes through the genital tract.

Neural Tissue
• Neural tissue is specialised for communication and control within the body. It receives stimuli, pro-
cesses information, and transmits signals throughout the body. Neural tissue is the nervous system's
primary component, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
• Neural tissue is composed of two main types of cells:
1. Neurons: These excitable cells are the fundamental unit of the nervous system that receive and
transmit signals to different body parts. Each neuron has three parts:
i) Cell body: It contains the nucleus and cytoplasm, with granules called Nissl’s granules.
ii) Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons to the cell body.
iii) Axons: A long, slender projection that transmits signals away from the cell body to other neu- 32
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rons and effector organs. Axons can be myelinated (with Schwann cells forming a myelin
sheath) or non-myelinated (without the myelin sheath).
 Myelin sheath is a protective layer of fat (lipids) and protein that coats the main “body” section of a
neuron called the axon and provides insulation.
2. Neuroglia: It protects and supports neurons. It makes up over half of the neural tissue's volume in
the body. The types of neuroglia cells are:
i) Astrocytes: They provide structural support and regulate the blood-brain barrier.
 ii) Microglia: They are phagocytic cells that engulf pathogens and defend the nervous system.
iii) Oligodendrocytes: They form the myelin sheath around axons in the central nervous system.
iv) Schwann cells: They form the myelin sheath around axons in the peripheral nervous system.
v) Ependymal cells: They produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• Functions of neural tissue are:
 Signal transmission: Neural tissue transmits nerve impulses between different body parts.
 Processing information: It processes information, allowing the body to respond to stimuli.
 Motor function: It controls and coordinates voluntary and involuntary muscle movements, result-
ing in actions such as walking, talking, and breathing.
 Homeostasis maintenance: It plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating vital
bodily functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and respiratory rate.
 Cognitive functions: Neural tissue is involved in higher cognitive functions such as thinking,
memory, learning, decision-making, and emotions.
 Communication: It enables communication between different body parts and between the body
and the external environment.
 Sensory input: Neural tissue receives sensory information from the environment.
 Synapse: The junction where one neuron's axon connects with another neuron’s dendrite to transfer
nerve impulses (information in the form of chemical and electrical signals passing through neurons).

Axon vs Dendrite
Feature Axon Dendrite
Structure Long, single fibre Branched extensions
Function Transmits nerve impulses Receives nerve impulses and transmits them to-
away from the cell body wards the cell body
Length Typically longer Generally shorter
Number per neuron Usually one Multiple
Myelin sheath Often myelinated Rarely myelinated

2.3. Vascular and Avascular Tissue 33

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• Vascular tissues are tissues that contain tubular structures for transport of fluids, nutrients, etc.
• Avascular tissues are tissues that lack tubular structures for transport of fluids, nutrients, etc.

Vascular and Avascular Tissue in Plants

Feature Vascular Tissue in Plants Avascular Tissue in Plants
Definition Contains specialised structures (xylem and phlo- Lacks specialised transport struc-
em) for transporting water, nutrients, and food tures
Transport Efficient transport of water, minerals, and organic Relies on diffusion and osmosis for
Function compounds across long distances short-distance transport
Complexity More complex with differentiated structures Simple and undifferentiated tissue
Support Role Provides structural support due to lignified xylem Limited structural support
Size of Plants Found in larger plants due to efficient nutrient Restricted to small sizes due to re-
transport liance on diffusion
Water De- Less dependent on water availability due to spe- Highly dependent on water for
pendency cialised transport systems nutrient movement & reproduction
Habitat Found in diverse environments, including dry Typically restricted to moist envi-
areas ronments
Examples of Vascular plants like ferns, gymnosperms, and an- Avascular plants like mosses, liver-
Plants giosperms worts, and hornworts

Vascular and Avascular Tissue in Plants

Feature Vascular Tissue Avascular Tissue
Definition Contains blood vessels to supply nutri- Lacks blood vessels to supply nutrients
ents and oxygen and oxygen
Nutrient and Oxy- Direct through capillaries, arteries, and Indirect via diffusion from surrounding
gen Supply veins vascular tissues
Waste Removal Efficient through the bloodstream Slower as it depends on nearby tissues
Healing Ability High due to a rich blood supply Limited due to lack of direct blood flow
Structure Complex with capillaries, arteries, veins Simpler as it lacks vascular components
Function Supports high metabolic activity, Provides structural support and reduces
growth, and repair friction in joints
Flexibility Usually less flexible (e.g., bone) Generally, more flexible (e.g., cartilage)
Examples Bones, muscles, skin, organs Cartilage, cornea, lens, epidermis

34
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PMF IAS – Science – Biology
 3. Classification of Organisms

• Classification is the process of grouping anything into convenient categories based on some easily ob-
servable characters. Efforts to classify living things date back to ancient times. Aristotle, a Greek think-
er, categorised animals based on their habitats.

3.1. Some Scientific Bases of the Classification of Organisms

35
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Organisation of Nucleus
• On this basis, organisms can be divided into two groups:
 1. Prokaryotes: Organisms with unorganised nuclei (i.e., nuclear materials are not membrane-
bound). E.g., bacteria and archaea.
2. Eukaryotes: Organisms with organised nuclei (i.e., nuclear materials are membrane-bound). E.g.,
animals and plants.

Number of cells
• On this basis, organisms can be divided into:
1. Unicellular: They have a single cell. E.g., archaea, bacteria, protists, and some fungi.
2. Multicellular: They have more than one cell. E.g., animals, plants, fungi, and some bacteria.

Mode of Nutrition

• On this basis, organisms can be divided into two broad groups:

1. Autotrophs: They can synthesise their own food using inorganic substances.
i) Photoautotrophs: Use sunlight energy to produce food through photosynthesis. E.g., plants,
algae, and cyanobacteria.
ii) Chemoautotrophs: Use energy from chemical reactions to produce food. E.g., sulphur-
oxidising archaea and bacteria, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and iron-oxidising bacteria.
2. Heterotrophs: They cannot synthesise their own food and rely on other organisms for nutrition.
i) Herbivores: Consume plants. E.g., rabbits and deer.
ii) Carnivores: Consume other animals. E.g., lions and tigers.
iii) Omnivores: Consume both plants and animals. E.g., humans and pigs.
iv) Detritivores: Consume dead organic matter. E.g., earthworms and dung beetles.
v) Parasites: Live on or in other organisms and obtain nutrients at their host's expense. E.g.,
tapeworms and ticks.
vi) Saprotrophs: Break down dead organic matter externally by secreting digestive enzymes
and then absorb the nutrients. E.g., fungi and bacteria.

Level of Organisation

36
• Organisms can be grouped based on the complexity and structure of their biological systems.
1. Cellular level: A single cell is responsible for all life processes, such as bacteria and amoeba.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

2. Tissue level: Organisms with cells organised into tissues to perform specific functions, such as
sponges.
3. Organ level: Organisms with tissues are organised into organs to perform specific functions, such
as flatworms.
4. Organ system level: Organisms with organs work together as organ systems for complex functions,
such as most animals (including humans).
Evolution
• All life forms evolved from a common ancestor. So, organisms can be classified based on evolution.
1. Primitive or lower organisms: They have ancient body designs that have not changed much, and
their body designs are simple.
2. Advanced or higher organisms: They have recently acquired their particular body designs, and
their body designs are complex.

3.2. Taxonomic Classification of Organisms

37
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Taxonomy is the science of naming, defining, and classifying groups of organisms based on shared
characteristics. The characteristics considered are external and internal structure, along with the
structure of the cell, development process and ecological information of organisms.
• Taxonomy involves organising living things into a hierarchical system called a taxonomic hierarchy. It
arranges organisms in a series of levels that range from broad to specific.
 A taxon (plural: taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms that, according
to taxonomists, form a unit.
 Systematics is the scientific study of the diversity of organisms and the relationships among living things
through time.

Levels of Taxonomic Classification

• Kingdom: The highest and most general rank in the biological classification system, which groups or-
ganisms based on very broad characteristics. E.g., Animalia.
• Phylum (for animals) / Division (for plants): Groups organisms within a kingdom based on major
body plans or structural features. E.g., Chordata (animals with a notochord, such as vertebrates).
• Class: Further divides phyla or divisions into groups with more specific similarities. E.g., Mammalia
(mammals).
• Order: Groups classes into more specific categories. E.g., Carnivora (meat-eating mammals).
• Family: Divides orders into groups of closely related organisms. E.g., Felidae (cats).
• Genus: Groups species that are very similar and closely related. E.g., Panthera (big cats like lions and
tigers).
• Species: The most specific rank, identifying the group of organisms that can interbreed and produce
fertile offspring. E.g., Panthera leo (lion).

3.3. Five Kingdom Classification by Robert Whittaker

38
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• Robert Whittaker's five-kingdom classification is the most accepted classification. It is based on organ-
isms' cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction, and phylogenetic rela-
tionships (evolutionary connections between species). It divides organisms into five kingdoms: Mon-
era, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

Kingdom Monera
• Organisms of the monera kingdom are unicellular and prokaryotic (lack true nuclei and other mem-
brane-bound organelles). They can be autotrophic or heterotrophic (saprophytes, parasites, and sym-
bionts). They reproduce primarily through binary fission, a method of asexual reproduction. They
may or may not have cell walls. E.g., blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and mycoplasma. 39
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Kingdom Protista
• Protists are primarily unicellular, but some are simple multicellular organisms. They are eukaryotic
(have a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles). They can be autotrophic or heterotrophic
(holozoic, saprotrophic, parasitic, and symbiotic). Their reproduction can be asexual or sexual. Mem-
bers of the protista kingdom are primarily aquatic. E.g., unicellular algae, diatoms and protozoans.
• Some protists use appendages, such as hair-like cilia or whip-like flagella, for locomotion.
Kingdom Fungi
• Fungi are mostly multicellular (except for unicellular yeast) and eukaryotic. Their cell walls are made
of chitin (a complex sugar), unlike plants, which have cellulose. They are filamentous, consisting of
thread-like structures called hyphae. A network of hyphae is called mycelium.
• Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants. They prefer to grow in
warm and humid environments.
• Fungi lack vascular tissues and chlorophyll like those found in plants.
• Fungi are heterotrophic; they derive their nutrients as saprophytes, parasites, or symbionts (e.g., live
in association with algae like lichens and with roots of higher plants like mycorrhiza).
• Some fungi are edible (e.g., mushrooms), some cause diseases (e.g., puccinia in wheat), and others
produce antibiotics (e.g., penicillium).
• Fungi reproduce by spores, which can be produced sexually or asexually.

Kingdom Plantae
• Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms commonly called plants.
• Plants are primarily autotrophic, but some are heterotrophic (parasitic, saprophytic, symbionts, or
insectivorous plants). They are multicellular and have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose.
• Plants can reproduce sexually (via seeds and spores) or asexually (through vegetative propagation).
• Plants have two life cycle phases: diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte, which alternate. This is
known as the alternation of generations.

Kingdom Animalia
• Organisms of this kingdom are eukaryotic that are multicellular and lack cell walls.
• Animals are heterotrophic. Most exhibit holozoic nutrition (herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and
detritivores). They store food reserves as glycogen or fat. Some also exhibit parasitism, saprophytism
and symbiotism.
• Most animals have a nervous system and are capable of locomotion.
• Animals primarily reproduce sexually, with some capable of asexual reproduction.
Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms 40
Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
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Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Cell wall Non-cellulosic Present in Present (chitin) Present Absent
(Polysaccharide some (cellulose)
+ amino acid)
Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Unicellular Unicellular or mul- Multicellular Multicellular Multicellular
organisation ticellular (except yeast)
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
nutrition (chemosynthetic & (photosynthetic) & (saprophytic, (photosynthetic) & (holozoic, sap-
photosynthetic) Heterotrophic parasitic, and Heterotrophic (para- rophytic, parasit-
and Heterotrophic (holozoic, sapro- symbiotic) sitic, saprophytic, ic, and symbi-
(saprophytic, para- trophic, parasitic, symbionts, and in- otic)
sitic, and symbi- and symbiotic) sectivorous)
otic)

Viruses, Viroids, Prions and Lichens

• In the five-kingdom classification by Whittaker, lichens and some acellular organisms like viruses, vi-
roids and prions are not mentioned. Acellular organisms are excluded from classification because they
lack a cellular structure and are not considered truly "living."

Virus
• M.W. Beijerinek discovered viruses. The term virus means venom or poisonous fluid.
• Viruses are non-cellular pathogens that are inert outside the host cells. They are obligate parasites,
meaning they cannot live or reproduce independently. Once they infect a cell, they take over the host
cell's machinery to replicate, killing the host.
• Viruses are nucleoproteins with infectious genetic material. The genetic material is either RNA or
DNA, but never both. Plant viruses typically have single-stranded RNA, while animal viruses may have
single or double-stranded RNA or double-stranded DNA. Bacteriophages, which infect bacteria, usually
have double-stranded DNA. The protein coat called capsid (made of small subunits called capsomeres)
protects the nucleic acid in viruses.
• Viruses are smaller than bacteria and can pass through bacterial filters.
• Viruses cause diseases like mumps, smallpox, herpes, influenza, and AIDS in humans. In plants, they
can cause symptoms like mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing,
dwarfing and stunted growth. Bacteriophages and mycoviruses are specific viruses that infect bacte-
ria and fungi, respectively. 41

Viroids
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• T.O. Diener discovered viroids, infectious agents smaller than viruses. They are free RNA molecules
that lack the protein coat found in viruses. Their RNA is of low molecular weight.
• Viroids cause diseases like potato spindle tuber disease.

Prions
• Prions are infectious agents made of abnormally folded proteins similar in size to viruses.
• Prions cause neurological diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), known as mad
cow disease in cattle, and its human variant, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD).

Lichens
• Lichens are symbiotic associations (mutually beneficial) between algae (called phycobiont) and fungi
(called mycobiont). The autotrophic algae produce food, while the heterotrophic fungi provide shelter
and absorb nutrients and water for the algae.
• Lichens are excellent pollution indicators, as they do not grow in polluted areas.

[UPSC 2016] Which of the following statements is/are correct? Viruses can infect
1. Bacteria
2. Fungi
3. Plants

Select the correct answer using the code given below

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation
• Viruses can infect bacteria, fungi, and plants.
 Bacteria: Certain viruses, known as bacteriophages, specifically infect bacteria. These viruses attach
to bacterial cells, inject their genetic material, and hijack the bacterial machinery to reproduce.
 Fungi: Specific viruses, called mycoviruses, infect fungi.
 Plants: Many viruses infect plants, often causing diseases that can lead to visible symptoms such as
discolouration, stunted growth, and reduced crop yields.

Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3

[UPSC 2014] Lichens, which are capable of initiating ecological succession even on a
bare rock, are actually a symbiotic association of 42
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

a) algae and bacteria

b) algae and fungi
c) bacteria and fungi
d) fungi and mosses

Explanation
• Lichens are symbiotic associations between algae (called phycobiont) and fungi (called mycobi-
 ont). Fungi provide shelter, water and minerals to the algae; in return, the alga provides food.

Answer: (b) algae and fungi

3.4. Classification of Kingdom Monera

• Bacteria are the sole members of the kingdom Monera. They are the most abundant microorgan-
isms. They are found even in extreme habitats like hot springs, deserts, snow, and deep oceans.
• Bacteria are grouped into four categories based on their shape: the spherical Coccus, the rod-shaped
Bacillus, the comma-shaped Vibrium, and the spiral Spirillum.

Archaebacteria
43
• Archaebacteria, also known as Archaea, are a group of primitive single-celled microorganisms.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• They are often referred to as "extremophiles" because they can thrive in extreme environments. Their
unique cell wall structure allows them to survive in extreme conditions.
Types of archaebacteria are:
1. Halophiles: They thrive in highly saline environments.
2. Thermoacidophiles: They live in hot springs.
3. Methanogens: They are found in anaerobic environments like marshes and ruminants' guts, such
as cows and buffaloes. They produce methane (biogas) from these ruminants' dung.
Eubacteria
• Eubacteria or ‘true bacteria’ are characterised by a rigid cell wall and, if motile, a flagellum.
• Some significant groups of eubacteria are:
1. Cyanobacteria (or blue-green algae): They have chlorophyll and are photosynthetic auto-
trophs. They are unicellular, filamentous freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae. Their colonies are
often surrounded by gelatinous sheaths and bloom in polluted water bodies. Some, like Nostoc
and Anabaena, fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts.
2. Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria: They oxidise various inorganic substances such as nitrates,
nitrites, and ammonia and use the released energy to produce ATP. They also play a significant role
in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron, and sulphur.
3. Heterotrophic bacteria: They are the most abundant in nature and essential decomposers. They
may be aerobic or anaerobic. They play roles in curd production, antibiotic creation, and nitro-
gen fixation in legume roots. However, some are pathogens, causing diseases like cholera, typhoid,
tetanus, and citrus canker.
4. Mycoplasmas: They are eubacteria devoid of cell walls. They are the smallest living cells known
and can survive without oxygen. Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plants.
 Bacteria primarily reproduce by fission. Under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores. They also
engage in a primitive form of sexual reproduction through DNA transfer between bacteria.

3.5. Classification of Kingdom Protista

Chrysophytes
• Chrysophytes include microscopic diatoms and golden algae (desmids) found in fresh and marine
waters. They float in water currents as plankton and are mostly photosynthetic.
• Diatoms have silica-embedded cell walls forming two overlapping shells, which are indestructible.
Therefore, over time, they have left large gritty deposits known as 'diatomaceous earth', used in pol-
ishing and filtration. Diatoms are the primary producers in oceans.

Dinoflagellates 44
These mostly marine, photosynthetic organisms can appear yellow, green, brown, blue, or red de-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology
•
pending on the main pigments present in their cells. They have stiff cellulose plates on their cell walls
and typically possess two flagella, one longitudinal and one transverse.
• Red dinoflagellates, like Gonyaulax, can multiply rapidly, causing red tides and releasing toxins that
may kill marine life.

Euglenoids
• Euglenoids are primarily freshwater organisms found in stagnant water. Instead of a cell wall, they
have a protein-rich layer called a pellicle, which makes their bodies flexible. They possess two flagella,
one short and one long. Their pigments are identical to those found in higher plants. E.g., Euglena.
• Although photosynthetic in sunlight, euglenoids can act as heterotrophs by feeding smaller organ-
isms when light is deprived.

Slime Moulds
• Slime moulds are saprophytic protists that move over decaying matter, engulfing organic material.
• In favourable conditions, slime moulds form aggregation called plasmodium. Under unfavourable con-
ditions, the plasmodium develops fruiting bodies with spores at their tips. These spores have thick,
durable walls that make them highly resistant and capable of surviving for long periods, even 45
years. Air currents help disperse the spores to new locations.
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Protozoans
• All protozoans are heterotrophs, living as predators or parasites, and are considered primitive rela-
tives of animals. They are classified into four major groups.
1. Amoeboid protozoans: They live in freshwater, seawater, or moist soil. They capture prey using
pseudopodia (e.g., Amoebas). Marine forms have silica shells. Some are parasites (e.g., Entamoeba).
 2. Flagellated protozoans: Members of this group are free-living or parasitic and have flagella. Par-
asitic forms, like Trypanosoma, cause diseases such as sleeping sickness.
3. Ciliated protozoans: These aquatic organisms move using cilia. They have a cavity (gullet) that
opens to the cell surface, and cilia movement directs food-laden water into it. E.g., Paramecium.
4. Sporozoans: This group includes diverse organisms with an infectious spore-like stage in their life
cycle. The most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial parasite).

3.6. Classification of Kingdom Fungi

• The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies form the basis for
dividing the kingdom fungi into various classes.

46
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Phycomycetes
• Phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats, decaying wood in moist places, or as obligate para-
sites on plants (obligate parasites are organisms that cannot survive without a host).
• The mycelium is without cross-walls (aseptate) and has many nuclei (coenocytic). They reproduce asex-
ually (via motile zoospores or non-motile aplanospores) and sexually (via zygospores).
• E.g., Mucor, Rhizopus (bread mould), and Albugo (parasitic on mustard).

Ascomycetes
• Ascomycetes (sac fungi) are mostly multicellular (e.g., Penicillium), with some being unicellular (e.g.,
yeast). They can be saprophytic, decomposer, parasitic, or coprophilous (growing or living on dung).
• The mycelium is branched and septate. They reproduce asexually (conidia) and sexually (ascospores).
• E.g., Aspergillus, Claviceps, and Neurospora (used in biochemical and genetic studies). Edible members,
such as morels and truffles, are considered delicacies.

Basidiomycetes
• Basidiomycetes, which include mushrooms, bracket fungi, and puffballs, grow in soil, on logs, on tree
stumps, and as plant parasites (e.g., rusts and smuts). Their mycelium is branched and septate.
• They primarily reproduce sexually, with rare asexual reproduction. Vegetative reproduction (an asex-
ual method) occurs via fragmentation. Sexual reproduction involves plasmogamy, where two vegeta-
tive cells fuse to form a dikaryotic structure that develops into a basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis
produce four basidiospores, released in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps.
• E.g., Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), and Puccinia (rust fungus).

Deuteromycetes
• Deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi) have no known sexual reproductive stage. This lack of a sexual
stage makes it difficult to classify them within the traditional fungal groups.
• They reproduce only by asexual spores called conidia. The mycelium is septate and branched.
• Members can be saprophytes, parasites, or decomposers that aid mineral cycling.
• E.g., Alternaria, Colletotrichum, and Trichoderma.
• When deuteromycetes sexual forms are discovered, they are reclassified into the correct fungal classes,
often ascomycetes or basidiomycetes.

[UPSC 2021] Consider the following:

1. Bacteria
2. Fungi 47
3. Virus
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Which of the above can be cultured in an artificial/ synthetic medium?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Explanation
• Bacteria are unicellular, prokaryotic organisms that can grow independently under suitable condi-
tions. They can be easily cultured in artificial or synthetic media because they have simple nutri-
tional needs. Common artificial media used for bacterial culture include nutrient agar, nutrient broth,
and selective media designed for specific bacterial types.
• Fungi, including yeasts and molds, are eukaryotic organisms that can also be readily cultured in arti-
ficial or synthetic media. Fungi require organic matter for growth, and their nutritional needs can be
met by using media like Sabouraud Dextrose Agar, Potato Dextrose Agar, or Czapek-Dox Agar.
• Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites. This means they cannot grow independently and must
infect a living host cell to replicate. So, viruses cannot be cultured on artificial or synthetic media.

Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only

3.7. Classification of the Kingdom Plantae

• Plant classification begins with whether the plant body is well-differentiated into distinct parts. The
next level considers the presence of specialised tissues for water and nutrient transport. Further
classification focuses on the ability to bear seeds and whether the seeds are enclosed within fruits.
• Based on their reproductive organs, plants are classified into Cryptogams and Phanerogams.

Cryptogams
• Cryptogams are plants whose reproductive organs are very inconspicuous. They are also called plants
with hidden reproductive organs. They are divided into three groups: thallophytes, bryophytes, and
pteridophytes.

Thallophytes
• Thallophytes (commonly called algae) are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic organ-
isms that are primarily aquatic but also found on moist stones, soils, and wood. Some also occur in
association with fungi (e.g., lichen) and animals (e.g., sloth bears).
 Thalloid refers to organisms with a simple, undifferentiated body structure lacking true roots, stems, or 48
leaves and without specialised tissues or organs.
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• Thallophytes vary in form and size from microscopic unicellular types (e.g., Chlamydomonas) to colo-
nial forms (e.g., Volvox) and filamentous types (e.g., Ulothrix and Spirogyra). Marine forms like kelps
can form massive plant bodies.
• Reproduction in algae can be vegetative (by fragmentation), asexual (through spores like zoospores),
or sexual (via fusion of gametes). Gametes can be isogamous (similar in size, e.g. Chlamydomonas, Spi-
 rogyra), anisogamous (dissimilar in size, e.g. some species of Chlamydomonas), or oogamous (one
large non-motile and one smaller motile, e.g., Volvox, Fucus).

49
• Importance of algae:
1. Algae plays a crucial role in carbon dioxide fixation through photosynthesis.
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2. As photosynthetic organisms, algae increase dissolved oxygen levels in their environment.

3. Algae are crucial primary producers of energy-rich compounds that form the basis of aquatic
food cycles. Many marine species, such as Porphyra, Laminaria, and Sargassum, are used as food.
4. Certain marine brown and red algae produce hydrocolloids (water-holding substances) like algin
(brown algae) and carrageen (red algae), which are used commercially.
5. Agar from Gelidium and Gracilaria is used to grow microbes and prepare ice cream and jelly.
6. Chlorella, a protein-rich unicellular alga, is used as a food supplement, even by space travellers.
• Algae are classified into three main classes: Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae, and Rhodophyceae.

Chlorophyceae
• Chlorophyceae (green algae) can be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous. They are grass-green due to
chlorophyll pigments located in variously shaped chloroplasts. Most have storage bodies called pyre-
noids in their chloroplasts for protein and starch storage. Some store food as oil droplets.
• Green algae typically have a rigid cell wall made of cellulose and pectose.
• E.g., Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, and Chara.

Phaeophyceae
• Phaeophyceae (brown algae) are found primarily in marine habitats. They vary significantly in size and
form, from simple branched forms (e.g., Ectocarpus) to profusely branched forms (e.g., kelps).
• Brown algae contain chlorophyll, carotenoids, and xanthophylls. Their colour ranges from olive
green to brown, depending on the amount of fucoxanthin (a xanthophyll pigment).
• In brown algae, food is stored as complex carbohydrates, like laminarin or mannitol. Their cell walls are
cellulose-based, often covered by a gelatinous coating of algin. The plant body attaches to the sub-
stratum with a holdfast and has a stalk (stipe) and leaf-like photosynthetic organ, the frond.
• E.g., Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum, and Fucus.

Rhodophyceae
• Rhodophyceae (red algae) are named for the red pigment r-phycoerythrin. Most red algae are ma-
rine, concentrated in warmer areas. They thrive in both well-lit and minimally lit deep ocean areas.
• Their multicellular thalli can have complex structures. Food is stored as floridean starch.
• E.g., Polysiphonia, Porphyra, Gracilaria, and Gelidium.
Divisions of Algae and Their Main Characteristics
Classes Major Pigments Stored Food Cell Wall Composi- Habitat
tion
Chlorophyceae Chlorophyll a, b Starch Cellulose Freshwater, brackish water,
(Green algae) and saltwater
Phaeophyceae Chlorophyll a, c Laminarin, Cellulose and algin Freshwater (rare), brackish 50
(Brown algae) Fucoxanthin Mannitol water, saltwater
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Rhodophyceae Chlorophyll a, d Floridean Cellulose, pectin, and Freshwater (rare), brackish

(Red algae) Phycoerythrin starch polysulphate esters water, saltwater (most)

Bryophytes
• Bryophytes are called the plant kingdom’s amphibians because they live in soil but require water for
sexual reproduction. They thrive in damp, shaded areas.
• They have a more differentiated body than algae, being thallus-like and either prostrate or erect.
They attach to the substrate with rhizoids and lack true roots, stems, or leaves, though they may have
structures resembling these. They lack specialised tissues for conducting water and other substances
throughout the plant body.
• Bryophytes reproduce both asexually (vegetative reproduction) and sexually.
• In sexual reproduction, the haploid plant body of bryophyte produces gametes. The male sex organ,
antheridium, produces biflagellate antherozoids, while the female organ, archegonium, is flask-shaped
and produces a single egg. Antherozoids reach the archegonium through water, where fertilisation oc-
curs, forming a zygote. The zygote develops into a multicellular sporophyte attached to the gameto-
phyte for nourishment. Some sporophyte cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores, germinating
into new gametophytes.
• Functions and importance of bryophytes:
1. Bryophytes have limited economic importance, but some mosses provide food for herbivorous
mammals, birds, and other animals.
2. Species of Sphagnum moss provide peat (used as fuel) and are used as packing material for
shipping living material because of their capacity to hold water.
3. Mosses and lichens are the first to colonise rocks, decomposing them to create a substrate for
higher plants. Hence, they are crucial for plant succession on bare rocks and soil.
4. Mosses form dense mats that reduce rain impact and prevent soil erosion.
• The bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.

Liverworts
• The liverworts usually grow in moist, shady habitats such as banks of streams, marshy ground, damp
soil, bark of trees and deep in the woods. Liverworts, like Marchantia, have a dorsiventral thalloid
body. The leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages in two rows on the stem-like structures.
• Asexual reproduction in liverworts occurs by specialised structures called gemmae (green, multicellular,
asexual buds in gemma cups located on the thalli, which detach from the parent body and grow into
new individuals).

Moss 51
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• The predominant stage of a moss's life cycle is the gametophyte, consisting of two stages: the proto-
nema stage, a creeping, green, filamentous stage developing from a spore, and the leafy stage, which
arises from the protonema as a lateral bud with upright axes, spirally arranged leaves and sex organs.
• Vegetative reproduction in mosses occurs by fragmentation and budding.
• E.g., Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum.

Pteridophytes
• In pteridophytes, the plant body is differentiated into roots, stems, and leaves, with specialised vascu-
lar tissues for conducting water and nutrients. Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to
possess vascular tissues (xylem and phloem). E.g., horsetails and ferns.
• They are found in cool, damp, shady places, though some may flourish well in sandy soil conditions.
• Pteridophytes have a main plant body that is a sporophyte with true roots, stems, and leaves. Leaves
can be microphylls (small) or macrophylls (large). Sporophytes bear sporangia on leaf-like sporophylls,
which may form strobili or cones. Sporangia produce spores through meiosis, germinating into small,
photosynthetic gametophytes called prothallus.
• Functions and importance of pteridophytes are:
1. Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purposes and as soil binders.
2. They are also frequently grown as ornamentals.
• The pteridophytes are further classified into four classes: Psilopsida (Psilotum); Lycopsida (Selaginella,
Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum), and Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum).

Comparison Between Thallophytes, Bryophytes, and Pteridophytes

Feature Thallophytes Bryophytes Pteridophytes
Body Organisa- Thallus (undifferentiat- Differentiated into root-like rhi- Differentiated into true
tion ed body) zoids and leafy shoots roots, stems, and leaves
Vascular Tissues Absent Absent Present
Reproduction Mostly asexual and Asexual and sexual reproduction Asexual and sexual repro-
sexual reproduction involving gametes duction involving spores
involving gametes
Dominant Gen- Gametophyte Gametophyte Sporophyte
eration
Sporophyte Not distinct Dependent on gametophyte Independent and domi-
nant
Habitat Mostly aquatic but al- Live in soil but require water for Moist shady areas
so found in moist envi- sexual reproduction
ronments 52
Examples Algae, fungi Mosses, liverworts, hornworts Ferns, horsetails, club
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mosses

Phanerogams
• Plants with well-differentiated reproductive parts that ultimately make seeds are called phanero-
gams. Seeds result from sexual reproduction and include an embryo with stored food to support its
initial growth during germination.
• Phanerogams are classified based on whether the seeds are naked or enclosed in fruits into two groups:
gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Gymnosperms (gymno = naked; sperma = seed)

• Gymnosperms have exposed ovules and naked seeds. They are usually perennial, evergreen and
woody. They include medium to tall trees and shrubs. E.g., the giant redwood Sequoia.
• Roots of gymnosperms can be tap roots or have fungal associations (mycorrhiza) or coralloid roots
with N2-fixing cyanobacteria. Stems may be unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus). Leaves can
be simple or compound, adapted to extreme temperatures and conditions (e.g., needle-like leaves in
confers to reduce surface area).
• Gymnosperms are heterosporous, producing microspores and megaspores in cones. Male cones (mi-
cro-sporangiate) produce pollen grains, while female cones (macro-sporangiate) bear ovules. The
male or female cones may be borne on the same tree as in pines. But, in cycas, they are borne on
different trees.
• Typically, air currents (wind pollination) carry pollen grains to the ovules, leading to fertilisation and
the development of seeds, which remain uncovered.
• Unlike bryophytes and pteridophytes, in gymnosperms, male and female gametophytes are not free-
living; they stay within the sporangia on the sporophytes.

Angiosperms (angio = covered; sperma = seed)

• In angiosperms (flowering plants), pollen grains and ovules develop in flowers, and seeds are en-
closed in fruits. The seeds develop inside an ovary and are modified to become fruit.
• Plant embryos in seeds have cotyledons, or "seed leaves," which often emerge and turn green during
germination. Angiosperms are classified into two groups based on the number of cotyledons:
1. Dicots (with two cotyledons, reticulate venation, and tetramerous/pentamerous flowers)
2. Monocots (with one cotyledon, parallel venation, and trimerous flowers)
• In flowers, the male organ (stamen) has a filament and anther, where pollen is produced. The female
organ (pistil) includes the ovary, style, and stigma, where ovules are housed.

53
• After pollination, pollen grains germinate on the stigma, and pollen tubes grow towards the ovule. Two
male gametes are released – one fertilises the egg to form a zygote, and the other fuses with the sec-
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ondary nucleus to form the endosperm. This process, unique to angiosperms, is called double fertili-
sation. The zygote develops into an embryo, the ovules become seeds, and the ovary becomes fruit.
• Angiosperms are a diverse group of plants, from tiny wolffia to towering eucalyptus trees.
• They provide vital resources like food, fodder, fuel, medicine, and other commercially essential products.

Cryptogams vs Phanerogams
Feature Cryptogams Phanerogams
Seed Formation No seeds Seeds present
Vascular Tissues Absent or poorly developed Well-developed vascular tissues
Reproductive Organs Hidden (crypto = hidden) Visible (phanero = visible)
Gametophyte Dominance Gametophyte is the dominant phase Sporophyte is the dominant phase
Examples Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes Gymnosperms, angiosperms

3.8. Classification of the Kingdom Animalia

Basis of Classification 54

Levels of Organisation
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• Animalia members are multicellular, but their cellular organisation varies.

1. Cellular level: Loose cell aggregates (e.g., sponges).
2. Tissue level: Cells grouped by function (e.g., coelenterates).
3. Organ level: Tissues grouped for specific functions (e.g., flatworms and higher phyla).
4. Organ system level: Organs working together (e.g., annelids, arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms,
and chordates).
• Organ systems in different groups of animals exhibit various patterns of complexities; for instance, the
digestive system is of two groups:
1. Incomplete: Single opening (mouth/anus) (e.g., flatworms).
2. Complete: Two openings (mouth and anus) (e.g., higher animals).
• Similarly, circulatory systems may be of two types:
1. Open: Blood directly bathes cells and tissues (found in some invertebrates).
2. Closed: Blood circulates through vessels (found in most vertebrates).

Symmetry
• Animals can be categorised by symmetry. They are:
1. Asymmetrical: No plane divides the body into equal halves. E.g., sponges.
2. Radial symmetry: Any plane through the central axis divides the body equally. E.g., coelenterates,
ctenophores, and echinoderms.
3. Bilateral symmetry: Only one plane divides the body into identical left and right halves. E.g., anne-
lids and arthropods.

Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation

• Diploblastic: Animals in which the cells are arranged in two embryonic layers, ectoderm and endo-
derm. (An undifferentiated layer, mesoglea, is between the two layers). E.g., coelenterates.
• Triploblastic: Animals in which the developing embryo has a third germinal layer, mesoderm, in be-
tween the ectoderm and endoderm.

Coelom
• Presence or absence of a cavity between the body wall and the gut wall is significant in classification.
1. Coelomates: Animals with coelom (mesoderm-lined body cavity). E.g., annelids, molluscs, arthro-
pods, echinoderms, hemichordates, and chordates.
2. Pseudocoelomates: Animals with cavities not lined by mesoderm. E.g., Aschelminthes.
3. Acoelomates: Animals with no body cavity. E.g., Platyhelminthes.

55
Segmentation
• Metameric segmentation, or metamerism, is a biological phenomenon in which an animal's body is
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divided into repeating segments or "metameres." Each segment often contains similar or identical sets
of organs and tissues, allowing for greater flexibility and specialisation.
• This type of segmentation is found in animals like annelids (e.g., earthworms), arthropods (e.g., insects),
and some chordates (e.g., vertebrates).

Notochord
• Notochord is a mesodermally derived rod-like structure formed on the dorsal side during embryonic
development. Animals with a notochord are called chordates, while those without it are non-chordates
(e.g., porifera to echinoderms).

Characteristic Features of the Different Phyla of Kingdom Animalia

Porifera
• Porifera (commonly called sponges) are primarily marine, asymmetrical animals with a cellular level
of organisation. These are non-motile animals attached to some solid support.
• Porifera have ‘pores’ all over the body, which leads to a water transport or canal system where wa-
ter enters through pores (ostia), flows into a central cavity (spongocoel), and exits through the oscu-
lum, aiding in feeding, respiration, and waste removal.
• Choanocytes or collar cells (crucial for feeding, respiration, and reproduction) line the spongocoel and
canals of sponges. Digestion is intracellular in sponges.
• Sponges are covered with a hard outside layer or skeleton of spicules or spongin fibres.
• Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite), meaning the same individual produces both eggs and sperm
in sponges. They reproduce asexually by fragmentation and sexually through gametes. Fertilisation is
internal, with indirect development involving a morphologically distinct larval stage.
• E.g., Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla (Freshwater sponge) and Euspongia (Bath sponge).

Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
• Coelenterata are aquatic, mainly marine, attached or free-swimming, radially symmetrical animals.
• Cnidaria are named after their cnidoblasts or cnidocytes containing stinging capsules (nematocysts).
Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defence, and capturing prey.
• These diploblastic animals exhibit tissue-level organisation and have a central gastro-vascular cavity
with a single opening, mouth on hypostome. Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.
• Cnidarians have two primary body forms: the sessile, cylindrical polyp (e.g., Hydra and Adamsia) and
the umbrella-shaped, free-swimming medusa (e.g., Aurelia or jellyfish). Species that alternate between
both forms exhibit metagenesis, where polyps produce medusae asexually, and medusae produce
polyps sexually (e.g., obelia). Some cnidarians, like corals, have a skeleton of calcium carbonate. 56
• Sexes in cnidaria are generally separate, but some are hermaphrodites. They reproduce both asexually
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and sexually.
• E.g., Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (sea anemone), Pennatula (sea pen), Gorgonia (sea
fan) and Meandrina (brain coral).

Ctenophora
• Ctenophores (known as sea walnuts or comb jellies) are marine, radially symmetrical, diploblastic or-
ganisms with tissue-level organisation. Their bodies have eight rows of ciliated comb plates for loco-
motion. They exhibit both extracellular and intracellular digestion.
• Ctenophores are known for their bioluminescence (the property of a living organism to emit light).
• Sexes in ctenophores are not separate (hermaphrodite), and reproduction is exclusively sexual with
external fertilisation and indirect development. E.g., Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana.

Platyhelminthes
• They are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic animals with organ level of organisation. However, they
have no true internal body cavity or coelom to accommodate well-developed organs.
• Their bodies are flattened dorsoventrally (meaning from top to bottom), hence called flatworms.
• They are either free-living (e.g., planarians) or parasitic (e.g., liver flukes). These are primarily endopar-
asites found in animals, including humans. Hooks and suckers are present in the parasitic forms. Some
of them absorb nutrients from the host directly through their body surface.
• Specialised cells called flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion. Osmoregulation is the pro-
cess of maintaining water and salt balance in the body for internal homeostasis.
• Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite). Fertilisation is internal, and development occurs through
many larval stages. Some members, like Planaria, possess high regeneration capacity.
• E.g., Taenia (tapeworm) and Fasciola (liver fluke).

Aschelminthes (Nematoda)
• The body of the Aschelminthes is circular in cross-section; hence, they are called roundworms.
• They may be free-living, aquatic, terrestrial, or parasitic in plants and animals. The parasitic worms
cause diseases like elephantiasis (filarial worms) or intestinal issues (roundworms or pinworms).
• They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and pseudocoelomate animals with an organ-system level
of body organisation. The alimentary canal is complete with a well-developed muscular pharynx. An
excretory tube removes body wastes from the body cavity through the excretory pore.
• Sexes are separate (dioecious), i.e., males and females are distinct. Often, females are longer than

57
males. Fertilisation is internal, and development may be direct (young ones resemble adults) or indirect.
• E.g., Ascaris (roundworm), Wuchereria (filaria worm), and Ancylostoma (hookworm).
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Annelida
• Annelids may be aquatic (marine and freshwater), terrestrial, free-living, and parasitic. They are bilat-
erally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate animals with organ-system level organisation.
• They are metamerically segmented, hence the phylum name Annelida (annulus = little ring). They
possess longitudinal and circular muscles that help with locomotion.
• Aquatic annelids like Nereis have parapodia (lateral appendages) for swimming. They have a closed
circulatory system, nephridia for osmoregulation and excretion, and a neural system with paired gan-
glia and a ventral nerve cord.
• Some annelids like nereis are dioecious, while others like earthworms (Pheretima) and leeches (Hiru-
dinaria) are monoecious (the male and female reproductive organs are in the same individual). They
reproduce sexually.

Arthropoda
• Arthropods, the largest phylum of Animalia, include insects and comprise over two-thirds of all
named species on Earth. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, segmented and coelomate ani-
mals with an organ-system level of organisation.
• A chitinous exoskeleton covers the body of arthropods. The body consists of the head, thorax, and
abdomen. They have jointed appendages (arthros = joint, poda = appendages). Respiration occurs
through gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.
• There is an open circulatory system, so the blood does not flow in well-defined blood vessels. The
coelomic cavity is blood-filled. Sensory organs like antennae, eyes (compound and simple), statocysts
or balancing organs are present. Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules.
• They are mostly dioecious with internal fertilisation, and development can be direct or indirect. They
are generally oviparous (animals that lay eggs).
• E.g., economically important insects – Apis (honeybee), Bombyx (silkworm), Laccifer (lac insect); vec-
tors – Anopheles, Culex and Aedes (mosquitoes); gregarious pest – Locusta (locust); living fossil –
Limulus (King crab).

[UPSC 2014] Among the following organisms, which one does not belong to the class
of other three?
a) Crab
b) Mite
c) Scorpion

58
d) Spider

Explanation
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• Crabs belong to the class Crustacea, a subgroup of the phylum Arthropoda. Crustaceans are charac-
terised by having a hard exoskeleton, two pairs of antennae, and gills for respiration.
• Mites, scorpions, and spiders belong to the class Arachnida, which is also a subgroup of the phylum
Arthropoda. Arachnids are characterised by four pairs of legs (eight legs), the absence of antennae and
bodies divided into two main segments: cephalothorax and abdomen.

Answer: (a) Crab

Mollusca
• Mollusca is the second-largest animal phylum. Molluscs are terrestrial or aquatic (marine or freshwa-
ter), having an organ-system level of organisation. They are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and
coelomate animals. They have an open circulatory system and kidney-like organs for excretion.
• A calcareous shell covers their bodies and is unsegmented, with a distinct head, muscular foot and
visceral hump. A soft and spongy layer of skin forms a mantle over the visceral hump. The mantle cavi-
ty, located between the hump and mantle, contains feather-like gills for respiration and excretion.
• The anterior head region has sensory tentacles. The mouth contains a file-like rasping organ for feed-
ing called a radula. They are usually dioecious and oviparous with indirect development.
• E.g., Pila (apple snail), Pinctada (pearl oyster), Sepia (cuttlefish), Loligo (squid), Octopus (devilfish),
Aplysia (sea hare), Dentalium (tusk shell) and Chaetopleura (chiton).

Echinodermata
• Echinoderms are free-living marine animals characterised by hard, spiny skin. They have hard calcium
carbonate structures that they use as a skeleton.
• With an organ-system level of organisation, the adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical, but larvae
are bilaterally symmetrical. They are triploblastic and coelomate animals.
• Their most distinctive feature is their water vascular system, which aids in locomotion, food capture,
transport, and respiration.
• The digestive system is complete. However, the excretory system is absent. They are dioecious. Re-
production is sexual. Fertilisation is usually external. Development is indirect with free-swimming larvae.
• E.g., Asterias (starfish), Echinus (sea urchin), Antedon (sea lily), Cucumaria (sea cucumber) and Ophiura
(brittle star).

Hemichordata
• Hemichordata, formerly a sub-phylum of Chordata, is now classified as a separate phylum. They are bi-
laterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate animals with organ-system-level organisation.
• These marine, worm-like animals have a rudimentary structure near the collar region called a stomo-
chord, similar to a notochord. They have a cylindrical body comprising a proboscis, collar, and trunk. 59
• They have an open circulatory system, respire through gills, and possess a proboscis gland for excretion.
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They are dioecious, with external fertilisation and indirect development.

• E.g., Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus.

Chordata
• Chordates are characterised by the presence of a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired
pharyngeal gill slits. These are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, and coelomate with organ-system
level of organisation. They have a post-anal tail and a closed circulatory system.
• Chordata is divided into three subphyla: Urochordata or Tunicata, Cephalochordata and Vertebrata.
• Subphyla Urochordata and Cephalochordata, often called protochordates, are exclusively marine. In
Urochordata, the notochord is present only in the larval tail (e.g., Ascidia, Salpa, and Doliolum), while in
Cephalochordata, it extends from head to tail and persists throughout life (e.g., Branchiostoma).

Vertebrata: A Subphyla of Chordata

• Vertebrates possess a notochord during the embryonic stage, replaced by a cartilaginous or bony
vertebral column in adulthood. They have a ventral muscular heart (with two, three or four cham-
bers), kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation, and paired appendages (fins or limbs).
• Their bodies are segmented, with complex differentiation of body tissues and organs.
• Vertebrates are grouped into seven classes.

Cyclostomata
• Cyclostomes are jawless vertebrates. An elongated, eel-like body, circular and sucking mouth, and slimy
skin characterise them. They are devoid of scales and paired fins. They have 6-15 pairs of gill slits for
respiration. The cranium and vertebral column are cartilaginous. Circulation is of closed type.
• All living members of the Cyclostomata are ectoparasites on some fishes. Ectoparasites live on the out-
side of a host, feeding on its blood, skin, or other tissues.
• Cyclostomes are marine but migrate for spawning to fresh water. After spawning, within a few days,
they die. Their larvae, after metamorphosis, return to the ocean.
• E.g., Petromyzon (lamprey) and Myxine (hagfish).

Chondrichthyes
• They are marine animals with a streamlined body and cartilaginous endoskeleton. They have ven-
trally located mouths and persistent notochord. Gill slits are separate and lack an operculum (gill
cover). Their tough skin contains minute placoid scales, with teeth being modified placoid scales.
• These predaceous animals have powerful jaws. They must constantly swim to avoid sinking due to the
absence of an air bladder. They have a two-chambered heart and are cold-blooded (poikilother-
mous) animals, meaning they cannot regulate their body temperature.
• Some possess electric organs (e.g., Torpedo) or a poison sting (e.g., Trygon). 60
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• Sexes are separate (dioecious) and fertilisation is internal. Many are viviparous (animals that give birth
to live young rather than laying eggs).
• E.g., Scoliodon (dogfish), Pristis (sawfish), Carcharodon (great white shark), and Trygon (stingray).

Osteichthyes
• This group includes both marine and freshwater fish with bony endoskeletons. They have stream-
lined bodies, terminal mouths, and four pairs of gills covered by opercula.
• Their skin is covered with cycloid or ctenoid scales, and they have an air bladder for buoyancy. They
possess a two-chambered heart (one auricle and one ventricle) and are cold-blooded.
• They are dioecious, fertilisation is usually external, and they are primarily oviparous (animals that lay
eggs) with direct development.
• E.g., marine: Exocoetus (flying fish) and Hippocampus (sea horse); freshwater: Labeo (rohu), Catla
(katla), and Clarias (magur); aquarium: Betta (fighting fish) and Pterophyllum (angelfish).

Amphibians (Amphi = dual; bios = life)

• Amphibians are animals that can live in both aquatic and terrestrial habitats.
• They typically have two pairs of limbs and a body divided into head and trunk, with some having a
tail. Their skin is moist and scaleless, and they have eyelids and a tympanum (ear drum) for hearing.
• The alimentary canal, urinary, and reproductive tracts open into a common chamber called the cloaca.
• They breathe through the gills, lungs, and skin. They have a three-chambered heart (two auricles and
one ventricle) and are cold-blooded.
• They are dioecious and undergo external fertilisation. They are oviparous with indirect development.
• E.g., Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog), Salamandra (Salamander), Ichthyophis (Limbless am-
phibia).

Reptilia
• Reptiles, named for their creeping or crawling movement, are mainly terrestrial with dry, cornified
skin covered in scales or scutes. They lack external ear openings and use the tympanum for hearing.
• Most have two pairs of limbs, and their hearts are usually three-chambered, except for crocodiles,
which have four. Reptiles are poikilotherms (cold-blooded), and snakes and lizards shed their skin.
• They are dioecious with internal fertilisation and are oviparous with direct development.
• E.g., turtle, tortoise, chameleon (tree lizard), calotes (garden lizard), crocodile, alligator, wall lizard, flying
lizard, and poisonous snake (like cobra, krait, and viper).

Aves
Aves (birds) are characterised by feathers and the ability to fly, except for flightless birds like the os-
61
•
trich. They have beaks, with forelimbs modified into wings. Hind limbs, often scaled, are adapted for
walking, swimming, or perching. Their skin is dry, lacking glands except for an oil gland at the tail base.
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• The endoskeleton of the birds is fully ossified (bony), and the long bones are hollow with air cavities
(pneumatic).
• Their digestive tract has additional chambers, namely, the crop and gizzard. The heart is four-
chambered. They respire through their lungs, which are aided by air sacs. They are warm-blooded
(homoiothermic) animals, i.e., they can maintain a constant body temperature.
• They are dioecious with internal fertilisation and are oviparous with direct development.
• E.g., crow, pigeon, parrot, ostrich, peacock, penguin, vulture.

Mammalia
• The most distinctive feature of mammals is the presence of milk-producing glands (mammary
glands), which nourish the young ones. They inhabit diverse environments, including polar ice caps,
deserts, mountains, forests, grasslands, and caves. Some are adapted to fly or live in water.
• There are two pairs of limbs adapted for various activities like walking, running, climbing, burrowing,
swimming, or flying. Their skin is unique in possessing hair, and they have external ears (pinnae). Dif-
ferent types of teeth are present in the jaw.
• Mammals have a four-chambered heart and breathe through the lungs. They are homoiothermous.
• They are dioecious with internal fertilisation. They are primarily viviparous, with few exceptions (like
the platypus and the echidna, who lay eggs). They exhibit direct development.
• E.g., Oviparous: platypus; Viviparous: kangaroo, flying fox, camel, monkey, rat, dog, cat, elephant, horse,
common dolphin, blue whale, tiger, lion, and human.

Chordates vs Non-chordates
Feature Chordates Non-chordates
Notochord Present Absent
Central Nervous System Dorsal, hollow, single Ventral, solid, double
Pharynx Perforated by gill slits Gill slits absent
Heart Ventral Dorsal (if present)
Post-anal Tail Present in some stage of life Absent

Salient Features of Different Phyla in the Animal Kingdom

Phylum Level of Organization Distinctive Features
Porifera Cellular Body with pores and canals in walls
Coelenterata (Cnidaria) Tissue Cnidoblasts present
Ctenophora Tissue Comb plates for locomotion

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Platyhelminthes Organ & Organ-system Flat body, suckers
Aschelminthes Organ-system Often worm-shaped, elongated
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Annelida Organ-system Body segmentation, like rings

Arthropoda Organ-system Exoskeleton of cuticle, jointed appendages
Mollusca Organ-system External skeleton of the shell is usually present
Echinodermata Organ-system Water vascular system, radial symmetry
Phylum Symmetry Coelom Segmentation
Porifera Various Absent Absent
Coelenterata (Cnidaria) Radial Absent Absent
Ctenophora Radial Absent Absent
Platyhelminthes Bilateral Absent Absent
Aschelminthes Bilateral Pseudocoelomate Absent
Annelida Bilateral Coelomate Present
Arthropoda Bilateral Coelomate Present
Mollusca Bilateral Coelomate Absent
Echinodermata Radial Coelomate Absent
Phylum Digestive System Circulatory System Respiratory System
Porifera Absent Absent Absent
Coelenterata (Cnidaria) Incomplete Absent Absent
Ctenophora Incomplete Absent Absent
Platyhelminthes Incomplete Absent Absent
Aschelminthes Complete Absent Absent
Annelida Complete Present Absent
Arthropoda Complete Present Present
Mollusca Complete Present Present
Echinodermata Complete Present Present

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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 4. Structural Organisation in Plants and Animals

4.1. Morphology of Flowering Plants

• Though the angiosperms show a large diversity in external structure or morphology, they are all charac-
terised by roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits.

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The Root
• The roots mainly help absorb water and minerals, anchor the plant, store food, and produce
growth hormones. There are three main types:
1. Tap root system: In most dicotyledonous plants (like mustard), the radicle grows into a primary
root, which further branches into secondary and tertiary roots.
2. Fibrous root system: In monocotyledonous plants (like wheat), the primary root is short-lived
and replaced by many thin roots that grow from the base of the stem.
3. Adventitious root system: In plants like grass, monstera, and banyan trees, roots grow from parts
of the plant other than the radicle.
 The radicle is the embryonic root of a seed and the first part to emerge during germination, developing
into the plant's primary root.

Regions of the Root

• A root cap protects the root tip as it pushes through the soil. Just above is the meristematic region,
where cells divide rapidly. Next is the elongation region, where cells grow, extending the root. In the
maturation zone, cells mature and some form root hairs, which absorb water and nutrients.

Modifications of Root
• In some plants, roots adapt to perform functions beyond absorbing water and nutrients. Tap roots in
plants like carrots and turnips and adventitious roots in sweet potatoes store food. The prop roots
that hang down from branches in a banyan tree and stilt roots that emerge from the lower nodes of
the stems of plants like maize and sugarcane provide extra support. In swampy areas, plants like Rhi-
zophora have pneumatophores, roots that grow upward to absorb oxygen for respiration.

The Stem
• The stem is the upward-growing part of the plant that develops from the plumule of a germinating
seed. It supports branches, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Stems have nodes (where leaves are attached)
and internodes (the spaces between nodes). Stems are usually green when young, later becoming

66
woody and brown.
• Their main functions include producing buds (which can grow into branches or flowers), conducting
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water and nutrients, storing food, providing support, and aiding in vegetative propagation.

Modifications of Stem
• Stems can be modified to perform special functions. Underground stems (like potatoes, ginger, tur-
meric, zaminkand, and Colocasia) store food and help the plant survive harsh conditions. Stem ten-
drils, which develop from axillary buds (like in cucumbers, pumpkins, watermelons, and grapevines),
are thin, coiled structures that help the plant climb.
• In some plants, axillary buds become sharp thorns for protection (like in Citrus and Bougainvillea).
Some plants in arid regions modify their stems into flattened (Opuntia) or fleshy cylindrical (Euphorbia)
structures that contain chlorophyll and perform photosynthesis.
• Underground stems in plants like grass and strawberry spread out to form new plants. Lateral branch-
es in plants like mint and jasmine grow out, arch downward, and form roots when they touch the
ground. In plants like banana, pineapple, and Chrysanthemum, lateral branches grow underground,
emerge, and form new leafy shoots.

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The Leaf
• A leaf is a flat, lateral structure that grows from the stem at nodes and contains a bud in its axil,
which grows into a branch later. They contain chlorophyll and are vital for photosynthesis. A typical
leaf has three main parts:
 1. Leaf base: It attaches the leaf to the stem and sometimes has small leaf-like structures called stip-
ules. In monocots, it may form a sheath covering the stem. The leaf base may become swollen in
some leguminous plants, called the pulvinus.
2. Petiole: The stalk holds the leaf blade (lamina) and helps it receive sunlight. Flexible petioles also
help cool the leaf by allowing it to flutter in the wind.
3. Lamina (leaf blade): The green, flat part of the leaf, with veins and veinlets. The central midrib and
smaller veins provide rigidity to the leaf blade and transport water, minerals, and food.

Venation
68
• The pattern of veins and veinlets in a leaf is called venation. When the veins form a network through-
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out the leaf, it is called reticulate venation. If the veins run parallel, it is known as parallel venation.
Reticulate venation is typically found in dicot plants, while parallel venation is common in monocots.

Types of Leaves
• There are two types of leaves:
1. Simple: A leaf is simple if its blade (lamina) is either whole or has cuts (incisions) that do not reach
the midrib.
 2. Compound: If the cuts go to the midrib, splitting the leaf into separate leaflets, the leaf is
a compound leaf.
• Both simple and compound leaves have a bud at the base of the petiole, but compound leaves do not
have buds at the base of their leaflets. There are two types of compound leaves:
1. Pinnately compound leaves: Leaflets are arranged along a central axis called rachis (e.g., neem).
2. Palmately compound leaves: Leaflets are attached at a single point at the tip of the petiole (e.g.,
silk cotton).

Phyllotaxy
• Phyllotaxy refers to the arrangement of leaves on a stem or branch. There are three main types:
1. Alternate: One leaf grows at each node in an alternating pattern (like china rose, mustard, and sun-
flower).
2. Opposite: Two leaves grow at each node, positioned directly opposite (like Calotropis and guava).
3. Whorled: More than two leaves grow at a node, forming a ring or whorl (like Alstonia).

Modifications of Leaves
• Leaves can be modified for purposes other than photosynthesis. Leaves become tendrils to help the
plant climb (e.g. peas) or become spines for protection (e.g., cacti).
• The fleshy leaves of onions and garlic store food. In plants like Australian acacia, the small, short-lived
leaves are replaced by expanded, green petioles that carry out photosynthesis. In insect-eating plants
like the pitcher and venus-flytrap plants, leaves are modified to catch and digest insects.

The Flower
• A flower is a modified shoot where the growing tip (shoot apical meristem) turns into a floral meri-
stem. The shoot becomes compact, and instead of producing leaves, it forms floral parts at nodes.
When the shoot tip changes into a flower, it becomes solitary.
• A flower is the reproductive structure in angiosperms, responsible for sexual reproduction.

Parts of a Flower
• A flower normally consists of four parts arranged on a swollen end of the stem called the thalamus or 69
receptacle. They are calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
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• The calyx and corolla are accessory organs, while the androecium and gynoecium are the reproduc-
tive organs. Some flowers like lily, calyx and corolla are not distinct and are called the perianth.

Calyx
• The calyx is the outermost part of a flower, made up of green, leaf-like structures called sepals. These
sepals protect the flower while it is still a bud. The calyx can be gamosepalous (sepals united) or pol-
ysepalous (sepals free).
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Corolla
• The corolla is made up of petals, often brightly coloured, to attract insects for pollination. The co-
rolla can be gamopetalous (petals joined together) or polypetalous (petals are separate). The corolla's
shape and colour vary widely; it may be tubular, bell-shaped, funnel-shaped, or wheel-shaped.

Aestivation
• Aestivation is the arrangement of sepals or petals in a flower bud in relation to each other. There are
four main types:
1. Valvate: Petals or sepals touch each other at the edges without overlapping (e.g., calotropis).
2. Twisted: Each sepal or petal overlaps the next one in sequence (e.g., china rose, lady’s finger, and
cotton).
3. Imbricate: Petals or sepals randomly overlap (e.g., cassia and gulmohur).
4. Vexillary: In flowers with five petals, the largest petal (standard) overlaps the two side petals
(wings), which then overlap the two smallest petals (keel) (e.g., pea and bean).

Androecium
• The androecium comprises stamens, the male reproductive parts of a flower. Each stamen has a stalk
called a filament and an anther, which produces pollen grains in small chambers called pollen-sacs.
Pollen grains are tiny structures that serve as the male gametophytes in flowering plants, playing a
crucial role in fertilisation. A sterile stamen is called a staminode.
• Stamens may attach to petals (epipetalous, e.g., brinjal) or the perianth (epiphyllous, e.g., lily). Stamens
can be free (polyandrous) or united. They may unite in one group (monadelphous, e.g., China rose),
two groups (diadelphous, e.g., pea), or multiple groups (polyadelphous, e.g., citrus). Filament length
can vary within a flower (e.g., salvia and mustard).

Gynoecium
• The gynoecium is the female reproductive part of the flower, made up of one or more carpels. Each
carpel has three parts: the stigma, style, and ovary.
1. Ovary: The enlarged base which holds the ovules (future seeds). Each ovary bears one or more
ovules attached to a flattened, cushion-like placenta. 71
2. Style: The tube that connects the stigma to the ovary.
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3. Stigma: The sticky part at the top that receives pollen grains.
• If there is more than one carpel, they can be arranged in two ways: apocarpous (carpels are separate,
e.g., lotus and rose) and syncarpous (carpels are fused, e.g., mustard and tomato).

Placentation
• Placentation refers to how ovules are arranged inside an ovary. There are a few different types:
1. Marginal: Ovules are arranged in two rows along the edge of the ovary (e.g., pea).
 2. Axile: Ovules are attached to a central axis in a multi-chambered ovary (e.g., china rose, tomato,
and lemon).
3. Parietal: Ovules are attached to the inner wall of the ovary (e.g., mustard and Argemone).
4. Basal: A single ovule is attached to the base of the ovary (e.g., Dianthus and Primrose).
5. Free central: Ovules are attached to a central axis without partitions (e.g., sunflower and marigold).

Classification of Flower
• Based on reproductive parts, flowers can be classified into:
1. Bisexual: These flowers have both androecium and gynoecium (i.e., male and female parts).
2. Unisexual: These flowers have only stamens or carpels (i.e., having only male or female parts).
• Based on symmetry, flowers can be classified into:
1. Actinomorphic (radial symmetry): The flower can be divided into equal halves from any radial line
passing through its centre (e.g., mustard, datura, and chilli).
2. Zygomorphic (bilateral symmetry): The flower can only be divided into two similar halves along
one vertical plane (e.g., pea, bean, and Cassia).
3. Asymmetric (irregular): The flower cannot be divided into two equal halves by any vertical plane
passing through its centre (e.g., canna).
• Based on the number of their petals, flowers can be classified:
1. Trimerous: They have petals in multiples of three.
2. Tetramerous: They have petals in multiples of four.
3. Pentamerous: They have petals in multiples of five.
• Based on the position of the calyx, corolla, and androecium (floral parts) relative to the ovary, flowers
are classified into three types:
1. Hypogynous: The gynoecium (the female part) is at the highest position, with the other floral parts
below it. The ovary is said to be superior (e.g., mustard, china rose, and brinjal).
2. Perigynous: The gynoecium is in the centre, with other floral parts around it at the same level,
forming a rim. The ovary is half inferior (e.g., plum, rose, and peach).
3. Epigynous: The thalamus grows upward and surrounds the ovary, fusing with it. The other floral
parts arise above the ovary, which is called inferior (e.g., guava, cucumber, and sunflower). 72

The Inflorescence
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• The arrangement of flowers on a stem is called inflorescence. There are two main types:
1. Racemose inflorescence: The main stem keeps growing, and flowers appear on the sides in an up-
ward or acropetal order (older flowers at the base and younger flowers at the apex). E.g., Gulmohar.
2. Cymose inflorescence: The main stem stops growing because it ends in a flower, and newer flow-
ers form below the older ones in a downward or basipetal order (older flowers lie at the apex and
the younger flowers below it). E.g., Jasmine.
The Fruit
• A fruit is a mature ovary formed after fertilisation. It is unique to flowering plants. If a fruit develops
without fertilisation, it's called a parthenocarpic fruit. Fruits have a pericarp (fruit wall) and seeds.
The pericarp can be either dry or fleshy. When thick and fleshy, it has three layers: Epicarp (outer layer),
Mesocarp (middle layer), and Endocarp (inner layer).
• Drupes are fleshy fruits with a hard, stony endocarp surrounding the seed. E.g., mangoes (where the
mesocarp is edible) and coconuts (where the mesocarp is fibrous).

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The Seed
• Seeds are the mature ovules developed after fertilisation. They consist of two main parts: seed coat
(the protective outer layer) and embryo (the developing plant inside the seed).
• The embryo has three parts:
1. Radicle: The embryonic root and the first part of a seedling to emerge during germination.
2. Embryonal axis: Divides the embryo and forms the plant’s stem after maturation.
3. Cotyledons: The embryonic leaves that provide nutrients to the developing embryo. Seeds can
have one cotyledon (monocots) or two cotyledons (dicots).

Monocotyledonous Seed vs Dicotyledonous Seed

Feature Monocotyledonous Seed Dicotyledonous Seed
Number of Cotyledons One Two
Examples Wheat, maize, rice, lily, grass Bean, pea, gram, mango, sunflower
Seed Coat Maybe distinct or fused with the fruit wall Two distinct layers
Venation in leaves Parallel Reticulate (net-like)
Flower parts Usually, in multiples of three Usually, in multiples of four or five
Root system Adventitious and fibrous Taproot
Vascular Bundles Scattered in the stem Arranged in a ring
Pollen Structure Single furrow or pore Three furrows or pores

4.2. Morphology of Animals

• Morphology refers to the study of the form, structure, and appearance of organisms and their specific
parts. It involves analysing the physical characteristics of organisms at various levels, including the ex-
ternal and internal structures. Here, we'll explore the morphology of earthworms, cockroaches, and
frogs, representing invertebrates and vertebrates at different evolutionary stages.

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Earthworms
• Earthworms are reddish-brown invertebrates found in the moist topsoil. During the day, they stay in
burrows made by eating and digging through the soil. They can be easily spotted through their waste,
called worm castings. Two common Indian species are Pheretima and Lumbricus.
• Earthworms have long, cylindrical bodies with over 100 segments (metameres). A dorsal blood vessel
runs along the top, and genital openings are on the underside. The front end has a mouth, and a senso-
ry lobe called the prostomium for movement. The first segment, the peristomium, contains the
mouth. Mature worms have a dark glandular band, the clitellum, dividing the body into preclitellar,
clitellar, and postclitellar regions. Numerous minute pores called nephridiopores cover most of the
body and tiny bristles (setae) aid movement in each segment.
• Earthworms are hermaphrodites, so each individual has both male and female reproductive organs.

Cockroaches
• Cockroaches are insects, and so are invertebrates. They are typically brown or black, though some
tropical species are brightly coloured. They are nocturnal omnivores, thrive in damp environments
and are common household pests and disease vectors.
• Adult common species of cockroaches, Periplaneta americana, are 34-53 mm long, with males having
wings extending past their abdomen. Their body is divided into three regions: head, thorax, and ab-
domen, all covered by a hard, brown exoskeleton. The exoskeleton consists of hardened plates called
sclerites, connected by flexible membranes.
• The triangular head comprises six fused segments and is highly mobile due to a flexible neck. It has
compound eyes and long, thread-like antennae for sensing the environment.
• The thorax consists of three sections: prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax, each with a pair of walk-
ing legs. The first pair of wings comes from the mesothorax and the second from the metathorax. The
thick and leathery forewings cover the transparent hind wings used for flight at rest.
• Females have a boat-shaped sternum that forms a pouch for reproductive organs. In contrast, males
have a genital pouch at the end of the abdomen containing the anus, genital pore, and reproductive
structures, along with short anal styles that females lack. Both sexes have jointed anal cerci.

Frogs
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• Frogs are amphibians; amphibians are cold-blooded (or poikilotherm) vertebrates. Frogs can also
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change colour for camouflage to hide from predators (mimicry). During extreme summer and winter,
frogs take shelter in deep burrows to avoid harsh conditions, a behaviour known as aestivation (sum-
mer sleep) and hibernation (winter sleep). Frog skin is smooth and slippery due to mucus, helping it
stay moist. Frogs don’t drink water but absorb it through their skin. The most common frog species
in India is Rana tigrina.
 Cold-blooded (or poikilotherm) means their body temperature changes with the environment)
• A frog's body consists of a head and trunk, lacking a neck and tail. It has nostrils above the mouth,
bulging eyes protected by a nictitating membrane, and a membranous tympanum (ear) on each side
of the eyes for detecting sound. Frogs use their forelimbs and hind limbs for swimming, walking, leap-
ing, and burrowing. The larger, more muscular hind limbs have five webbed digits, while the fore-
limbs have four digits. Frogs also exhibit sexual dimorphism (differences between males and females
of the same species): males have vocal sacs for sound production and a copulatory pad on the first digit
of their forelimbs, which females lack.

4.3. Morphology of Humans

Body Plan
• Bilateral Symmetry: The human body is bilaterally symmetrical, meaning the body can be divided into
two identical halves.
• Head, Trunk, and Limbs: The body is divided into the head, trunk (thorax and abdomen), and paired
limbs (upper and lower).
• Posture: Humans are bipedal, meaning they stand and walk on two legs.

Skeletal System
• Skeletal system is comprised of 206 bones in adults. The system can be divided into:
1. Axial Skeleton: It includes the skull, spine, and rib cage. It provides structural support, protects
the brain and spinal cord, and houses organs like the heart and lungs.
2. Appendicular Skeleton: It includes the limbs and girdles (shoulder and pelvic). It facilitates
movement and interaction with the environment.
• Joints: The place where two or more bones meet and allow movement. Joints are made of:
1. Cartilage: It is a tissue that covers the ends of bones at a joint to reduce friction.
2. Ligaments: They are tough, elastic bands of connective tissue that surround joints and connect
bones together.
3. Tendons: They are tough bands of connective tissue that attach muscles to bones.

76
4. Synovial fluid: It is a clear, thick fluid that lubricates the joint and provides cushioning.

Muscular System
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• Humans possess striated skeletal muscles (for voluntary movement), smooth muscles (for involuntary
movement in organs), and cardiac muscle (specific to the heart).
• The musculoskeletal system is highly developed for bipedal locomotion, with muscles supporting the
spine, pelvis, and legs.

Nervous System
• The human nervous system consists of the:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS): It is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): It connects the CNS to the limbs and organs.
• The nervous system controls body functions and responses to the environment and performs highly
developed cognitive functions in the brain, which support reasoning, memory, language, and sensory
perception. Humans have specialised sense organs (eyes, ears, skin, nose, and tongue) that help in
gathering environmental information.

Circulatory System
• The heart pumps blood throughout the body, transporting oxygen, nutrients, and waste products.
• Arteries, veins, and capillaries form the network of blood vessels. Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood,
veins return oxygen-poor blood, and capillaries facilitate exchange between the blood and body tissues.

Respiratory System
• Humans rely on lungs for respiration, with air entering the body through the trachea and branching
into the bronchi and alveoli. Gas exchange (i.e., inhaling oxygen and exhaling carbon dioxide) takes
place in the alveoli.

Digestive System
• The digestive system breaks down food and absorbs nutrients.
• It includes the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and accessory organs such
as the liver and pancreas.

Excretory System
• The kidneys filter blood to remove waste products and excess fluids, which are excreted as urine
through the ureters, bladder, and urethra.
• The skin also helps in excreting waste through sweat.

Endocrine System
• The endocrine glands (e.g., pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal) secrete hormones that regulate metabo- 77
lism, growth, stress response, and other functions.
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Reproductive System
• Male Reproductive System: It includes the testes, which produce sperm, and the penis, through which
sperm is delivered.
• Female Reproductive System: It includes the ovaries, which produce eggs; the fallopian tubes, where
fertilisation occurs; and the uterus, where a fertilised egg develops into a foetus.
Integumentary System
• The skin is the largest organ and serves as a barrier, protecting the body from external damage and
regulating temperature. It also houses hair and nails.
• The skin comprises layers (epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis) and contains sebaceous glands, sweat
glands, and sensory receptors.

Lymphatic and Immune System

• The lymphatic system helps defend the body against infection and maintains fluid balance. It in-
cludes lymph nodes, lymph vessels, and spleen.
• The immune system involves white blood cells and antibodies that protect against foreign invaders
(bacteria, viruses).

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 5. Life Processes

• Life processes are the essential functions that all living organisms must perform to maintain life.
• Living organisms need constant maintenance, even when inactive. The key life processes are nutrition,
respiration, transportation, and excretion.

5.1. Nutrition

• Nutrition is the process of obtaining food and converting it into energy and essential nutrients for
growth, maintenance, and functioning.

Autotrophic Nutrition
• In autotrophic nutrition, organisms synthesise their own food from inorganic substances.
• It typically involves photosynthesis (using sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide) or chemosynthesis (us-
ing inorganic chemicals). E.g., Green plants, algae, and certain bacteria.

Heterotrophic Nutrition
• In heterotrophic nutrition, organisms obtain their food from other organisms. Its types are:
1. Holozoic Nutrition: It involves ingesting solid or liquid food followed by internal digestion. It
includes:
i) Herbivores: Animals that eat plants (e.g., cows, deer).
ii) Carnivores: Animals that eat other animals (e.g., lions, wolves).
iii) Omnivores: Animals that eat both plants and animals (e.g., humans, bears).
2. Saprophytic Nutrition: This mode of nutrition in which organisms take in nutrients from dead
and decaying matter. E.g., fungi and some bacteria.
3. Parasitic Nutrition: In this mode of nutrition, organisms live on or inside a host and obtain nutri-
ents at the host’s expense. E.g., tapeworms and lice.
 Dental caries or tooth decay occurs when bacteria produce acids from sugars, softening the enamel and
dentine. Bacteria and food particles form plaque on teeth, blocking saliva from neutralising acids. Brush- 79
ing after meals removes plaque and prevents decay. If untreated, bacteria can infect the tooth pulp, lead-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

ing to inflammation and infection.

5.2. Respiration

• Respiration is the biological process by which organisms convert food (typically glucose) into ener-
gy. This energy is then used to carry out various cellular activities.
Glycolysis (glycos = sugar, lysis = splitting)
• The first step of respiration in all organisms is breaking down glucose (a six-carbon molecule) into py-
ruvate (a three-carbon molecule) in the cytoplasm. This breakdown is called glycolysis.
• It is an enzymatic machinery that partially oxidises glucose without the help of oxygen. In anaero-
bic organisms, it is the only process in respiration.

Types of Respiration
• Anaerobic Respiration: Respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen, and pyruvate is converted into
ethanol and carbon dioxide (e.g., in yeast during fermentation).

Anaerobic Respiration in Muscle Cells

• Anaerobic respiration in muscles occurs when there is a lack of oxygen during intense physical activi-
ty. In this respiration, pyruvate is converted into lactic acid. It can lead to muscle fatigue, soreness
and cramps.
• Aerobic Respiration: Respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen, and pyruvate is broken down into
CO2 and water in the mitochondria. It releases more energy than anaerobic respiration.

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Aerobic Respiration vs Anaerobic Respiration
Feature Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
Oxygen Requirement Requires oxygen Does not require oxygen
Location Occurs in the cytoplasm and mito- Occurs in the cytoplasm
chondria
Energy Yield High (36-38 ATP per glucose mol- Low (2 ATP per glucose molecule)
ecule)
End Products Carbon dioxide and water Lactic acid (in animals) or ethanol and CO₂
(in yeast/plants)
Efficiency in Energy More efficient due to the com- Less efficient due to partial oxidation of glu-
Production plete oxidation of glucose cose
Organisms It occurs in most plants, animals, It occurs in some bacteria, yeast, and animal
and some bacteria muscles during intense exercise
Duration It can be sustained for a long time Only sustained for short periods

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

• The energy released during respiration makes ATP molecules from ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
and inorganic phosphate.
• ATP is often called the “energy currency” of the cell because it stores and transports chemical energy
within cells, which is used to power various cellular activities.
• ATP comprises an adenosine molecule (adenine and ribose) and three phosphate groups.
• When ATP is broken down, it releases energy to drive endothermic reactions in the cell. (Endothermic
reactions are chemical reactions that absorb heat from their surroundings.)
• When the terminal phosphate linkage in ATP is broken using water (hydrolysis), the energy equivalent
to 30.5 kJ/mol is released.
• ATP can be used for the contraction of muscles, protein synthesis, conduction of nervous impulses, etc.

5.3. Transportation
81
• Transportation is the movement of substances like nutrients, gases, and waste products within an
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organism. It ensures essential materials reach cells and waste products are efficiently removed.

Transportation in Plants
• Vascular System: Plants have a vascular system that consists of two types of vessels:
1. Xylem: Transports water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant.
2. Phloem: Transports food (sugars) from the leaves to other plant parts.
• Transpiration: This process helps pull water from the roots to the leaves.
Transportation in Animals
• Circulatory System: Animals have a circulatory system that transports blood, which carries oxygen, nu-
trients, and waste products throughout the body.
1. Open Circulatory System: This circulatory system, found in invertebrates like insects, allows
blood to flow freely through the body cavity and bathe the organs in the fluid.
2. Closed Circulatory System: In this circulatory system, found in vertebrates like humans, blood is
contained within blood vessels.

Types of Transportation Across Cell Membrane

• Active Transport: It uses energy to move substances against their concentration gradient (from
low to high concentration). E.g., endocytosis and exocytosis.
• Passive Transport: It does not require energy as substances move following their concentration
gradient. E.g., diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.

5.4. Excretion

• Excretion is the process by which organisms eliminate waste products of metabolism. These waste
products can be harmful if they accumulate in the body.

Excretion in Humans
• Kidneys: They filter blood to remove urea, salts, and excess water, excreted as urine.
• Lungs: They remove carbon dioxide and water vapour produced during respiration.
• Skin: Excretes water, salts, and small amounts of urea through sweat.

Excretion in Plants
• Plants excrete gases through photosynthesis and respiration.
• Plants remove excess water through transpiration.

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 6. Life Processes in Plants

6.1. Respiration in Plants

• Plants require O2 for respiration, and they also give out CO2. In plants, CO2 and oxygen are ex-
changed by diffusion. The direction of diffusion depends on the plant's needs and the environment.
When no photosynthesis occurs, plants mainly release CO2 from respiration at night. During the day,
CO2 from respiration is used for photosynthesis, so oxygen is released instead.
• Plants, unlike animals, don't have specialised organs for gas exchange but use stomata and lenticels.
The reasons why they don't need complex respiratory organs:
1. Each plant part takes care of itself: Leaves, stems, and roots can exchange gases directly with the
environment, so there's little need to transport gases between parts.
2. Low gas demand: Plants don't need as much gas exchange as animals. Photosynthesis provides ox-
ygen, and respiration needs are lower.
3. Short diffusion distances: Plant cells are close to the surface, making gas diffusion easy. Even thick
stems and roots have air spaces and lenticels for gas exchange.
 In plants, glucose for respiration comes from sucrose (the end product of photosynthesis) or stored carbo-
hydrates. The enzyme invertase breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose.

6.2. Nutrition in Plants

Mineral or Inorganic Plant Nutrition: Macronutrients and Micronutrients

• Macronutrients are found in large amounts in plant tissues (>10 millimoles per kg of dry matter). These
include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, potassium, calcium, and mag-
nesium. NPK - Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), and Potassium (K) are the most significant macronutri-
ents. Plants get carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen from air and water, while the rest are absorbed from the
soil as minerals.

83
• Micronutrients, or trace elements, are needed in very small amounts (<10 millimoles per kg of dry mat-
ter). These include iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, zinc, boron, chlorine, and nickel.
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• In addition to the 17 essential elements named above, some beneficial elements like sodium, silicon,
cobalt, and selenium are needed by higher plants.

Soil as Reservoir of Essential Elements

• Most essential nutrients for plant growth come from weathered rocks, enriching the soil with dis-
solved ions and inorganic salts that the plant roots uptake. Soil also hosts nitrogen-fixing bacteria, re-
tains water, supplies air, and stabilises plants.
 Growing plants in a nutrient solution in the complete absence of soil is known as hydroponics.

Role of Macro- and Micronutrients in Plants

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Macronutrients (9)
• Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O): Carbon and hydrogen are vital components of biomole-
cules like proteins, starches, and cellulose. Photosynthesis converts CO2 into carbohydrates, while hy-
drogen from water supports this process. Plants also need oxygen for cellular respiration at night.
• Nitrogen (N): It is required by the plants in the largest amount. It is essential for proteins, nucleic ac-
ids, vitamins, hormones, and chlorophyll. It is especially required in growth tissues.
• Phosphorus (P): It is absorbed as phosphate ions from soil. It is vital for cell membranes, proteins, nu-
cleic acids, and energy-related phosphorylation processes.
• Potassium (K): It is crucial for anion-cation balance, protein synthesis, stomatal movement, enzyme
activation, and cell turgidity, mainly in active tissues.
• Calcium (Ca): It is important for cell wall stability (as calcium pectate), cell division, cell membrane
function, and enzyme activation. It accumulates in older leaves.
• Magnesium (Mg): It is essential for enzymes in respiration, photosynthesis, DNA/RNA synthesis, chlo-
rophyll, and ribosome structure.
• Sulphur (S): It is part of amino acids (cysteine, methionine), coenzymes, vitamins (thiamine, biotin, Co-
enzyme A), and proteins like ferredoxin.

Micronutrients (8)
• Iron (Fe): It is required in larger amounts than other micronutrients. It is crucial for proteins in electron
transfer, chlorophyll formation, and enzyme activation.
• Manganese (Mn): It activates enzymes for photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen metabolism and
splits water in photosynthesis.
• Zinc (Zn): It activates enzymes and helps synthesise the growth hormone auxin.
• Copper (Cu): It is involved in redox reactions and helps overall metabolism.
• Boron (B): It helps with calcium uptake and utilisation, cell function, pollen germination, and carbo-
hydrate translocation.
• Molybdenum (Mo): It is a part of enzymes for nitrogen metabolism.
• Chlorine (Cl): It helps solute balance and is essential for oxygen release in photosynthesis.
• Nickel (Ni): It is needed in small amounts for nitrogen-fixing plants. Without it, toxic levels of urea can

85
accumulate within the tissues.

Deficiency Symptoms of Essential Elements

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• When an essential element is limited, plant growth slows down. The minimum concentration needed for
normal growth is called the critical concentration, and any amount below this causes deficiency. Defi-
ciency leads to visible changes in plants, known as deficiency symptoms, which differ by element and
disappear when the missing nutrient is restored. However, prolonged deficiency may kill the plant.
• The location of symptoms depends on how mobile the element is within the plant:
 1. Mobile elements (like nitrogen, potassium, and magnesium) move to young tissues, so deficiencies
appear first in older leaves.
2. Immobile elements (such as sulphur and calcium) remain in mature parts, so deficiencies show up
in younger leaves.
• Common deficiency symptoms include:
1. Chlorosis (leaf yellowing due to chlorophyll loss): Lack of N, K, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Mo.
2. Necrosis (death of leaf tissue): Caused by lack of Ca, Mg, Cu, and K.
3. Stunted growth and cell division inhibition: Due to low levels of N, K, S, and Mo.
4. Delayed flowering: Linked to low N, S, and Mo.

Toxicity of Micronutrients
• Unlike macronutrients, a slight excess of micronutrients in plants can often lead to toxicity. The opti-
mal concentration range is narrow. When any nutrient concentration in plant tissues reduces the dry
weight by 10%, it is considered toxic.

Toxicity Symptoms
• Reduced Growth: Excess micronutrients can stunt plant growth or cause death.
• Discolouration: Leaves may develop spots, blotches, or yellowing. E.g., too much manganese causes
brown spots surrounded by chlorotic veins (yellowing of leaves while their veins remain green).
• Abnormal Development: Plants may exhibit unusual growth patterns or deformities.

Interactions with Other Nutrients

• Synergism: This occurs when one nutrient enhances the uptake or effect of another, improving plant
health. E.g., nitrogen and sulphur work synergistically, as sulphur aids in synthesising amino acids and
proteins that use nitrogen, enhancing growth.
• Zero-Interaction: This occurs when one nutrient does not affect the uptake or activity of another,
meaning they do not influence each other.
• Antagonism: This occurs when the excess of one nutrient inhibits the uptake or effectiveness of anoth-
er, leading to deficiencies. E.g., excess manganese can reduce the uptake of iron, magnesium, and
calcium. 86
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Mechanism of Absorption of Elements

• Plants absorb elements reveal two main phases:
1. Phase 1: Rapid, passive uptake of ions into the cell's outer area (apoplast) through ion channels.
2. Phase 2: Slower, active uptake of ions into the cell's inner area (symplast), using metabolic energy.
• Ion movement is termed flux: influx for entry into cells and efflux for exit.

Metabolism of Nitrogen
Nitrogen Cycle

• The Nitrogen Cycle is essential because nitrogen, a key element in amino acids, proteins, hormones,
chlorophyll, and vitamins, is limited in soil. Plants and microbes compete for it, making it a limiting
nutrient in ecosystems.
1. Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen gas (N₂) has a strong triple bond, making it stable. To make it usable, it
is converted to ammonia (NH₃) through nitrogen fixation. This conversion occurs naturally through
lightning and UV radiation, as well as from industrial combustions, forest fires, automobile ex-
hausts and power-generating stations.
2. Ammonification: Organic nitrogen from dead plants and animals breaks down into ammonia,
some of which returns to the atmosphere, while most stays in soil. 87
3. Nitrification: Soil bacteria like Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus first convert ammonia to nitrite,
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

then Nitrobacter converts nitrite to nitrate. These bacteria are chemoautotrophs.

4. Absorption and Denitrification: Plants absorb nitrate and convert it to ammonia for amino acid
synthesis. Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus bacteria convert excess nitrate in the soil to nitrogen
gas through denitrification, thus completing the cycle.

Biological Nitrogen Fixation

• Biological nitrogen fixation is the process by which certain prokaryotes convert atmospheric nitrogen
(N₂) into ammonia, a usable form for plants. Only certain microbes, called N₂-fixers, have the enzyme
nitrogenase needed for this conversion. Nitrogen-fixing microbes can be free-living or symbiotic.

Free-living Biological Nitrogen Fixation

• Free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the soil and can fix nitrogen independently.
1. Aerobic bacteria: Azotobacter and Beijerinckia
2. Anaerobic bacteria: Rhodospirillum
3. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae): Anabaena and Nostoc

Symbiotic Biological Nitrogen Fixation

• Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in a mutually beneficial relationship with plants, often forming
nodules on their roots. The bacteria provide nitrogen to the plant, and the plant provides the bacteria
with energy and nutrients.
• Common examples of such symbiotic relationships are:
1. Rhizobium forms nitrogen-fixing nodules in leguminous plants (e.g., alfalfa, sweet clover, sweet
pea, lentils, garden pea, broad bean, clover beans, etc.)
2. Frankia produces nitrogen-fixing nodules on the roots of non-leguminous plants (e.g., Alnus).

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Nodule Formation
• Rhizobia multiply near the roots and attach to root hairs, which then curl to allow bacteria to enter. An
infection thread develops, carrying bacteria to the root cortex, leading to nodule formation.
• Nitrogenase inside nodules converts atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) to ammonia (NH₃) using high energy (8
ATP per NH₃) provided by the plant’s respiration. Ammonia is converted to ammonium ion (NH₄⁺) and
used by plants to make amino acids.

Components of Nodules
• Nodules contain nitrogenase, the enzyme responsible for converting atmospheric nitrogen to ammo-
nia, and leg haemoglobin, which gives nodules their pink colour. Leg-haemoglobin protects nitro-
genase from oxygen, which is essential since nitrogenase operates under anaerobic conditions.

Transport of Nitrogen
• Plants produce amides like asparagine and glutamine by adding an extra NH₂ to amino acids. These
are rich in nitrogen and transported to plant parts via the xylem.
• Some plants, like soybeans, transport nitrogen as ureides with a high nitrogen-to-carbon ratio.

[UPSC 2014] Which of the following adds / add nitrogen to the soil?
1. Excretion of urea by animals
2. Burning of coal by man
3. Death of vegetation

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation
• Animal waste (like urea and uric acid), dead vegetation and organisms add nitrogen as nitrates di-

89
rectly into the soil.
• Burning coal releases CO, CO2, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
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Answer: (c) 1 and 3 only

Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

• Green plants create or "synthesise" their food through photosynthesis, making them "autotrophs".
Photosynthesis is a process where green plants transform sunlight (light energy) into chemical energy
and store it as glucose (a carbohydrate), which all living things depend on.
• Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxy-
gen and glucose (the primary food source on Earth).

How Photosynthesis Works

1. Light Absorption: Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts, primarily in plant leaves. Chloroplasts
contain a green pigment called chlorophyll, which absorbs sunlight. When sunlight hits chlorophyll, it
initiates the process.
2. Light Reactions: The energy from sunlight splits water molecules (H2O) into oxygen (O2), protons, and
electrons. This reaction occurs in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast. The oxygen is released
as a byproduct, while the light energy is converted into chemical energy: ATP (adenosine triphos- 90
phate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). These energy-rich molecules
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store the energy needed for the next stage of photosynthesis.

3. Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle): This stage doesn’t require direct sunlight but depends on the ATP
and NADPH produced in the light reactions. During the Calvin Cycle, which occurs in the stroma of the
chloroplast, carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere combines with other molecules to form glu-
cose (C₆H₁₂O₆), a simple sugar. This sugar serves as an energy source for the plant and, indirectly, for
other organisms in the food chain.
 Plants take carbon dioxide from the air through tiny pores called stomata on their leaves. (Explained in
detail in the Transpiration section).

Chlorophyll Pigments
• Plants have different shades of green because they have multiple pigments in their leaves, which can be
separated using paper chromatography. Pigments are substances that can absorb light at specific
wavelengths. The four primary pigments are:
1. Chlorophyll a (blue-green)
2. Chlorophyll b (yellow-green)
3. Xanthophylls (yellow)
4. Carotenoids (yellow to yellow-orange)
• In the mesophyll cells of leaves, chloroplasts contain the chlorophyll pigment. Chloroplast usually line
up along cell walls to capture the right amount of light. Meanwhile, xanthophylls and carotenoids are
found in chromoplasts.
• Chlorophyll a is the most abundant and primary pigment, absorbing light most strongly in the blue
and red parts of the spectrum, where photosynthesis is most effective.
• Accessory pigments like chlorophyll b, xanthophylls, and carotenoids absorb light in other parts of
the spectrum and transfer the energy to chlorophyll a, helping to maximise photosynthesis across more
wavelengths. They also protect chlorophyll a from damage due to excess light (photo-oxidation).
 Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.

Does Photosynthesis Take Place Only in Green Leaves?

• No, photosynthesis does not take place only in green leaves.
1. Non-Green Leaves: Some plants have leaves that are red, purple, or other colours due to pig-
ments like anthocyanins. These leaves still contain chlorophyll, but the other pigments mask green.
Photosynthesis can still occur in these leaves.
2. Stems and Other Green Parts: In some plants, green stems and other parts, like green fruits, can
also perform photosynthesis. These parts contain chlorophyll and can capture light energy.
3. Cacti and Succulents: In plants like cacti, photosynthesis primarily occurs in the green stems be-
cause the leaves are reduced to spines. 91
4. Algae and Other Organisms: Photosynthesis is not limited to plants. Algae, some bacteria, and
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

other organisms also use various pigments to perform photosynthesis.

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

• Both internal and external factors impact photosynthesis:
1. Internal Factors: These include the number, size, age, and orientation of leaves, mesophyll cells,
chloroplasts, internal CO₂ levels, and chlorophyll content. These factors depend on the plant’s
genetics and growth stage.
 2. External Factors: These include sunlight, temperature, CO₂ concentration, and water.

Law of Limiting Factors

• The most deficient factor limits the rate of photosynthesis. E.g., if a plant has ample sunlight and
water but lacks CO2, the rate of photosynthesis will be limited by the availability of CO2.

Key Factors Affecting Photosynthesis

• Light: Photosynthesis increases with light intensity up to a saturation point (around 10% of full sun-
light). Beyond this, excess light can damage chlorophyll and reduce photosynthesis.
• CO₂ Concentration: CO₂ is a major limiting factor because it is very low in the atmosphere (0.03–
0.04%). Increasing CO₂ to 0.05% boosts photosynthesis, but higher levels can be harmful.
• Temperature: The dark reactions, being enzyme-driven, are temperature-sensitive, while light reac-
tions are less affected.
• Water: While water is a reactant in light reactions, its main effect is indirect. Water stress closes sto-
mata, limiting CO₂ uptake and causing leaf wilting, which reduces surface area and photosynthesis
efficiency.

[UPSC 2014] Which one of the following is the process involved in photosynthesis?
a) Potential energy is released to form free energy
b) Free energy is converted into potential energy and stored
c) Food is oxidized to release carbon dioxide and water
d) Oxygen is taken, and carbon dioxide and water vapour are given out

Explanation
• In photosynthesis, light energy (free energy) from the sun is absorbed by chlorophyll in plant cells. This
energy is used to convert carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O) into glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), a form of
chemical potential energy, and oxygen (O₂) is released as a byproduct.

Answer: (b) Free energy is converted into potential energy and stored

6.3. Transportation in Plants 92

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• In flowering plants, water, minerals, organic nutrients, and growth regulators are transported. Over short
distances, they move by diffusion, cytoplasmic streaming, and active transport. For longer distances,
they move through the vascular system (xylem and phloem) in a process called translocation.

Means of Transport
Diffusion
• Diffusion in plants is a passive process where molecules move from higher to lower concentration
without using energy. It is slow and most noticeable in gases and liquids. In the case of solids, smaller
and lipid-soluble substances pass through the membrane faster. Diffusion rates depend on concentra-
tion gradients, membrane permeability, temperature, and pressure.
• In plants, diffusion occurs within cells, between cells, or from leaves to the outside. It's crucial for gas
movement in plants.

Facilitated Diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion is a passive process in which proteins help move substances across a membrane
without using energy (ATP). It occurs along an existing concentration gradient, allowing substances like
hydrophilic (water-attracted) molecules to pass through the membrane easily. It is very specific (allows
cells to select substances for uptake). It is sensitive to inhibitors which react with protein.
• In facilitated diffusion, proteins in the membrane form channels for molecules to pass through. Some
channels are always open, while others can be controlled. Porins are large protein channels that allow
various molecules to pass. Water channels called aquaporins help move water into cells.
• Some transport proteins allow diffusion only if two types of molecules move together. In a symport,
both move in the same direction, while in an antiport, they move in opposite directions. If a molecule
moves independently of other molecules, it's called uniport.

Active Transport
• Active transport uses energy to move molecules against a concentration gradient, i.e., from low to
high concentration. It is done by specific membrane proteins called pumps. These pumps are highly
selective, and the transport rate reaches a maximum when all are in use. They can also be affected by
inhibitors that react with the proteins.
Comparison of Different Transport Processes
Property Simple Diffusion Facilitated Transport Active Transport
Requires special membrane proteins No Yes Yes
Highly selective No Yes Yes

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Transport saturates No Yes Yes
Uphill transport (against gradient) No No Yes
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Requires ATP energy No No Yes

Osmosis
• Osmosis plays a central role in water movement between cells and various compartments within plants.
The cell and vacuole membranes (tonoplast) control water movement during osmosis in plant
cells. The vacuole's sap affects the cell's solute potential, influencing how water flows through the cell
through osmosis. The cell wall allows free passage of water and solutes, so it doesn't block movement.
 For details on Osmosis, see Chapter 1: Cell

Bulk Flow (Translocation)

• For long-distance transport, plants use a bulk flow system called translocation. This involves the
movement of water, minerals, and nutrients through the plant’s vascular tissues (xylem and phloem)
due to pressure differences. Water and minerals move from the roots to the leaves through the xylem,
while nutrients produced in the leaves are transported to other parts of the plant through the phloem.

Ways Roots Absorb Water and Minerals

• Roots absorb water and minerals through their root hairs, tiny extensions of root cells that increase
the surface area for absorption. Water and minerals can move through the root in two ways:
1. Apoplast: This pathway passes through the cell walls and intercellular spaces without crossing
membranes. It is faster, and most water in roots flows this way because there is little resistance.
However, it is blocked by the Casparian strip in the endodermis.
2. Symplast: This is the pathway through the cytoplasm of cells, connected by plasmodesmata (tiny
channels). It is slower and more selective because water must cross cell membranes.
• Most water initially moves through the apoplast but must eventually enter the symplast to cross the
endodermis. Once inside the vascular cylinder, water can move through both the apoplast and symplast.
• Some plants have mycorrhizae, a symbiotic relationship between roots and fungi. The fungus provides
water and minerals to the roots, which they absorb through fungal hyphae, which have a large surface
area. In return, the roots supply sugars and nitrogen compounds to the fungus. Some plants, like Pinus,
require mycorrhizae for growth.

Water Movement up a Plant

• Water is absorbed by roots and moved into the plant’s vascular tissues. Then, it is transported to other
parts of the plant against the force of gravity in two ways:
1. Root pressure: It is the positive pressure in plant roots caused by the active transport of ions,
which draws water into the xylem through osmosis. This pressure pushes water upward through

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the stem, but only to a small height. Root pressure is visible in small plants when cut at the base in
the early morning or when humidity is high, as droplets of water (or sap) ooze out. It can also be PMF IAS – Science – Biology

seen in guttation, where excess water appears as droplets on leaf tips.

• Guttation occurs when the plant has excess water and a low transpiration rate. It often happens at
night or early morning.
2. Transpiration pull: It is the process that moves water upward through a plant's xylem. This
movement, reaching up to 15 metres per hour, is primarily driven by water evaporating from the
leaves, known as transpiration, which creates a pull that draws water up from the roots.
Transpiration
• Transpiration is the process where plants lose water as vapour, mainly through small openings on
their leaves called stomata. The number and distribution of stomata and external factors like tem-
perature, light, humidity, and wind affect transpiration.
• The transpiration-driven movement of water in plants, called ascent of xylem sap, depends mainly on
the following physical properties of water:
1. Cohesion: water molecules stick to each other.
2. Adhesion: water molecules stick to surfaces.
3. Surface tension: water molecules are more attracted to each other than to air.

Stomata

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• Stomata are small openings in the leaf's epidermis that control transpiration (water loss) and gas ex-
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change (oxygen and carbon dioxide). Each stoma has two guard cells that are bean-shaped in most
plants and dumbbell-shaped in grasses. The outer walls of guard cells are thin, while the inner walls are
thick. These guard cells contain chloroplasts.
• Stomata usually open during the day and close at night, controlled by guard cells' turgidity (water
content). When these cells fill with water (become turgid), they swell and open the stomata. When they
lose water (become flaccid), the stomata close.
• Nearby epidermal cells can specialise into subsidiary cells. The stomatal pores, guard cells, and sub-
sidiary cells form the stomatal apparatus, which regulates gas exchange and water loss in the plant.
• In most dicot plants, the lower surface of the leaf has more stomata, while in monocots, stomata are
found equally on both sides of the leaf.

Plant-Water Relations
Water Potential
• Water potential indicates the tendency of water to move from one area to another. It is affected by:
1. Solute potential: It measures how dissolved substances (like salt or sugar) reduce water's ability to
move. Lower solute potential (more solutes) decreases water potential.
2. Pressure potential: It measures the physical pressure exerted on water. It is often caused by water
pressing against the cell wall in plants. Positive pressure potential (more pressure) increases water
potential and vice versa.
• Water moves from areas of higher water potential to lower water potential. It is measured in pressure
units (like pascals). The higher the water molecule concentration, the greater its kinetic energy or "water
potential." Therefore, pure water, under no pressure and at standard temperature, has the highest wa-
ter potential and is taken as zero.

Plasmolysis
• The behaviour of the plant cells (or tissues) with regard to water movement depends on the sur-
rounding solution. An isotonic solution has the same concentration as the cell, a hypotonic solution
is more dilute, and a hypertonic solution is more concentrated.
• Plasmolysis (cell shrinkage) occurs when a plant cell loses water through osmosis in a hypertonic solu-
tion, causing the cell membrane to shrink away from the cell wall. Plasmolysis is reversible; when placed
in a hypotonic solution, water enters the cell, creating turgor pressure (cells swell), where the cyto-
plasm presses against the cell wall, helping the cell grow and maintain its shape. In an isotonic solution,
there is no net water movement, and the cell becomes flaccid (cells are neither swollen nor shrunken).

Imbibition
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• Imbibition is a special kind of diffusion where solids, like seeds or dry wood, absorb water without
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forming a solution and expand. For imbibition to occur, water needs to move from an area of high con-
centration (water) to an area of low concentration (the dry material). Additionally, the material must
have an affinity for absorbing liquid. This process is crucial for various functions:
 Seeds: Imbibition helps seeds swell and break through the soil as seedlings.
 Wood: Ancient people used the pressure from wood swelling to split rocks.
6.4. Excretion in Plants

• Some key methods of excretion in plants are:

1. Gaseous Waste: Plants release oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis and carbon dioxide dur-
ing respiration. These gases are excreted through stomata on leaves and lenticels on stems.
2. Water: Excess water is excreted through transpiration, primarily through stomata.
3. Organic Compounds: Plants store waste products like resins, gums, latex, and essential oils in parts
such as bark, leaves, and stems. These compounds can sometimes be excreted into the soil.
4. Leaf Abscission: Plants can accumulate waste in ageing leaves, which eventually fall off, removing
the waste from the plant.
5. Diffusion: In aquatic plants, waste products are often excreted directly into the surrounding water
through diffusion.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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 7. Life Processes in Human Beings

7.1. Respiration in Human Beings

Respiratory Organs
• Breathing mechanisms vary among animals based on their habitats and body structures:
 Simple organisms like sponges, coelenterates, and flatworms exchange gases (O₂ and CO₂)
through their body surface by diffusion.
 Earthworms and frogs breathe through their moist skin (cutaneous respiration). However, frogs
also have lungs for respiration.
 Insects have a network of tubes (tracheae) that transport air within their bodies.
 Aquatic animals, like fishes and, some arthropods and molluscs, use gills (branchial respiration)
for gas exchange.
 Land animals like amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals use lungs (pulmonary respiration).

Human Respiratory System

• The respiratory system allows humans to breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide. It compris-
es a network of organs and tissues that facilitate this process.
• Breathing starts with air entering through the external nostrils, which lead to the nasal chamber and
then into the pharynx, a shared passage for food and air. The pharynx connects to the larynx, a "sound
box" made of cartilage that helps produce sound. The epiglottis covers the larynx during swallowing to
prevent food from entering the airway.
• The pharynx opens through the larynx region into the trachea. The trachea is a tube that extends into
the chest and divides into the right and left bronchi. These bronchi branch into smaller tubes called
bronchioles, which end in tiny air sacs called alveoli (site of gas exchange between the air and the
blood). The trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles are supported by cartilage rings to keep them open.
The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli comprise the lungs. A double-layered pleu-
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•
ra membrane covers the lungs, with fluid in between to reduce friction. The thoracic cavity, where the PMF IAS – Science – Biology

lungs are located, is airtight and surrounded by the ribs, sternum, and diaphragm (a large muscle).
• The steps of respiration include:
1. Breathing or pulmonary ventilation (inhaling air and exhaling CO₂)
2. Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across the alveolar membrane
3. Transport of gases in the blood
4. Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) between blood and body tissues
5. Cellular respiration, where cells use O2 for energy and release CO2
Mechanism of Breathing
• Breathing has two main stages: inspiration (drawing in air rich in O2 into the lungs) and expiration (re-

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leasing air rich in CO2 from the lungs). These two stages occur due to the pressure difference between
the lungs and the outside atmosphere.
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• Inspiration occurs when the pressure inside the lungs is lower than the atmospheric pressure. The di-
aphragm contracts, increasing the chest (thoracic) cavity's size. The external intercostal muscles be-
tween the ribs also contract, lifting the ribs and sternum, further increasing the chest volume. As the
lung volume increases, the pressure inside the lungs drops, allowing air to flow in.
• Expiration happens when the pressure inside the lungs is higher than atmospheric pressure. The dia-
phragm and intercostal muscles relax, reducing the chest and lung volume, which increases the pressure
inside the lungs, pushing air out.
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Breathing Rate
• The breathing rate is the number of breaths taken in one minute. One breath equals one inhalation
plus one exhalation. On average, a healthy human breathes 12-16 times/minute. The volume of air
involved in breathing movements can be estimated using a spirometer.

Exchange of Gases
• Alveoli are the primary sites for gas exchange in the body. O₂ and CO₂ are exchanged between the al-
veoli and the blood and between the blood and body tissues through simple diffusion driven by pres-
sure or concentration gradients. The solubility of the gases and thickness of the membranes in-
volved in diffusion affect the diffusion rate.
• The pressure of an individual gas in a mixture is called its partial pressure – represented as pO₂ for ox-
ygen and pCO₂ for carbon dioxide. A gradient moves O2 from the alveoli into the blood and from the
blood to the tissues. Similarly, a gradient is present for CO2 in the opposite direction, i.e., from tissues to
blood and blood to alveoli. Since CO₂ is much more soluble in water than O₂ (20-25 times more), it
diffuses more easily, even with a smaller pressure difference.
• The diffusion membrane, through which gases pass, is extremely thin (< 1 mm), making the exchange
of gases efficient. It has three layers:
1. The thin layer of cells (epithelium) in the alveoli.
2. The cells lining the capillaries around the alveoli (endothelium).
3. The thin basement membrane between them.

Transport of Gases
• Blood transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. About 97% of O₂ is carried by red blood cells (RBCs), and
the remaining 3% is dissolved in the plasma. Around 20-25% of CO₂ is transported by RBCs, while
70% is carried as bicarbonate in the blood. The remaining 7% of CO₂ is dissolved in the plasma.

Transport of Oxygen
• Haemoglobin is a red, iron-containing pigment in RBCs. It binds with O₂ reversibly to form oxyhe-

101
moglobin. Each haemoglobin molecule can carry up to four O₂ molecules. The binding of O2 to hae-
moglobin mainly depends on the partial pressure of O₂ (pO₂), but factors like the partial pressure of
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CO₂ (pCO₂), hydrogen ion concentration (H⁺), and temperature can also affect this binding.
 In the alveoli (lungs), where pO₂ is high, pCO₂ is low, H⁺ concentration is low, and temperature is
lower, oxygen binds to haemoglobin easily.
 In tissues where pO₂ is low, pCO₂ is high, H⁺ concentration is high, and temperature is higher, oxy-
gen is released from haemoglobin.
• Thus, haemoglobin picks up oxygen in the lungs and releases it into the tissues. Under normal condi-
tions, every 100 ml of oxygenated blood delivers about 5 ml of O₂ to the tissues.
Transport of Carbon dioxide
• CO₂ is carried by haemoglobin as carbamino haemoglobin (about 20-25%). The binding of CO₂ to
haemoglobin depends on the partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂).
 In tissues, where pCO₂ is high and pO₂ is low, more CO₂ binds to haemoglobin.
 In the alveoli (lungs), where pCO₂ is low, and pO₂ is high, CO₂ detaches from haemoglobin and is
released.
• RBCs contain an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase, which helps convert CO₂ into bicarbonate
(HCO₃⁻) and hydrogen ions (H⁺) in tissues where CO₂ is high. At the alveoli, where pCO₂ is low, the pro-
cess reverses, turning bicarbonate back into CO₂ and water, allowing CO₂ to be released from the body.
• Each 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers around 4 ml of CO₂ to the alveoli for exhalation.

Regulation of Respiration
• Humans can control their breathing rhythm to meet the body's needs due to the neural system. The
respiratory rhythm centre in the medulla of the brain controls this process. Another centre in the
brain's pons region, the pneumotaxic centre, helps regulate the rhythm by shortening inspiration and
adjusting the breathing rate.
• A chemosensitive area near the rhythm centre detects increased CO₂ and H⁺ levels and signals the
rhythm centre to adjust breathing to expel CO₂. Receptors in the aortic arch and carotid artery also
sense these changes and send corrective signals to the brain.
• Oxygen plays a minor role in regulating breathing rhythm.

Disorders of the Respiratory System

• Asthma: Asthma is a breathing difficulty that causes wheezing due to inflammation of the bronchi
and bronchioles.
• Emphysema: Emphysema is a chronic condition in which the alveolar walls are damaged, reducing
the surface area for gas exchange. Cigarette smoking is a major cause of emphysema.
• Occupational Respiratory Disorders: Occupational respiratory disorders occur in industries like stone-
breaking or grinding, where long-term exposure to excessive dust causes lung inflammation and fi-
brosis (thickening of lung tissue). So, workers should wear protective masks. 102
• The air we breathe contains particles like smoke, dust, and pollen. Hair in the nasal cavity traps most, but
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some may pass through, irritating the nasal lining and causing sneezing, which helps expel these particles
for cleaner air intake.

7.2. Transportation in Human Beings: Human Circulatory System

• Transportation in human beings refers to the circulatory system, which is responsible for transporting
essential substances like oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body.
• The main components of this system are:
1. Circulatory medium: Blood and lymph
2. Blood vessels: Arteries, veins and capillaries
3. Heart (pumping organ)

Circulatory Medium: Blood and Lymph

• All living cells need nutrients, oxygen, and waste removal to stay healthy. Simple animals, like sponges,
circulate water through their bodies, while complex organisms, including humans, use blood for
transport. Lymph also helps move certain substances.

Blood
• Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed elements. Blood
transports food, oxygen, carbon dioxide, salts, and nitrogenous waste in human bodies.

Plasma
• Plasma is a straw-coloured, viscous fluid that makes up about 55% of blood. It is mostly water (90-
92%) and contains 6-8% proteins. The main proteins in plasma are fibrinogen, globulins, and albu-
mins. Fibrinogen helps with blood clotting, globulins are essential for the immune system, and albu-
mins help maintain osmotic balance. Plasma also contains minerals like sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca++),
magnesium (Mg++), and chloride (Cl–), as well as nutrients like glucose, amino acids, and fats. Inactive
blood clotting factors are found in plasma. Plasma without these clotting factors is called serum.

Formed Elements
• The formed elements are cells and cell fragments suspended in the blood’s plasma. The three clas-
ses of formed elements are the erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), and
thrombocytes (platelets), and they make up about 45% of blood.

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells, RBCs)

• RBCs are the most common blood cells, with 5-5.5 million RBCs per mm3 of blood in healthy adult

103
males. Produced in the red bone marrow, they lack a nucleus in most mammals and have a biconcave
shape. RBCs contain haemoglobin (an iron-containing complex protein), which carries oxygen and
gives blood its red colour. Each 100 ml of blood has 12-16 gms of haemoglobin. RBCs live for about
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120 days and are destroyed in the spleen (graveyard of RBCs).

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells, WBCs)

• WBCs are fewer (6,000-8,000 per mm3 of blood) and are nucleated. They are colourless because they
lack haemoglobin and are generally short-lived. There are two main types:
1. Granulocytes: They contain granules in their cytoplasm. They are of three types:
i) Neutrophils: They are the most abundant type of WBC. Neutrophils are the first responders
to infection. They are phagocytes, meaning they engulf and destroy bacteria and fungi.
ii) Eosinophils: They combat allergic reactions and parasitic infections.
iii) Basophils: They are the rarest type of WBC. Basophils are involved in inflammatory and aller-
gic reactions. They produce histamine and serotonin, which induce inflammation and hepa-
rin (an anticoagulant), which prevents blood clotting.

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 2. Agranulocytes: They lack granules in their cytoplasm.
i) Lymphocytes: They are of three types: T cells, B cells, and NK cells.
a) T lymphocytes (T cells): These cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity. They at-
tack infected cells and cancer cells.
b) B lymphocytes (B cells): These cells provide humoral immunity. B cells produce antibod-
ies, proteins that bind to antigens on pathogens and mark them for destruction.
c) Natural Killer (NK) cells: These are innate immune cells that can kill virus-infected and
tumour cells. They are called "natural killers" because they can kill infected cells without
prior exposure to the particular pathogen.
ii) Monocytes: They are the largest type of WBC in the blood. They differentiate into macro-
phages, which engulf and digest foreign particles and cellular debris (phagocytosis).

Platelets (Thrombocytes)
• Platelets are small cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes (special cells in the bone marrow).
Blood contains 150,000-350,000 platelets per mm3. They play a crucial role in blood clotting (coagula-
tion), and a low platelet count can cause clotting disorders, leading to excessive bleeding.

Blood Groups
• Blood types vary in humans, even though they look similar. Two main blood group systems used
worldwide are ABO and Rh.

ABO Grouping
• ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens, A and B, on red blood
cells (RBCs). E.g., type A blood has A antigens on its RBCs.
• The blood’s plasma also contains antibodies that target foreign antigens that are not present in the
individual’s blood cells. E.g., type A blood has anti-B antibodies in its plasma.
• Antigens are chemicals that can induce an immune response.
• Antibodies are proteins produced in response to antigens.
• Blood transfusions require careful matching of blood types to avoid clumping (destruction of RBCs).

105
• Universal Donor: People with blood group O can donate to anyone because their blood plasma does
not contain A or B antigens.
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• Universal Recipient: People with blood group AB can receive blood from any group because they
lack A or B antibodies.
Blood Groups and Donor Compatibility
Blood Group Antigens on RBCs Antibodies in Plasma Donor's Group
A A anti-B A, O
B B anti-A B, O
 AB A, B nil AB, A, B, O
O nil anti-A, B O

Rh Grouping
• The Rh antigen is a protein found on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs) in most people (about
80%). People with this protein are Rh-positive (Rh+), and those without it are Rh-negative (Rh-). If an
Rh- person receives Rh+ blood, their body will produce antibodies against the Rh antigen. This is
why matching Rh types is important during blood transfusions.
• The Rh antigen was first discovered in rhesus monkey and hence named Rh.

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Rh Incompatibility in Pregnancy
• Rh incompatibility can happen when an Rh- mother is pregnant with an Rh+ baby. In the first preg-
nancy, the baby’s Rh+ blood is kept separate from the mother’s Rh- blood by the placenta. However,
during delivery, some of the baby’s Rh+ blood may mix with the mother’s blood. This can cause the
mother to produce antibodies against Rh+ blood.
• In future pregnancies, these antibodies can cross into the baby’s blood and attack the baby’s RBCs,
which can cause severe problems like anaemia, jaundice, or even death. This condition is called eryth-
roblastosis fetalis. To prevent this, doctors give the mother anti-Rh antibodies right after the first birth
to stop her body from making these antibodies.

Blood Coagulation (Clotting)

• When you get a cut, blood clots to prevent excessive bleeding, forming a dark reddish-brown scab.
This clot consists of fibrin threads that trap dead and damaged blood cells.
• Fibrins are produced when the enzyme thrombin converts inactive fibrinogens in plasma. Thrombin
itself is formed from inactive prothrombin using the enzyme complex thrombokinase, created
through linked reactions involving various inactive plasma factors.
• Factors released by the platelets and tissue during an injury activate coagulation. Calcium ions at the
injury site also play an essential role in clotting.

Lymph (Tissue Fluid)

• Lymph, also known as tissue or interstitial fluid, is another fluid involved in bodily transportation. It
forms when plasma, proteins, and blood cells leak through the pores in capillary walls into the spaces
between cells. The lymphatic system, a network of vessels, collects lymph and returns it to the veins.
• Lymph contains the same minerals as plasma but excludes larger proteins and blood cells. Lymph is
a colourless liquid containing lymphocytes that help with immune responses. This fluid exchanges
nutrients, gases, hormones, waste, etc., between blood and cells. It is also crucial in transporting di-
gested fats from the intestines and draining excess fluid back into the blood.

Blood Vessels: Arteries, Veins and Capillaries

• Blood flows strictly by a fixed route through blood vessels – the arteries and veins. Both arteries and 107
veins have three layers:
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1. Inner layer (tunica intima): made of smooth endothelium

2. Middle layer (tunica media): made of smooth muscle and elastic fibres (thinner in veins)
3. Outer layer (tunica externa): made of fibrous connective tissue with collagen

Veins
• Veins are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart (except pulmonary veins,
which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs). They have thinner walls and less muscle than arteries
due to lower pressure. Veins contain one-way valves to prevent backflow. Smaller veins, called venules,
collect blood from capillaries and merge into larger veins. The larger veins lead to the superior and in-
ferior vena cava (the body's largest blood vessel), which empties into the heart's right atrium.

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Arteries
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• Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body's tissues
(except for the pulmonary arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs). They have thick,
muscular, and elastic walls to withstand high pressure from the heart's pumping action. The main ar-
tery in the body is the aorta, which branches into smaller arteries and arterioles, eventually leading to
capillaries where nutrient and gas exchange occurs. The expansion and contraction of arteries cause the
throbbing in the wrist or neck (pulse) as blood is pumped through them.
• The number of beats per minute is called the pulse rate. A typical resting pulse rate for a person is be-
tween 72 and 80 beats per minute.

Capillaries
• Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting arterioles (small arteries) and
venules (small veins). They have very thin walls, typically just one cell layer thick, which allows for
the efficient exchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste products between the blood
and surrounding tissues. Capillaries form extensive networks (capillary beds) in tissues, ensuring every
cell can access the substances it needs for metabolism.
• If blood vessels leak, platelets help form clots, preventing blood loss and maintaining pressure in the
circulatory system.

Comparison Between Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries

Feature Arteries Veins Capillaries
Function Carry blood away from Bring blood back to the Exchange of gases, nutrients,
the heart heart and waste
Blood Type Usually oxygenated (ex- Usually deoxygenated (ex- Both oxygenated and deox-
cept pulmonary artery) cept pulmonary vein) ygenated
Wall Thickness Thick, elastic walls Thin walls Extremely thin
Valves No valves Valves to prevent backflow No valves
Blood Pressure High Low Very low
Pulse Yes No No
Direction of Flow Away from the heart Toward the heart Connect arteries to veins
Location Deeper in the body Closer to the surface of Found within tissues
the body
Largest Vena Cava (the largest Aorta Found in the liver
blood vessel)

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Heart
Heart Structure
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• The heart, which develops from the mesoderm, is located in the thoracic cavity between the two lungs
and is slightly tilted to the left. It's roughly the size of a clenched fist. It is protected by a double-walled
membrane, the pericardium, which contains pericardial fluid.
• The heart has four chambers: two smaller upper chambers called atria and two larger lower chambers
called ventricles. The ventricles have thicker muscular walls than the atria because they pump blood
to various organs. The interatrial septum (thin muscular wall) separates the right and left atria, while
 the interventricular septum (thicker wall) separates the right and left ventricles. Each side's atrium and
ventricle are separated by the atrioventricular septum, which has openings for blood flow.

Valves
• The tricuspid valve guards the opening between the right atrium and right ventricle, and the bicuspid
(mitral) valve guards the left atrium and left ventricle. The semilunar valves control blood flow from
the ventricles to the pulmonary artery (right) and the aorta (left).
• These valves ensure blood flows only one way – from the atria to the ventricles and then to the arter-
ies – preventing backflow.

Cardiac Muscle and Nodal Tissue

• The heart is composed of cardiac muscle, with the ventricles having thicker walls than the atria.
• Specialised muscle tissue, called nodal tissue, is distributed in the heart. Nodal tissue can create electri-
cal impulses without external stimuli, making the heart auto excitable.
• The sinoatrial node (SAN) in the right atrium generates the most electrical signals (70-75 per minute),
which control the heart's rhythm. This makes it the pacemaker of the heart. As a result, the heart usual-
ly beats 72 times per minute on average. The heart's rhythmic contractions are crucial for pumping
blood effectively throughout the body.
• The atrioventricular node (AVN) receives signals from the SAN. The atrioventricular bundle (AV
bundle) carries these signals through the septum and branches into Purkinje fibres that spread
throughout the ventricles, coordinating their contraction.
• A pacemaker is a small device that helps regulate your heart's rhythm and rate.
• Adults’ normal resting heart rate is between 60 and 100 beats per minute.

Function of the Heart

• The heart pumps blood throughout the body, supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removing
carbon dioxide and other wastes. It circulates oxygenated blood from the lungs to the body and sends
deoxygenated blood from the body to the lungs for oxygenation.

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• Here's the process step by step:
1. Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters the left atrium (upper chamber).
2. The left atrium contracts and pushes the blood into the left ventricle (lower chamber).
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3. The left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich blood to the body.

4. Deoxygenated blood from the body enters the right atrium.
5. The right atrium contracts and moves the blood into the right ventricle.
6. The right ventricle pumps this blood to the lungs for oxygenation.

Cardiac Cycle
• Cardiac cycle is the sequence of events occurring during one complete heartbeat. The main phases
of the cardiac cycle:
1. Joint Diastole (Relaxation of Atria and Ventricles): All four heart chambers relax, allowing blood
to flow from the atria to the ventricles through the open tricuspid and bicuspid valves. The semilu-
nar valves stay closed.
2. Atrial Systole (Atria Contract): The sino-atrial node (SAN) generates an electrical impulse, caus-
ing both atria to contract and push more blood into the ventricles.
3. Ventricular Systole (Ventricles Contract): The impulse reaches the atrioventricular node (AVN)
and AV bundle, causing the ventricles to contract. This raises pressure, closing the tricuspid and bi-
cuspid valves to prevent backflow, and opens the semilunar valves, allowing blood to flow into the
pulmonary artery (right side) and aorta (left side).
4. Ventricular (Ventricles Relax): As the ventricles relax, pressure drops, closing the semilunar valves
to prevent backflow. As pressure falls further, the tricuspid and bicuspid valves reopen, allowing
blood to flow from the atria into the ventricles.
• This process repeats with each heartbeat, driven by the SAN, which generates new action potentials.

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• The heart beats about 72 times per minute, so a cardiac cycle lasts about 0.8 seconds. Each ventricle
pumps about 70 mL of blood during each cycle, known as the stroke volume. The cardiac output, or
 total blood pumped by each ventricle per minute, averages 5 litres in a healthy adult and can vary with
physical activity.

Sounds of the Heart

• The heart produces two main sounds that can be heard with a stethoscope:
1. The first heart sound (lub) occurs when the tricuspid and bicuspid valves close.
2. The second heart sound (dub) occurs when the semilunar valves close.
• An Electrocardiograph (ECG) records the heart's electrical activity during each heartbeat. It shows a
graphical representation of the heart's electrical signals, typically as waves.
• In a standard ECG, the patient is connected to the machine with three electrical leads attached to the
wrists and left ankle. For more detailed analysis, additional leads are placed on the chest.

Regulation of Cardiac Activity

• The heart regulates its activity through specialised muscle tissue, called nodal tissue, making it myo-
genic. However, the brain can also control the heart via the autonomic nervous system (ANS):
1. Sympathetic nerves increase heart rate, ventricular contractions, and cardiac output
2. Parasympathetic nerves reduce heart rate, action potential conduction, and cardiac output
3. Adrenal medullary hormones can also increase cardiac output

Types of Circulatory Systems

• There are two types of circulatory systems:
1. In an open circulatory system (found in arthropods and molluscs), blood is pumped by the heart
through large vessels and flows into open spaces or body cavities called sinuses.
2. In a closed circulatory system (found in annelids and chordates), blood is always contained within
a network of blood vessels. This pattern allows for more precise fluid regulation.
• A closed circulatory system has three types based on heart chambers and the number of times blood
passes through the heart:
1. Single Circulation: Blood passes through the heart once and is found in organisms with two heart

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chambers (e.g., fish).
2. Incomplete Double Circulation: Blood passes through the heart twice, partially mixing oxygenated PMF IAS – Science – Biology

and deoxygenated blood. It is found in three-chambered hearts (e.g., amphibians and reptiles ex-
cept crocodiles).
3. Complete Double Circulation: Blood passes through the heart twice, completely separating oxy-
genated and deoxygenated blood. It is found in four-chambered hearts (e.g., crocodiles, mammals,
and birds).
 All vertebrates possess a muscular chambered heart.
Comparison Between Different Circulatory System Types
Feature Single Circulation Incomplete Double Cir- Double Circulation
culation
Examples Fish Amphibians & reptiles Crocodiles, birds, &
(except crocodiles) mammals
Heart Chambers 2 chambers (1 atrium, 3 chambers (2 atria, 1 4 chambers (2 atria,
1 ventricle) ventricle) 2 ventricles)

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No. of Times Blood Passes Once Twice Twice
Through the Heart
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Blood Flow Path Single loop A mix of two loops Double loop
Mixing of Oxygenated & De- No Yes No
oxygenated Blood
Efficiency Less efficient Moderately efficient Most efficient

Double Circulation in Humans: Explained

• Humans have a type of closed circulation system called the double circulatory system. Blood flows
in the body through two distinct pathways: pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.
1. Pulmonary Circulation: Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the right ventricle into the pulmo-
nary artery, which carries it to the lungs. The blood gets oxygenated in the lungs and returns to the
left atrium via the pulmonary veins.
2. Systemic Circulation: Oxygenated blood from the left ventricle is pumped into the aorta and de-
livered to the body's tissues through arteries, arterioles, and capillaries. Deoxygenated blood is col-
lected from the tissues by venules, veins, and the vena cava, emptying into the right atrium. System-
ic circulation provides nutrients (O2 and other essential substances) to the tissues and eliminates
CO2 and other harmful substances.
• Additionally, the hepatic portal system connects the digestive tract to the liver. The hepatic portal vein
carries blood from the intestine to the liver before it is delivered to the systemic circulation. The coro-
nary system of blood vessels exclusively supplies blood to the heart muscles.

Circulatory System Disorders

• High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): Hypertension occurs when blood pressure is higher than normal
(120/80 mm Hg). It occurs when arterioles constrict, increasing resistance to blood flow, which can
cause artery rupture and internal bleeding. Persistent hypertension can lead to heart disease and af-
fect the brain and kidneys.
• Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): Also known as atherosclerosis, it involves the narrowing of arteries
that supply blood to the heart due to deposits of calcium, fat, and cholesterol.
• Angina: Acute chest pain caused by insufficient oxygen reaching the heart. It's more common in mid-
dle-aged and elderly people.
• Heart Failure: Heart failure is the state of the heart when it can't pump enough blood to meet the
body's needs, often leading to lung congestion. It's different from cardiac arrest (the heart stops) and
heart attack (damage to the heart muscle).

Blood Pressure

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• Blood pressure is the force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel. This pressure is much
greater in arteries than in veins. The pressure in the artery during ventricular systole (contraction) is
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called systolic pressure, and pressure in the artery during ventricular diastole (relaxation) is called dias-
tolic pressure. The normal systolic pressure is about 120 mm of Hg (millimetres of mercury pressure),
and diastolic pressure is 80 mm of Hg.

7.3. Nutrition in Human Beings: Digestion and Absorption

• Food is essential for all living organisms, providing energy and materials for growth, repair, and body
functions. It mainly consists of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. Biom-
acromolecules in food must be broken down into simpler forms for the body to use.
• Digestion is the process of converting complex food substances into simple, absorbable forms. The
human digestive system carries out this process using mechanical and biochemical methods.

Digestion in Grass-Eating Animals

• Cows, buffaloes, and other grass-eating animals quickly swallow grass and store it in a part of the stom-
ach called the rumen, where the food partially digests and is called cud. Later, the cud returns to the
mouth in small amounts, and the animal chews it. This process is known as rumination, and these ani-

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mals are called ruminants.
• Grass contains cellulose, a carbohydrate. In animals like cattle and deer, bacteria in the rumen help di- PMF IAS – Science – Biology

gest cellulose, which many animals, including humans, cannot digest. Animals like horses and rabbits
have a large sac-like structure called the caecum between the oesophagus and small intestine, where
bacteria help digest cellulose. These bacteria are absent in humans.

Feeding and Digestion in Amoeba

• Amoeba is a microscopic single-celled organism found in pond water. It has a cell membrane, a nucle-
us, and small vacuoles in its cytoplasm. Amoeba constantly changes shape and move by extending fin-
 ger-like projections called pseudopodia, or "false feet".
• Amoeba senses food, extends pseudopodia to engulf it, and traps it in a food vacuole. Digestive juices
break down the food, which is then absorbed for growth, maintenance, and reproduction, while undi-
gested parts are expelled.

Digestive System of Human Being

• The human digestive system comprises the alimentary canal and the associated glands.

Alimentary Canal
• The alimentary canal starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. The key parts of the alimentary canal
are mouth and oral cavity, pharynx and oesophagus, small intestine, and large intestine.

Mouth and Oral Cavity

• The mouth opens into the oral cavity (buccal cavity), which contains teeth and a muscular tongue.
• Teeth are anchored in the jawbone, a type of attachment called thecodont. Humans develop two sets
of teeth in their lifetime: temporary (deciduous) and permanent (adult). This type of dentition is called
diphyodont. An adult human has 32 teeth of four kinds (heterodont dentition): incisors, canines,

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premolars, and molars. The dental formula of an adult human is 2-1-2-3 for each half of the upper and
lower jaws. The hard surface of teeth (enamel) helps chew food.
The tongue is a movable muscular organ attached to the mouth's floor by the frenulum. Its upper
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•
surface has papillae, some of which contain taste buds. The tongue helps move food around.

Pharynx and Oesophagus

• The oral cavity connects to the pharynx, a shared passage for food and air. The oesophagus and tra-
chea (windpipe) open into the pharynx, and the epiglottis prevents food from entering the windpipe
during swallowing. The oesophagus is a thin, long tube that passes through the neck, thorax, and dia-
phragm and leads to the stomach.
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Stomach
• The stomach is a J-shaped organ located in the upper left portion of the abdominal cavity. It has four
parts: the cardiac portion (where the oesophagus opens), the fundic region, the body (the main cen-
tral region), and the pyloric portion (which connects to the small intestine). A muscular sphincter
(gastro-oesophageal) regulates the opening of the oesophagus into the stomach.

Small Intestine
• The small intestine has three sections: the duodenum (C-shaped), jejunum (coiled), and ileum (highly
coiled). It is where most digestion and absorption of nutrients take place. The pyloric sphincter
guards the opening of the stomach into the duodenum. The ileum opens into the large intestine.

Large Intestine
• The small intestine connects to the large intestine, which includes the caecum, colon, and rectum. The
caecum, a small sac that hosts symbiotic microorganisms with a vestigial vermiform appendix at-
tached, opens into the colon. The colon is the longest part of the large intestine and has four parts
(ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid). The rectum ends at the anus.

Layers of the Alimentary Canal 118

The alimentary canal walls have four layers: serosa (the outermost layer), muscularis (which contains
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•
smooth muscles), submucosa (which contains blood and lymph vessels and nerves), and mucosa (the
innermost layer). Each part of the alimentary canal has variations in its layers to suit its function.

Mucosa
• The mucosa forms irregular folds called rugae in the stomach and small finger-like folding called villi in
the small intestine. Villi have microvilli, which increase surface area for absorption. They contain capil-
 laries and a lymph vessel (lacteal). Goblet cells in the mucosa secrete mucus for lubrication. The muco-
sa also forms gastric glands in the stomach.

Digestive Glands
• The digestive glands associated with the alimentary canal are the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.
These glands produce essential juices and hormones to help digest food and regulate metabolism.

Salivary Glands
• There are three pairs of salivary glands: Parotids (located near the cheeks), Submaxil-
lary/Submandibular (near the lower jaw), and Sublingual (under the tongue). These glands produce
saliva and release it into the mouth to help digestion.

Liver
• The liver, the largest gland in the body (1.2 to 1.5 kg), is located below the diaphragm in the abdomen
and has two lobes. Its functional units are hepatic lobules, covered by Glisson's capsule. Bile secreted
by the hepatic cells is stored in the gall bladder and travels through the common bile duct, which joins
the pancreatic duct and opens into the duodenum, controlled by the sphincter of Oddi.

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Pancreas
• The pancreas is an elongated gland near the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). It has two
functions:
1. The exocrine part secretes pancreatic juice (containing digestive enzymes).
2. The endocrine part secretes hormones like insulin and glucagon.

Endocrine Glands vs Exocrine Glands

• Endocrine glands produce hormones that are released directly into the bloodstream. E.g., pituitary
gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.
• Exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts onto a surface, often outside the body. These sub-
stances can be enzymes, mucus, sweat, or other secretions. E.g., sweat glands, salivary glands, mamma-
ry glands, and goblet cells.

Digestion of Food
• The process of digestion involves both mechanical and chemical processes.

Digestion in Buccal Cavity (Mouth)

• The teeth, tongue, and saliva chew and mix food into a soft mass called a bolus. The bolus is swallowed
(deglutition) and moves down the oesophagus through muscle contractions called peristalsis.
• Saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-) and enzymes, salivary amyl-
ase and lysozyme. Amylase (carbohydrate-splitting enzyme) breaks down starch into maltose (a sugar),
and lysozyme acts as an antibacterial agent that prevents infections.

Digestion in Stomach
• The stomach's mucosa contains gastric glands with three types of cells:
1. Mucus neck cells: Produce mucus to protect the stomach lining from acid.
2. Peptic or chief cells: Produce pepsinogen, which turns into pepsin (an enzyme that breaks down
proteins) when it meets stomach acid.

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3. Parietal or oxyntic cells: Produce hydrochloric acid (HCl) to create an acidic environment for di-
gestion (pH 1.8) and intrinsic factor (a glycoprotein that helps absorb vitamin B12).
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• The stomach stores food for 4-5 hours, mixing it with acidic gastric juice to form chyme. Pepsin breaks
proteins into smaller peptides (proteoses and peptones). Mucus and bicarbonates protect the stomach
lining from the acid. Gastric glands also secrete the enzymes renin (which helps digest milk proteins in
infants) and lipase (which helps digest fats).

Digestion in the Small Intestine

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• In the small intestine, the muscularis layer creates movements that mix food with digestive secretions.
These secretions include bile, pancreatic juice, and intestinal juice.
1. Bile, produced by the liver, contains bile pigments, bile salts, cholesterol, and phospholipids but no
enzymes. It helps emulsify fats (breaking down the fats into very small micelles) and activates li-
pases (fat-digesting enzymes).
2. Pancreatic juice contains inactive enzymes like trypsinogen, which is activated by enterokinase in-
to trypsin. Trypsin then activates other enzymes in the pancreatic juice, like chymotrypsinogen,
amylases, lipases, and nucleases, to digest proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids.
3. Intestinal juice (succus entericus), secreted by goblet and brush border cells, contains enzymes
like maltase, dipeptidases, and nucleosidases. It helps break down nutrients into simple, absorba-
ble forms.
• The mucus and bicarbonates from the pancreas protect the intestinal lining from acids and create an
alkaline pH (7.8) for enzyme activity. Digestion mainly happens in the duodenum, and absorption oc-
curs in the jejunum and ileum. Undigested and unabsorbed materials are passed to the large intestine.

Digestion in the Large Intestine

• The large intestine doesn't play a significant role in digestion. Its main functions are:
1. Absorbing water, minerals, and some drugs.
2. Secreting mucus to stick the undigested waste together to make it easier to pass out of the body.
• Undigested and unabsorbed material, called faeces, enters the large intestine's caecum through the il-
eocecal valve, which stops it from flowing back. The faeces are stored in the rectum until they are ex-
pelled during defecation.

Control of Digestion
• Neural and hormonal signals control the digestive system. Seeing, smelling, or tasting food triggers
saliva release. Nerve signals activate gastric and intestinal secretions, while the nervous system
regulates muscle movements in the digestive tract. Hormones from the stomach and intestines also
control digestive juice release.

Calorific Value of Protein, Carbohydrate and Fat 122

The energy content of food and the energy needs of animals are measured in terms of heat energy.
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•
This is usually expressed in calories (cal) or joules (J), where 1 calorie is the amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C. Since this is a small unit, we often use kilocalories
(kcal) or kilojoules (kJ). One kilocalorie is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of
water by 1°C.
• In nutrition, kilocalories are called Calories or Joules (always capitalised). The energy released by
burning 1 gram of food is its gross calorific value, but the actual energy the body gets from it is the
 physiologic value of food.
Gross calorific value (kcal/g) Physiologic value (kcal/g)
Carbohydrates 4.1 4
Proteins 5.65 4
Fats 9.45 9

Absorption of Digested Products

• Absorption is the process where digested nutrients pass through the intestinal mucosa (lining) into
the blood or lymph. It happens through passive, active or facilitated transport mechanisms:
1. Simple diffusion allows monosaccharides (like glucose and amino acids) and electrolytes (like chlo-
ride ions) to pass into the blood based on concentration gradients.
2. Facilitated transport uses carrier proteins to help move substances like glucose and amino acids.
3. Active transport uses energy to move nutrients like amino acids, glucose, and electrolytes against
the concentration gradient.
4. Osmotic gradient determines the absorption of water.
• Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed differently because they are insoluble in water. They form small
droplets called micelles, which enter the intestinal lining and are then converted into chylomicrons
(protein-coated fat globules) that enter the lymph vessels and, later, the bloodstream.
• Absorption happens in the mouth, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, but most absorption
occurs in the small intestine.
• The absorbed nutrients go to tissues for use, a process called assimilation. Waste solidifies into faeces
in the rectum, which triggers a neural reflex, leading to defecation, where faeces are expelled through
the anus by a voluntary process.
Summary of Absorption in Different Parts of Digestive System
Part of the Digestive System Substances Absorbed
Mouth Certain drugs
Stomach Water, simple sugars, alcohol

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Small Intestine Main site for nutrient absorption (glucose, fructose,
fatty acids, glycerol, amino acids)
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Large Intestine Water, some minerals, drugs

Disorders of the Digestive System

Common Digestive Disorders
• Inflammation of the intestines: This is often caused by bacterial or viral infections or parasites like
tapeworms, roundworms, threadworms, hookworms, and pinworms.
• Jaundice: Liver is affected, and skin and eyes turn yellow due to excess bile pigments.
• Vomiting: Stomach contents are ejected through the mouth, controlled by the vomiting centre in the
brain (medulla). Nausea usually occurs before vomiting.
• Diarrhea: Frequent, watery bowel movements that reduce food absorption.
• Constipation: Irregular bowel movements, causing stool to stay in the colon.
• Indigestion: Food is not properly digested, causing a feeling of fullness. Causes include lack of en-
zymes, stress, overeating, or spicy food.

Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM)

• PEM affects people in underdeveloped regions, especially during drought or famine. PEM affects infants
and children to produce Marasmus and Kwashiorkar.

Marasmus
• Marasmus is caused by a lack of both proteins and calories, usually in infants under one year old. It
often occurs when a mother's milk is replaced too early with foods low in nutrients, especially if
she becomes pregnant again while the first child is still very young. This condition causes extreme
weight loss, thin limbs, dry and wrinkled skin, and a severe drop in growth and body weight. It also af-
fects brain development and mental abilities.

Kwashiorkor
• Kwashiorkor is caused by protein deficiency without calorie shortage, usually in children above one
year. It occurs when a high-calorie but low-protein diet replaces mother’s milk. Symptoms include mus-
cle wasting, thin limbs, and stunted growth, but unlike marasmus, some body fat remains, and swell-
ing (oedema) may develop.

7.4. Excretion in Human Beings

• Animals accumulate waste products like ammonia, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide, water, and ions
(like Na+, K+, Cl-) through metabolism or excess intake. These wastes need to be eliminated.

Nitrogenous Wastes
• Nitrogenous wastes are the byproducts of protein metabolism in animals. They are primarily com- 124
posed of nitrogen-containing compounds. The three main types of nitrogenous wastes are:
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1. Ammonia: This is the most toxic form of nitrogenous waste. It is highly soluble in water and re-
quires a large amount of water for its elimination.
2. Urea: Urea is less toxic than ammonia and requires less water for its elimination. It is the primary
nitrogenous waste of mammals, including humans.
3. Uric Acid: Uric acid is the least toxic of the nitrogenous wastes and requires the least amount of
water for its elimination.
Types of Excretion Based on Nitrogenous Waste
• Ammonotelism: The process of excreting ammonia is ammonotelism. This is common in aquatic an-
imals like bony fishes, amphibians, and aquatic insects. Ammonia, being highly soluble, is excreted by
diffusion through body surfaces or gills (in fish) as ammonium ions.
• Ureotelism: The process of excreting urea is ureotelism. This is common in mammals, many terres-
trial amphibians, and marine fishes. The liver converts ammonia produced by metabolism into urea,
which is then filtered by the kidneys and excreted in urine. Some urea may be retained in the kidneys
to maintain osmolarity.
• Uricotelism: The process of excreting uric acid is called uricotelism. This is common in reptiles, birds,
land snails, and insects. It can be excreted as a solid or paste, which helps to conserve water.

Excretory Structures
• Invertebrates (simple animals) often have simple, tube-like excretory structures.
1. Flame cells (Protonephridia): These are found in flatworms and similar animals. They regulate fluid
and ions, i.e., osmoregulation.
2. Nephridia: These are found in earthworms and other annelids. They help remove nitrogenous
waste and regulate osmoregulation.
3. Malpighian tubules: These are found in insects like cockroaches. They help remove waste and
regulate osmoregulation.
4. Green glands (Antenna glands): These are found in crustaceans like prawns and perform excretion
functions.
• Vertebrates (complex animals) have more complicated structures called kidneys. Kidneys filter waste
from the blood and maintain water and salt balance (osmoregulation).

Human Excretory System

• The human excretory system consists of:
1. Kidneys: These bean-shaped organs filter waste products from the blood.

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2. Ureters: These tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
3. Bladder: This muscular organ stores urine until it can be eliminated.
4. Urethra: This tube carries urine from the bladder out of the body.
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Kidneys
• Kidneys are two reddish-brown, bean-shaped organs near the abdomen's back. Each kidney is about
10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, and weighs around 120-170 grams. On the inner side of the kidney, there
is a notch called the hilum, where the ureter, blood vessels, and nerves enter. Inside the hilum is a fun-
nel-shaped area called the renal pelvis, with extensions called calyces.
• The outer layer of the kidney is a tough capsule. Inside the kidney, there are two zones,
 1. Outer cortex that extends between the medullary pyramids as renal columns (Columns of Bertini).
2. Inner medulla that divides into cone-shaped medullary pyramids projecting into the calyces.

Nephrons
• Each kidney contains about a million complex tubular structures called nephrons, the kidney's func-
tional units. A nephron consists of:

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1. Glomerulus: A cluster of capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole (a branch of the renal artery)
that filters blood. Blood leaves the glomerulus through the efferent arteriole.
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2. Renal tubule: The tubule that processes the filtered fluid has several sections:
i) Bowman’s capsule: A double-walled cup-like structure surrounding the glomerulus. Together,
they form the Malpighian body or renal corpuscle.
ii) Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): A coiled section.
iii) Henle’s loop: A hairpin-shaped loop with a descending and ascending limb.
iv) Distal convoluted tubule (DCT): Another coiled section. The DCT connects to the collecting
duct. The collecting duct collects urine from many nephrons and carries it to the renal pelvis.
• Nephron types:

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1. Cortical nephrons: These have short Henle’s loops and are mainly in the cortex.
2. Juxta medullary nephrons: These have longer loops that go deep into the medulla.
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• The efferent arteriole from the glomerulus forms a capillary network around the renal tubule, called
peritubular capillaries. A small vessel of this network runs parallel to Henle’s loop, creating a U-shaped
vasa recta, which is absent or reduced in cortical nephrons.

Urine Formation
• Urine formation involves three main processes: glomerular filtration, reabsorption, and secretion,
which happen in different parts of the nephron.
Glomerular Filtration
• The glomerulus filters blood at a rate of about 1100-1200 ml per minute. This process is driven by
blood pressure, which removes almost all plasma components except proteins. Therefore, this is
called ultrafiltration.
• The amount of filtrate the kidneys form per minute is called glomerular filtration rate (GFR), which
averages 125 ml/min or 180 litres per day in a healthy person. The juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA)
helps regulate GFR, releasing renin to increase blood flow if the GFR drops.

Reabsorption
• Out of the 180 litres of filtrate produced by the kidneys daily, only 1.5 litres is released as urine. This
means the renal tubules reabsorb about 99% of the filtrate. Reabsorption occurs in two ways:
1. Active transport: Substances like glucose, amino acids, and sodium are reabsorbed using energy.
2. Passive transport: Water and nitrogenous wastes are reabsorbed without energy, especially in the
early parts of the nephron.

Tubular Secretion
• During urine formation, tubular cells secrete substances like hydrogen ions, potassium ions, and ammo-
nia into the filtrate. This helps maintain the body's ion and acid-base balance.

Function of the Tubules

• Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): The PCT has cells with tiny hair-like structures that increase sur-
face area for reabsorption. Around 70-80% of water, electrolytes, and essential nutrients are reab-
sorbed here. The PCT also helps maintain the pH and ionic balance by secreting hydrogen ions, am-
monia, and potassium while absorbing bicarbonate.
• Henle’s Loop: The descending limb allows water to pass through but not electrolytes, making the fil-
trate more concentrated. The ascending limb lets electrolytes pass but not water, diluting the filtrate as
it moves upward.
• Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): In this segment, sodium and water are reabsorbed based on the

128
body's needs. It also helps balance pH and sodium-potassium levels by reabsorbing bicarbonate and
secreting hydrogen ions, potassium ions, and ammonia.
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• Collecting Duct: This duct reabsorbs a large amount of water to produce concentrated urine. It allows
a small amount of urea to pass into the surrounding tissue to maintain osmolarity and helps regulate
pH and ionic balance by secreting hydrogen and potassium ions.

Regulation of Kidney Function

• The functioning of the kidneys is controlled by hormonal feedback mechanisms involving the hypo-
thalamus, the juxta-glomerular apparatus (JGA), and the heart.
Hypothalamus
• Osmoreceptors detect changes in blood volume, fluid levels, and ion concentration. When the body
loses too much fluid, these receptors signal the hypothalamus to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
ADH helps reabsorb water in the kidneys, reducing urine output (diuresis). If fluid levels increase, the re-
ceptors turn off, reducing ADH. ADH also constricts blood vessels, raising blood pressure and increasing
kidney filtration.

Juxta-Glomerular Apparatus
• When blood flow or pressure drops, the JG cells release renin, which triggers reactions, converting an-
giotensinogen into angiotensin II. Angiotensin II raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels
and increasing kidney filtration. It also stimulates the release of aldosterone, which helps reabsorb so-
dium and water, further increasing blood pressure and filtration.

Heart
• Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF) is released when blood flow to the heart increases. ANF causes blood
vessels to widen (vasodilation), lowering blood pressure. This opposes the renin-angiotensin system,
acting as a balance to prevent excessive blood pressure increases.

Micturition
• Urine formed by the nephrons is stored in the urinary bladder until the central nervous system (CNS)
signals its release. This signal is triggered when the bladder stretches as it fills with urine. The CNS then
sends messages to contract the bladder muscles and relax the urethral sphincter, releasing urine. This
process is called micturition and is controlled by the micturition reflex.
• An adult typically excretes 1 to 1.5 litres of urine daily. The urine is light yellow, slightly acidic (pH 6.0),
and contains about 25-30 grams of urea. Changes in urine characteristics can indicate health issues.
E.g., glucose in urine (glycosuria) and ketone bodies (ketonuria) are signs of diabetes mellitus.

Role of Other Organs in Excretion

129
• Besides the kidneys, the lungs, liver, and skin also help eliminate waste.
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• Liver: Secretes bile, which contains wastes like bilirubin, biliverdin, cholesterol, and drugs, which are
removed with digestive wastes.
• Skin: Sweat glands in the skin release sweat, which contains NaCl, urea, and lactic acid, primarily for
cooling but also to eliminate some waste.
• Sebaceous glands: Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, which provides the skin with a protective oily
layer and eliminates substances like sterols, hydrocarbons, and waxes.
• Saliva: Small amounts of nitrogenous waste can also be expelled through saliva.
Disorders of the Excretory System
• Uremia: Accumulation of urea in the blood due to kidney malfunction leading to kidney failure. Treat-
ments are hemodialysis (waste from the blood is removed by pumping the blood through an artificial
kidney, a dialysing unit) and kidney transplantation.
• Renal calculi: Stones formed in the kidney from crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.).
• Glomerulonephritis: Inflammation of glomeruli of the kidney.

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 8. Nutrients

• Nutrients are essential for living organisms for growth, energy, repair, and maintaining life processes.
They can be broadly classified into:
1. Macronutrients: Macronutrients are required in large amounts. They provide energy, support
growth and structure. These include biomolecules and water.
2. Micronutrients: These include vitamins and minerals.
 Water aids nutrient absorption and helps eliminate waste through urine and sweat.

8.1. Biomolecules

• Biomolecules are organic compounds essential to living organisms' structure and functions. They are
primarily made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes other elements like phospho-
rus and sulphur.
• Biomolecules are classified into four major types: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

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Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), usu-
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ally in the ratio 1:2:1. They are essential for energy and its storage, structural integrity, and cellular
communication in living organisms. Carbohydrates are also called saccharides (Greek: sakcharon
means sugar).
• Sources of carbohydrates are:
1. Grains: Whole grains (e.g., brown rice, whole wheat bread, oatmeal) and refined grains (e.g., white
rice, white bread, white flour)
2. Fruits: Fresh (e.g., apples, bananas, grapes, oranges) and dried (e.g., raisins, dates, apricots)
 3. Vegetables: Starchy (e.g., potatoes, corn, peas) and non-starchy (e.g., broccoli, carrots, spinach)
4. Dairy Products: Milk, yoghurt, cheese, etc.
5. Legumes: Beans, lentils, peas, etc.
6. Sugary Foods and drinks: Candy, soda, juice, honey, sugar, etc.

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Classification of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars)
• Monosaccharides are the most basic form of carbohydrates and comprise a single sugar molecule.
They are the building blocks for all other carbohydrates. They cannot be further hydrolysed.
• Monosaccharides are water-soluble, sweet and quick energy providers.
• Examples of monosaccharides:
1. Glucose: It is the primary energy source. It is found in fruits, honey, and vegetables.
2. Fructose (fruit sugar): It is the sweetest naturally occurring sugar. It is found in fruits and honey.
3. Galactose: It is found in milk and dairy products.
4. Ribose: It is the structural component of RNA.
5. Glyceraldehyde: It is an intermediate compound in carbohydrate metabolism.

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Disaccharides (Double Sugars)
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Disaccharides are formed by two monosaccharides joined via glycosidic bonds. They are water-
soluble, sweet and energy rich.
• Examples of disaccharides:
1. Sucrose (Table sugar) = Glucose + Fructose
2. Lactose (Milk sugar) = Glucose + Galactose
3. Maltose (Malt sugar) = Glucose + Glucose
Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. They can be soluble
and insoluble, providing long-term energy storage and structural support. They are non-sugars be-
cause they do not taste sweet.
• Examples of polysaccharides:
1. Starch (a glucose polymer): It is the stored energy in plants.
2. Glycogen (a glucose polymer): It is the stored energy in animals (liver, muscles).
3. Cellulose (a glucose polymer): It forms plant cell walls.
4. Chitin (a glucose polymer): It supports fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons.
5. Inulin (a fructose polymer): It is a prebiotic that stays in the bowel and helps certain beneficial
bacteria grow.
• Cellulose is the most abundant biopolymer on Earth, followed by chitin.

Functions of Carbohydrates
1. Primary source of energy: Carbohydrates are the body's main energy source. Glucose, derived from
carbohydrate digestion, is utilised by cells through cellular respiration to produce ATP (energy).
2. Energy storage: Excess glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscles. When energy is re-
quired, glycogen is broken down to release glucose.
3. Structural component: Carbohydrates form structural elements in certain organisms, such as cellulose
in plant cell walls and chitin in insect exoskeletons.
4. Regulation of protein and fat use: Carbohydrates spare proteins from being used as an energy source
and allow them to perform other vital functions. They also prevent the excessive breakdown of fats.
5. Facilitate gut health: Dietary fibre supports digestive health by promoting bowel movements and
maintaining a healthy gut microbiome.
6. Component of biomolecules: Carbohydrates are part of critical biomolecules like:
i) Nucleotides: Ribose and deoxyribose are sugars in RNA and DNA, respectively.
ii) Glycoproteins and Glycolipids: Involved in cell signalling and recognition.

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Dietary Fibre
• Dietary fibres (also known as roughage) are an indigestible carbohydrate. They are of two types: sol-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

uble (dissolves in water) and insoluble (e.g., corn). Plant products are the main roughage sources; they
include whole grains and pulses, potatoes, fresh fruits, and vegetables. Roughage does not provide
any nutrients to our body but helps our body get rid of undigested food.

Proteins
• Proteins are polypeptides, linear chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They are heteropol-
ymers made of 20 different amino acids (e.g., alanine, cysteine, lysine). A heteropolymer has different
types of monomers, unlike a homopolymer, which repeats a single monomer.
• Proteins contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and sometimes sulphur (S).
• Proteins can be obtained from animals (meat, fish, eggs, milk, and dairy products) and plants (beans,
lentils, nuts, seeds, and soy).
• Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They are classified as:
1. Essential Amino Acids: They must be obtained from food. The 9 essential amino acids are histi-
dine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine.
2. Non-Essential Amino Acids: They are synthesised by the body (e.g., alanine, glutamine).
• Properties of protein:
1. Solubility: Globular proteins (e.g., enzymes, hormones, and antibodies) are water-soluble, while fi-
brous proteins (e.g., structural proteins like keratin and collagen) are insoluble.
2. Denaturation: Proteins lose their functional shape due to heat, pH changes, or chemicals.

Classification of Proteins
Based on Shape
1. Fibrous Proteins: They are long, thin, and thread-like. They are often arranged in parallel chains or
sheets. Fibrous proteins are insoluble in water because they are non-polar solutes, while water is a po-
lar solvent. These proteins have high tensile strength and durability. E.g., collagen, keratin, and elastin.
2. Globular Proteins: They are compact, spherical, or globular. They are folded tightly into a three-
dimensional structure. They are soluble in water because polar or hydrophilic amino acids lie on the
surface of the globular proteins. E.g., haemoglobin, insulin, antibodies, etc.

Based on Constitution
1. Simple Proteins: They are composed only of amino acids. E.g., albumin, globulin, and prolamins.
2. Conjugated Proteins: They comprise amino acids and non-protein components called prosthetic
groups. The types of conjugated proteins are:
i) Glycoproteins: Contain proteins and carbohydrate groups (e.g., mucins in mucus). 135
ii) Lipoproteins: Contain proteins and lipid groups (e.g., High-Density Lipoprotein in the blood).
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

iii) Metalloproteins: Contain proteins and metal ions (e.g., haemoglobin with iron).
iv) Phosphoproteins: Contain proteins and phosphate groups (e.g., casein in milk).
v) Chromoproteins: Contain proteins and pigment molecules (e.g., haemoglobin with heme).
vi) Nucleoproteins: Contain proteins and nucleic acids (e.g., ribosomes and chromatin).
3. Derived Proteins: They are proteins derived from simple or conjugated proteins by the action of heat,
enzyme, or chemical reagents. E.g., proteases, peptones, and peptides.
Based on the Nature of Molecules
1. Acidic Proteins: These proteins are rich in acidic amino acids. E.g., glutamic acid and aspartic acid.
2. Basic Proteins: These proteins are rich in basic amino acids. E.g., lysine and arginine.

Based on Nutritional Value

1. Complete Proteins: These contain all essential amino acids the body requires in adequate proportions.
Animal proteins are complete, and sources include meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy products.
There are also a few plant-based sources of complete protein, like quinoa and soybeans.
2. Incomplete Proteins: They lack one or more essential amino acids, making them less nutritionally
complete. Most plant-based protein sources, like wheat, rice, corn, beans, etc, are incomplete.
 Protein combining involves combining two or more incomplete protein sources together to provide ade-
quate amounts of all the essential amino acids. E.g., nuts or seeds with whole grains and whole grains with
beans.

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Functions of Proteins
1. Structural support: They provide structural support and framework to cells and tissues. E.g., collagen
(connective tissue), keratin (hair, nails), and elastin (lungs and blood vessels).
2. Enzymes: They speed up biochemical reactions. E.g., amylase (digests starch), DNA polymerase (in-
volved in DNA replication), and pepsin (breaks down proteins in the stomach.
3. Transportation: They transport molecules. E.g., haemoglobin (carries oxygen in the blood), albumin
(carries fatty acids and hormones), and ion channels (transport ions across cell membranes).
4. Hormones: They regulate physiological processes. E.g., insulin (decreases blood sugar level) and glu-
cagon (increases blood sugar level).
5. Growth factors: They stimulate cell growth, differentiation, or proliferation. E.g., Epidermal Growth Fac-
tor (EGF) and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF).
6. Defence: They are responsible for fighting pathogens, healing, coping with environmental stress, etc.
E.g., antibodies (recognise and neutralise foreign substances or antigens), fibrin (help clot blood and
heal wounds), and cytokines (help control inflammation).
7. Storage Proteins: Store amino acids, metal ions, and other nutrients for future use. E.g., casein (stores
amino acids), ferritin (stores iron), and ovalbumin (provides nutrients in egg whites).
8. Movement: Regulating muscle contraction, proteins facilitate movement. E.g., actin and myosin.
9. Sensory signals: They help us perceive our environment by enabling us to detect light, sound, touch,
smell, taste, pain, heat and other senses. E.g., opsins (found in the eye and detect light) and olfactory
receptors (found in the nose and detect odorants).
 Casein protein is found in milk, giving milk its white colour. Cow's milk consists of around 80% casein.
 Collagen is the most abundant animal protein, providing structure and support. RuBisCO is the most
abundant protein on Earth and is essential for photosynthesis.
 Proteins are needed for the growth and repair of our body. Foods containing proteins are often called
‘body-building foods’.

Lipids
• Lipids are organic compounds that are hydrophobic (water-insoluble) but soluble in non-polar sol-
vents like alcohol, ether, or chloroform. Composed mainly of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen
(O), sometimes including phosphorus, nitrogen, or sulphur.

137
 Non-polar solvents lack charge separation (they don't have distinct positive and negative poles), so they
dissolve non-polar substances like oils and fats. PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Classification of Lipids
Simple Lipids
• Simple lipids are esters of fatty acids and alcohols. These include:

Glycerides
• Glycerides are esters of glycerol (trihydroxy alcohol) and fatty acids. Based on the number of fatty
acids attached, glycerides can be:
1. Monoglycerides (one fatty acid): They are commonly used as emulsifiers, which improve the
texture, quality, and shelf life of food products. They act as emollients in skin products and are
intermediates in the digestion and absorption of dietary fats.

 Emulsifiers are substances that stabilise mixtures of two immiscible liquids, such as oil and water, by re-
ducing the surface tension at their interface.

138
 Emollients soften, hydrate, and smooth the skin by forming a protective barrier to prevent water loss.
2. Diglycerides (two fatty acids): They are commonly used as emulsifiers, which improve the tex-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

ture, quality, and shelf life of food products.

3. Triglycerides (three fatty acids): Triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the human
body. In animals, triglycerides serve as energy storage, provide insulation and protection, and fa-
cilitate the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K). Both animal and vegetable
fats contain triglycerides. They include:
i) Fats: Solid at room temperature (e.g., butter)
ii) Oils: Liquid at room temperature (e.g., olive oil)
 The melting point of fatty acids depends on their saturation level. Saturated fatty acids have higher
melting points than unsaturated fatty acids because their molecules are more tightly packed.
 Carbohydrates and fats provide energy; the foods containing them are called ‘energy-giving foods’.
 Fats give more energy than carbohydrates because fats contain more carbon and hydrogen and less
oxygen than carbohydrates. Due to less oxygen content, fats require more oxygen to oxidise than carbohy-
drates, so fats are metabolised more slowly and release energy over a longer period.

Waxes
• Waxes are esters of long-chain fatty acids and alcohols instead of glycerol. They help to waterproof
plants and animals. E.g., beeswax (found in honeycombs), lanolin (found in speed wool), and cutin
(found on plant leaves and fruits).

Complex Lipids
• Complex lipids contain additional functional groups or molecules, such as phosphates, carbohydrates,
or proteins. These include phospholipids, glycolipids, and lipoproteins.

Phospholipids
• Phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group. They are a major component of
cell membranes. E.g., lecithin (phosphatidylcholine).

Glycolipids
• Glycolipids contain fatty acids, glycerol or sphingosine, and carbohydrates. They are found in cell
membranes, especially in the nervous system. E.g., cerebrosides and gangliosides.

Lipoproteins
• Lipoproteins are lipids combined with proteins. They transport fat molecules throughout the body.

Derived Lipids
• Derived lipids are substances derived from hydrolysis of simple and complex lipids. These include:

139
Steroids
• Steroids are lipids with four fused carbon rings. They include:
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

1. Cholesterol: It helps maintain cell membrane fluidity. It is a precursor to many important steroid
hormones (estrogen, testosterone, and progesterone), vitamin D, and bile salts. Cholesterol, the
most common steroid, is mainly synthesised in the liver.
2. Steroid Hormones: They include:
i) Sex Hormones: They are produced in gonads (testes and ovaries). E.g.,
a) Androgens (like testosterone, which controls male traits and muscle growth
b) Estrogens (like estradiol, which controls female reproductive functions
 c) Progestogens (progesterone, which maintains pregnancy and menstrual cycle)
ii) Corticosteroids: They are produced in the adrenal cortex. E.g.,
a) Glucocorticoids (like cortisol, which controls inflammation and stress response)
b) Mineralocorticoids (like aldosterone, which regulates blood pressure by balancing sodium
and potassium)
3. Vitamin D: This fat-soluble vitamin is essential for calcium absorption and bone health. It is syn-
thesised in the skin upon exposure to sunlight.

Fatty Acids
• Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains with a terminal carboxyl group. There are four types: satu-
rated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and trans fats. (explanation below)

Glycerols
• Glycerols are simple alcohol that forms the backbone of triglycerides and phospholipids.

Eicosanoids
• Eicosanoids are signalling molecules derived from 20-carbon fatty acids (like arachidonic acid). They
influence smooth muscle contraction in organs like the lungs and uterus.
• Types of eicosanoids:
1. Prostaglandins: They are involved in inflammation, pain, and fever regulation.
2. Thromboxanes: They promote blood clotting and regulate blood pressure.
3. Leukotrienes: They enhance immune responses, especially in allergic and inflammatory reactions.

Terpenes
• Terpenes, derived from isoprene units, are simple hydrocarbons. Terpenoids are a modified class of ter-
penes. Many oily and waxy substances, like fish liver oil, wool wax, and egg yolk, contain terpenoids.
• In plants, terpenoids function as growth hormones (e.g., gibberellins), pigments (e.g., carotenoids),
and essential oils (e.g., limonene).

Functions of Lipids
1. Energy storage: Lipids are a dense energy source. They have a higher calorific value than carbohy- 140
drates or proteins. Calorific value is the amount of heat energy released during the complete combus-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

tion of a unit mass of fuel or food.

2. Structural role: Lipids form essential components of cell membranes:
i) Phospholipids provide structural integrity and create a semi-permeable barrier.
ii) Cholesterol maintains membrane fluidity and stability.
3. Thermal insulation: Adipose tissue (body fat) helps maintain body temperature by insulating against
heat loss, especially in animals living in cold climates.
4. Protection: Adipose tissue (body fat) cushions and protects internal organs by surrounding them.
5. Hormone synthesis: Lipids are precursors for steroid hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen, cortisol)
and eicosanoids (e.g., prostaglandins).
6. Vitamin absorption: Lipids facilitate the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K).
7. Waterproofing: Wax, a type of lipid, prevents water loss in plants (cuticle layer) and provides water-
proof coatings to animals (e.g., feathers, fur).
8. Energy reserve: Lipids, such as oils in seeds and fats in animals, serve as an energy reserve during pe-
riods of scarcity or germination.
9. Signaling: Lipids like phosphatidylinositol are involved in cellular signalling.
10. Buoyancy: Lipids help aquatic animals, like whales, maintain buoyancy due to their low density.
11. Nerve function: Lipids like sphingolipids are key components of the myelin sheath, which insulates
nerve fibres and speeds up signal transmission.
12. Food satisfaction: Lipids contribute to food's flavour, texture, and satiety.

Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids are biomolecules responsible for storing, transmitting, and executing genetic infor-
mation in living organisms. They are polymers made of monomers called nucleotides, which consist of
three components:
1. A nitrogenous base: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Uracil (U).
2. A pentose sugar: Deoxyribose and Ribose.
3. A phosphate group: It forms the backbone of the nucleic acid chain.

Classification of Nucleic Acids

1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): DNA is a double-stranded helix structure that stores genetic infor-
mation. The nitrogenous bases of DNA are Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G). The
pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose.
2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): RNA is a mostly single-stranded structure involved in protein synthesis and
gene expression. Its nitrogenous bases are Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G). The

141
pentose sugar in RNA is ribose. The three important types of RNA are:
i) mRNA (messenger RNA): It carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

ii) tRNA (transfer RNA): It transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis.
iii) rRNA (ribosomal RNA): It forms part of the ribosome, the protein synthesis machinery.

Functions of Nucleic Acids

1. Storage of genetic information: DNA stores the instructions for all cellular processes.
2. Transmission of genetic information: DNA replication during cell division passes genetic information
to the next generation.
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3. Protein synthesis: DNA provides the instructions for protein synthesis, which RNA carries out.
4. Regulation of gene expression: Certain RNA molecules, such as small interfering RNA (siRNA) and mi-
cro-RNA (miRNA), regulate gene expression.
5. Catalytic functions: Some RNA molecules, called ribozymes, have catalytic activity.

Biomacromolecules vs Biomicromolecules
Feature Biomacromolecules Biomicromolecules
Definition Large molecules with high molecular weights Small molecules with low molecular
(> 10,000 Daltons). weights (< 1000 Daltons).
Complexity Complex structures, polymers (made of re- Simple structures, monomers
peating units)
Acid Solubility Insoluble Soluble
Function Structural support, genetic information, and Building blocks for macromolecules and
energy storage. a quick energy source.
Examples Proteins, nucleic acids (DNA/RNA), polysac- Amino acids, monosaccharides, nucleo-
charides. tides, fatty acids.

8.2. Vitamins

• Vitamins are organic compounds that are necessary for normal metabolism. The body cannot synthe-
sise them, so they should be obtained through diet or supplements.

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• There are 13 recognised vitamins. They are classified into two categories based on their solubility:
1. Fat-soluble Vitamins: These are absorbed with fats in the diet and stored in the adipose (fat-
storing) tissue and the liver. Excess amounts can accumulate in the body, leading to toxicity. They
include vitamins A, D, E, and K.
2. Water-soluble Vitamins: They must dissolve in water before the body can absorb them and, there-
fore, cannot be stored. They must be supplied regularly in the diet because unused water-soluble
vitamins are excreted through urine. They include vitamin C and the B-complex vitamins (such as
B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, and B12).

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 Vitamin Function Sources Deficiency Disease/Symptoms
Fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamin A (Reti- Vision, immune function, Liver, fish oils, milk, Nyctalopia (night blindness), xe-
nol) reproduction, regulate cell eggs, leafy green rophthalmia (dry eyes), dry skin and
growth vegetables, orange hair
and yellow vegeta-
bles (carrots, sweet
potatoes)
Vitamin D (Cal- Help absorb calcium and Sunlight exposure, Rickets in children (soft bones and
ciferol) phosphorus (both critical fortified milk, fatty skeletal deformities), osteomalacia
for bone health), help fish (salmon, in adults (weak and softened
control infections, reduce mackerel), and egg bones)
inflammation yolks
Vitamin E (To- Acts as an antioxidant Nuts, seeds, vege- Retinopathy (damage to the retina
copherol) and prevents clot for- table oils, green of the eyes), peripheral neuropathy
mation in heart arteries leafy vegetables, (damage to the peripheral nerves),
pumpkin, avoca- ataxia (loss of control of body
dos, mangoes, movements), decreased immune
wheat germ oil function
Vitamin K (Phyl- Blood clotting, bone Green leafy vege- Bleeding diathesis (tendency to
loquinone) health tables, fish, meat, bleed or bruise easily), haemorrhag-
dairy products, ing, osteopenia or osteoporosis
fermented food (reduced bone density)
Water-soluble vitamins
Vitamin B1 (Thi- Energy metabolism, cell Whole grains, meat Beriberi (weakens cardiovascular
amine) growth, proper function of (especially pork), and nervous system), Wernicke-
the brain fish, legumes, Korsakoff syndrome (a memory

147
seeds, nuts disorder)
Vitamin B2 (Ri- Cell growth, energy pro- Dairy products, Ariboflavinosis (symptoms include
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

boflavin) duction, and the break- eggs, green leafy skin disorders, excess blood, swol-
down of fats vegetables, lean len and cracked lips, inflamed
meats, nuts tongue, hair loss, reproductive
problems, sore throat, itchy and red
eyes, and degeneration of the liver
and nervous system)
Vitamin B3 (Nia- Convert nutrients into en- Meat, fish, poultry, Pellagra (dermatitis, diarrhoea, de-
cin) ergy, increase good cho- whole grains, nuts mentia, and, if untreated, death)
lesterol, create and repair
DNA, and act as an anti-
oxidant
Vitamin B5 (Pan- Used to make coenzyme Almost all foods Fatigue, irritability, numbness, mus-
tothenic Acid) A (CoA) (a chemical com- (esp. whole grains, cle cramps
pound that helps enzymes eggs, meat, leg-
to build and break down umes)
fatty acids) and acyl car-
rier protein (involved in
building fat)
Vitamin B6 (Pyr- Helps produce red blood Fish, beef liver, po- Microcytic anaemia (RBCs are
idoxine) cells (RBCs), maintains tatoes, non-citrus smaller than normal because they
brain function and the fruits don't have enough haemoglobin),
breakdown of proteins, dermatitis, depression, confusion,
carbohydrates, and fats weakened immunity
Vitamin B7 (Bio- Break down fats, carbohy- Eggs, almonds, Hair loss, dermatitis, brittle nails
tin) drates, and proteins and nuts, legumes,
regulate cellular signals whole grains, salm-
and gene activity on, avocados
Vitamin B9 (Folic Synthesis of DNA and Leafy green vege- Megaloblastic anaemia (RBCs are
acid) RNA, RBC formation, pro- tables, fruits, forti- abnormally large and crowd out
tein metabolism, fetal fied foods healthy cells), neural tube defects in
development pregnancy, hair loss, fatigue, pale
skin
Vitamin B12 Nerve and brain function, Meat, fish, poultry, Megaloblastic anaemia, perni-
(Cobalamin) red blood cell and DNA dairy products, for- cious anaemia (the body can't ab-

148
synthesis tified cereals sorb enough vitamin B12, resulting
in lack of RBCs), neurological issues PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Vitamin C Antioxidant, collagen Citrus fruits, straw- Scurvy (bleeding gums, poor
(Ascorbic Acid) synthesis, immune func- berries, bell pep- wound healing), iron deficiency
tion, enhances iron ab- pers, broccoli, Brus- anaemia
sorption, control infec- sels sprouts
tions and healing wounds
 Vitamin D is both a nutrient and a hormone our bodies make.
 Bacteria in the human body can also produce vitamin K.
 Bacteria in the gut can produce small amounts of riboflavin but not enough to meet dietary needs.
 Antioxidants protect cells from damage caused by free radicals (unstable, highly reactive molecules
produced during normal cellular processes or due to external factors like pollution, smoking, and radia-
tion). Free radicals can damage DNA, proteins, and lipids, contributing to ageing and diseases like can-
cer, heart disease, and neurodegenerative disorders.

[UPSC 2014] Consider the following pairs:

Vitamin Deficiency Disease
1. Vitamin C Scurvy
2. Vitamin D Rickets
3. Vitamin E Night Blindness

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None

Explanation
• Vitamin A: Night blindness
• Vitamin C: Scurvy
• Vitamin D: Rickets
• Vitamin E: Retinopathy

Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only

8.3. Minerals

• Minerals are inorganic elements present in soil and water, which are absorbed by plants or con-
sumed by animals. They are essential for a variety of bodily functions. They are categorised into two
groups based on the amount the body needs: 149
1. Major Minerals (Macrominerals): These are needed in larger amounts (>100 mg/day). They in-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

clude calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, and sulphur.

2. Trace Minerals (Microminerals): These are needed in very small amounts (1–100 mg/day). They
include iron, manganese, copper, iodine, zinc, cobalt, fluoride, and selenium.
Minerals Function Source Deficiency Disease/Symptoms
Major Minerals (Macrominerals)
Calcium Bone and teeth for- Dairy products, leafy Osteoporosis (weak bones), rickets in
(Ca) mation, muscle contrac- green vegetables, for- children (soft bones), osteomalacia in
tion, nerve transmission, tified foods, almonds, adults (bone pain and muscle weak-
and blood clotting and tofu ness), and hypocalcemia
Phosphorus Bone and teeth for- Meat, fish, poultry, Rare, but can cause weak muscles, bone
(P) mation, energy produc- eggs, dairy products, pain, and fatigue
tion, and cell membrane nuts, and legumes
structure
Magnesium Muscle and nerve func- Nuts, seeds, green Muscle cramps, mental disorders, oste-
(Mg) tion, blood glucose leafy vegetables, oporosis, high blood pressure, hypo-
control, and protein whole grains, leg- magnesemia (low magnesium in
synthesis umes, seafood, and blood)
hard-drinking water
Sodium Regulates fluid bal- Table salt, processed Hyponatremia (low blood sodium)
(Na) ance, blood pressure, foods, milk, bread, which causes headaches, nausea, fa-
nerve & muscle function and vegetables tigue, and muscle cramps
Potassium Maintains fluid bal- Fruits (especially ba- Hypokalemia (low blood potassium)
(K) ance, normalises blood nanas), vegetables, which causes muscle weakness, cramps,
pressure, and muscle legumes, nuts, whole and irregular heartbeats
and nerve function grains, and dairy
products
Chloride (Cl) Maintains fluid bal- Table salt, seaweed, Hypochloremia (low blood chloride)
ance, a component of rye, tomatoes, and which causes metabolic alkalosis, mus-
stomach acid (hydro- lettuce cle cramps, and dehydration
chloric acid), nerve func-
tion
Sulphur (S) Component of certain Protein-rich foods Acne, arthritis, brittle nails and hair, de-
amino acids and vita- such as meat, fish, pression, memory loss, slow wound

150
mins, protein synthesis, poultry, eggs, leg- healing
synthesis of connective umes, and nuts PMF IAS – Science – Biology

tissue
Trace Minerals (Microminerals)
Iron (Fe) Formation of haemo- Red meat, poultry, Iron deficiency anaemia, Plummer-
globin in RBCs, oxygen fish, lentils, beans, Vinson Syndrome (difficulty in swal-
transport, synthesis of fortified cereals lowing, anaemia, esophageal webbing)
collagen
Zinc (Zn) Immune function, wound Meat, shellfish, dairy Growth retardation, hair loss, diarrhoea,
 healing, DNA synthesis, products, nuts, seeds, delayed wound healing
cell division and whole grains
Copper (Cu) Iron metabolism, cardio- Shellfish, nuts, seeds, Anaemia, bone abnormalities, osteo-
vascular health, connec- whole grains, and or- porosis and weak immunity
tive tissue formation gan meats
Manganese Bone formation, amino Whole grains, nuts, Poor bone growth, reproductive issues,
(Mn) acid, cholesterol, glu- leafy vegetables, and and glucose intolerance
cose, and carbohydrate tea
metabolism
Iodine (I) Production of thyroid Iodised salt, seaweed, Goiter (enlarged thyroid), hypothyroid-
hormones, which regu- dairy products, eggs, ism (underactive thyroid), cretinism in
late metabolism kidney beans infants (stunted physical and mental
growth due to untreated congenital
hypothyroidism)
Selenium Antioxidant protection, Brazil nuts, seafood, Keshan disease (cardiomyopathy),
(Se) thyroid function organ meats, cereals Kashin-Beck disease (osteoarthropathy)
Fluoride (F) Strengthens teeth, pre- Fluoridated water, tea, Increased risk of dental caries and de-
vents dental cavities fish cay
Chromium Enhances insulin action, Meat, whole grains, Impaired glucose tolerance, weight loss,
(Cr) involved in carbohy- broccoli, potatoes confusion
drate, fat, and protein
metabolism

[UPSC 2014] Consider the following minerals

1. Calcium
2. Iron
3. Sodium

151
Which of the minerals given above is/are required by human body for the contraction of muscles?
a) 1 only
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b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation
• Calcium directly facilitates the interaction between actin and myosin filaments, enabling the muscle
contraction process.
• Iron is critical as a component of haemoglobin and myoglobin, which deliver oxygen to muscles for en-
ergy production needed for contraction.
• Sodium is key in generating and transmitting nerve impulses that initiate muscle contraction and main-
tain electrolyte balance.

Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3

8.4. Deficiency Diseases and Balanced Diet

• Deficiency diseases occur when the body lacks essential nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, pro-
teins, carbohydrates, or fats, over a prolonged period.
• A balanced diet provides all the essential nutrients in appropriate amounts to maintain good health,
support growth, and prevent deficiency diseases.
Nutrient Deficiency Disease/Symptom
Protein Kwashiorkor (edema, stunted growth) and Marasmus (severe wasting, energy
deficiency)
 Edema is swelling of body parts because of fluid trapped in the body’s tissues.
Carbohydrate Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) and Ketoacidosis (ketone levels in the blood
and urine become too high, making the blood too acidic)
 Ketosis is a metabolic state that occurs when your body doesn't have enough
carbohydrates to burn for energy. In this process, the body burns fat and pro-
duces ketones, which can be used as fuel. Excessive ketosis can lead to the
accumulation of ketones and lead to ketoacidosis.
Fat Dry skin, hormonal imbalances, impaired brain function
Vitamins & Minerals Discussed under the vitamins and minerals section of the chapter

8.5. Good Cholesterol and Bad Cholesterol

• Lipoproteins are complex biomolecules that consist of lipids (fats) and proteins. A primary function of

152
lipoproteins is the transport of triglycerides and cholesterol in the bloodstream because these lipids
are insoluble in water. There are five types of lipoproteins:
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1. High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL): Also called good cholesterol, HDL removes cholesterol from
the blood and takes it to the liver for disposal. It reduces plaque build-up in blood vessels and low-
ers the risk of heart disease.
2. Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL): Also called bad cholesterol, LDL carries cholesterol to tissues. It
can build up as plaque in blood vessels, increasing the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and athero-
sclerosis (blood vessels become too narrow for blood to flow freely).
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 153
 3. Very Low-Density Lipoprotein (VLDL): Another bad cholesterol, it primarily transports triglyc-
erides to tissues.
4. Intermediate-Density Lipoprotein (IDL): They are formed when VLDLs lose fatty acids. IDLs are ei-
ther removed by the liver or converted into LDL.
5. Chylomicrons: They are large particles that transport triglycerides from the intestine to tissues.
Feature Good Cholesterol (HDL) Bad Cholesterol (LDL)
Function HDL removes excess cholesterol from the blood- LDL delivers cholesterol to cells for
stream and transports it to the liver for disposal. use, but the excess cholesterol can ac-
cumulate in blood vessels.
Impact on Protects against heart disease by reducing Increases the risk of atherosclerosis,
Health plaque buildup in arteries. heart attacks, and strokes by promot-
ing plaque buildup.

154
Sources 1. Healthy fats: Monounsaturated fats (e.g., 1. Unhealthy fats: Saturated fats (e.g.,
olive oil, avocados, and nuts like almonds and butter, cheese, fatty cuts of meat,
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walnuts) and Polyunsaturated fats (e.g., sun- and full-fat dairy products) and
flower oil, flaxseeds, and fatty fishlike salmon, Trans fats (e.g., baked goods, fried
mackerel, and sardines which are rich in ome- foods, margarine, and processed
ga-3) snacks)
2. Fruits and vegetables (e.g., berries, apples, 2. Processed foods (e.g., packaged
citrus fruits, and leafy greens) snacks and fast food)
3. Whole grains (e.g., oats, barley, quinoa, and 3. Diet high in cholesterol (e.g., egg
 whole wheat) yolks and organ meats)
4. Legumes (e.g., beans, lentils, and chickpeas) 4. Lifestyle factors: Sedentary lifestyle,
5. Lifestyle factors: Regular physical activity, smoking and excessive alcohol con-
avoiding smoking & moderating alcohol intake sumption
Desirable Higher levels are beneficial (>60 mg/dL ideal). Lower levels are beneficial (<100 mg/dL
Levels ideal).

8.6. Types of Fats

• A fatty acid is an organic acid that contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and is found naturally in
fats and oils. Fatty acids are the building blocks of fat in the body and food.

Saturated Fats (SFA)

• Saturated fats have no double bonds between carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon chains. Therefore,
they are saturated with the maximum number of hydrogen atoms. They have a linear structure, allow-
ing tight packing of molecules.
• Saturated fats are solid at room temperature due to compact molecular packing. They are chemically
stable and less prone to rancidity (oxidation of fats). Because of these qualities, they are mainly used
in processed foods. Saturated fats also have a higher melting point compared to unsaturated fats.
• Animal-based sources of saturated fats are butter, lard, cheese, cream, red meat, etc. Plant-based
sources include coconut oil, palm oil, cocoa butter, etc.
• Potential risk: Excessive intake of saturated fats can raise LDL (bad) cholesterol levels, increasing car-
diovascular disease risk.
• E.g., butyric acid (found in butter), lauric acid (found in coconut oil), palmitic acid (found in palm oil
and animal fat), and stearic acid (found in cocoa butter and meat).

Unsaturated Fats
• Unsaturated fats contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon
chain. These double bonds create "kinks", preventing the tight packing of molecules.
• Unsaturated fats are typically liquid at room temperature due to loose molecular packing. 155
• Plant-based sources of unsaturated fats are olive oil, nuts, seeds, avocados, etc. Animal-based sources
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are fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, tuna).

Types of Unsaturated Fats

Monounsaturated Fats (MUFAs)
• Monounsaturated fats contain one double bond in the carbon chain.
• The sources of monosaturated fats are olive oil, avocados, nuts (almonds, peanuts), seeds, etc.
• E.g., oleic acid (found in olive oil and avocados) and palmitoleic acid (found in macadamia nuts and
fish oil).
• Health benefits of monosaturated fats:
1. MUFAs reduce LDL (bad cholesterol) and increase HDL (good cholesterol), reducing the risk of
heart disease and stroke.
2. MUFAs improve insulin sensitivity, potentially reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes.
3. MUFAs have anti-inflammatory properties.
4. MUFAs help manage weight by providing satiety, which controls appetite and calorie intake.

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)

• Polyunsaturated fats contain two or more double bonds in their carbon chain.
• The types of PUFAs are: Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Omega-6 Fatty Acids.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

• The sources of omega-3 are fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines), fish oil supplements, flaxseeds,
chia seeds, walnuts, etc.
• E.g., Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA) (found in flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts, and soybean oil), Eicosapen-
taenoic Acid (EPA) (found in fatty fishes like salmon, mackerel, sardines and fish oil supplements), and
Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) (found in fatty fishes, algae, and seaweed).
• Health benefits of Omega-3 fatty acids are:
1. Omega-3 improves cardiovascular health by reducing triglycerides. High triglyceride levels in
the blood raise the risk of atherosclerosis, which increases the risk of heart disease and stroke.
2. Omega-3 is vital for brain development and maintenance and protects against Alzheimer's and
age-related cognitive decline.
3. Omega-3 reduces inflammation, which helps manage arthritis and other inflammatory diseases.
4. Omega-3 helps maintain clear vision and prevents macular degeneration.
5. Omega-3 is important for healthy pregnancy and fetal development.

Omega-6 Fatty Acids

156
• The sources of omega-6 are vegetable oils (like sunflower, safflower, corn, and soybean), nuts,
seeds, meat, poultry, eggs, etc.
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• E.g., Linoleic Acid (LA) (vegetable oils) and Arachidonic Acid (ARA) (meat, poultry, and eggs).
• Health benefits of omega-6 fatty acids are:
1. Omega-6 fats provide energy for bodily functions and maintain cell membrane integrity.
2. Omega-6 supports healthy skin by improving moisture retention.
3. Omega-6 plays a role in brain functioning and inflammation regulation.
• Health risk: Excessive intake of omega-6 may lead to chronic inflammation.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 157
Trans Fatty Acids
• Trans fat is an unsaturated fat with at least one double bond in the trans configuration, where the
hydrogen atoms are positioned on opposite sides of the carbon chain.
• Trans fat is found in both natural and industrial (artificial) sources.
1. Natural trans fats are found in small amounts in food products from ruminant animals (like dairy
products and meat from cattle, sheep, or goats). Natural trans fats in moderate amounts are con-
sidered safe.
2. Industrial trans fats are formed when liquid oils are turned into solid fats by adding hydrogen. Al-
so called partially hydrogenated fats, these fats are inexpensive and have a longer shelf life.
They are found in margarine, vanaspati oil, processed and fried foods, etc.
• Health risks with trans fats are:
1. Trans fats raise LDL (bad) cholesterol levels and lower HDL (good) cholesterol, increasing cardio-
vascular disease risk.
2. Trans fats promote inflammation, insulin resistance, obesity, and chronic diseases.

Types of Fats Based on Essentiality

1. Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs): They cannot be synthesised by the body and must be obtained from the
diet. E.g., omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids.
2. Non-Essential Fatty Acids: They can be synthesised by the body. E.g., palmitic acid and oleic acid.
Feature Healthy Fats Unhealthy Fats
Types 1. Monounsaturated Fats (MUFAs) 1. Saturated Fats (in excess)
2. Polyunsaturated Fats (PUFAs, including 2. Trans Fats
Omega-3 & 6)
Sources Olive oil, avocados, nuts, seeds, fatty fish (like Butter, red meat, full-fat dairy, fried
salmon and mackerel), flaxseeds foods, baked foods with hydrogenated
oils
Impact on Cho- Increase HDL ("good cholesterol") and de- Increase LDL ("bad cholesterol") and

158
lesterol crease LDL levels lower HDL levels
Health Benefits Support heart and brain health Increased risk of heart disease, stroke PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Reduce inflammation Promote inflammation

Provide essential fatty acids Causes obesity and metabolic disorders

8.7. Metabolism

• Living organisms contain thousands of biomolecules in specific concentrations. The process of constant
breaking down and rebuilding of biomolecules through chemical reactions is called metabolism.
 Metabolism is required for maintaining life in living organisms; it enables organisms to grow, repro-
duce, maintain structure, and adapt to the environment.

Types of Metabolic Pathways

• Metabolic pathways are a series of enzyme-catalysed chemical reactions that transform one mole-
cule into another within a cell.

Catabolic Pathways
• Catabolic pathways break down complex molecules into simpler ones. They release energy (exo-
thermic), which is often stored as ATP. E.g.,
1. Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose to pyruvate.
2. Cellular Respiration: Breakdown of glucose to CO2 and H2O, producing ATP.
3. Protein Catabolism: Breakdown of proteins into amino acids.

Anabolic Pathways
• Anabolic pathways build complex molecules from simpler ones. They require energy input (endo-
thermic), often in the form of ATP. E.g.,
1. Photosynthesis: Conversion of light energy into chemical energy.
2. Gluconeogenesis: Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
3. Protein Synthesis: Synthesis of proteins from amino acids.

Amphibolic Pathways
• Amphibolic pathways function in both anabolism (building up molecules) and catabolism (breaking
down molecules), depending on the needs of the cell. These pathways play a dual role, allowing the
same intermediates to be used for energy release and for biosynthesis of complex molecules.
• Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) is a classic example of amphibolic pathway.
 Catabolic role: Breaks down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce energy (ATP).
 Anabolic role: Provides intermediates for synthesising amino acids, fatty acids, and nucleotides.

159
Enzymes
• Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the chemical reactions in the cell. Enzymes are mostly
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proteins, but some nucleic acids called ribozymes also act as enzymes.
• All metabolic reactions are catalysed by enzymes, which makes them faster and more efficient.
• The six classes of enzymes are oxidoreductases/dehydrogenases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases,
isomerases, and ligases.
Enzyme Class Reaction Catalysed Example
Hydrolase Hydrolysis (catabolic) Lipase, protease
Isomerase Rearrangement of atoms within a molecule Phosphohexoisomerase
Lyase Splitting chemicals into smaller parts without using water Decarboxylases, aldolases
(catabolic)
Oxidoreductase Transfers electrons or hydrogen atoms from one molecule Dehydrogenases, oxidases
to another
Synthetases Joining of two molecules by the formation of new bonds DNA ligase, DNA polymer-
(anabolic) ase
Transferase Moving a functional group from one molecule to another Kinases, transaminase

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

1. Temperature: Enzyme activity increases with temperature up to an optimum temperature (usually
around 37°C for human enzymes). Low temperatures temporarily inactivate enzymes, while high tem-
peratures destroy enzymatic activity because heat denatures proteins. However, enzymes from thermo-
philic organisms can function at high temperatures (up to 80°–90°C).
2. pH level: Enzymes function best at their optimal pH level. Extreme pH levels can denature the enzyme.
3. Substrate Concentration: Enzyme activity increases with substrate concentration, but only up to a
certain point. Beyond this point, all enzyme active sites are saturated, and the reaction rate plateaus.
4. Enzyme Concentration: Higher enzyme concentration increases the reaction rate, provided there is
enough substrate available.
5. Presence of Inhibitors: Inhibitors are molecules or chemicals that reduce or block enzyme activity by
interacting with the enzyme. There are two main types of enzyme inhibitors:
i) Competitive Inhibitors: They resemble the substrate in structure and compete with the substrate
for the enzyme’s active site, reducing enzyme activity by blocking the substrate.
ii) Non-Competitive Inhibitors: They bind to a site other than the enzyme’s active site (allosteric site).
altering the enzyme's shape. This makes the active site less effective or inaccessible for substrate
binding and enzyme activity reduces.

Co-factors

160
• Co-factors are non-protein components required for the catalytic activity of some enzymes. These co-
factors bind to the protein portion of the enzyme, known as the apoenzyme, to form an active enzyme.
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Without co-factors, such enzymes lose their catalytic activity.

• There are three types of co-factors:
1. Prosthetic Groups: Organic compounds that are tightly bound to the apoenzyme permanently.
2. Co-enzymes: Organic compounds that temporarily bind to the enzyme during the reaction and de-
tach after the reaction.
3. Metal Ions: Inorganic ions that form coordination bonds with the enzyme's active site and the sub-
strate at the same time.
Metabolites
• Metabolites are organic compounds produced during metabolism in living organisms. They are es-
sential for various biological processes and are categorised into two main types: primary metabolites
and secondary metabolites.
Feature Primary Metabolites Secondary Metabolites
Definition Essential for fundamental biological pro- Not essential for fundamental biological
cesses (growth, development, and re- processes but provide ecological or adap-
production) tive benefits
 Often produced as byproducts of prima-
ry metabolism or for specific functions
Occurrence Found in all living organisms (plants, ani- Mainly found in plants, fungi, and some mi-
mals, microbes) crobes
Functions 1. Energy production (e.g., glucose in res- 1. Defence against predators (e.g., alka-
piration) loids against herbivores)
2. Structural components (e.g., lipids in 2. Pollination and seed dispersal (e.g.,
membranes). pigments, scents).
3. Building macromolecules (e.g., pro- 3. Human applications (e.g., antibiotics,
teins, DNA) drugs, rubber).
Production Produced during the primary growth Produced during the stationary or second-
Timeline phase of an organism ary phase of growth
Examples Amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, pro- Alkaloids, flavonoids, antibiotics, pigments,
teins, nucleic acids, vitamins, and organic rubber, essential oils, and gums
acids

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 9. Reproduction

9.1. Introduction

• Reproduction is the biological process by which an organism produces young ones (offspring) similar
to itself. It is not a fundamental life process because it is not essential for the survival of an individual.
• Reproduction is important because:
1. Continuity of species: Ensures species' survival by producing new generations.
2. Genetic diversity: Sexual reproduction creates genetic variation, helping species adapt to chang-
ing environments.
• Reproduction is classified into two types based on the involvement of one or two organisms: Asexual
reproduction and Sexual reproduction.

9.2. Asexual Reproduction

• In asexual reproduction, a single organism produces genetically identical offspring (clones). This is
common in simpler organisms like bacteria, fungi, and some plants.
• Advantages of asexual reproduction:
 Rapid reproduction: It's a quick way to produce many offspring.
 No mate required: Organisms can reproduce without a partner.
 Stable environments: In stable environments, asexual reproduction can be effective as it maintains
successful genetic traits.
• Limitations of asexual reproduction:
 Lack of genetic variation: Offspring are identical to the parent, limiting their ability to adapt to
changing conditions.

Methods of Asexual Reproduction

Fission

162
• In unicellular organisms, cell division (fission) produces new individuals.
1. Binary Fission: A single cell divides into two identical cells, rapidly growing into adults. E.g., amoe-
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ba, paramecium, and Leishmania (which cause kala-azar).

2. Multiple Fission: Some single-celled organisms, like Plasmodium (the malarial parasite), divide in-
to many daughter cells at once.

Budding
• A small bulb-like outgrowth (bud) forms on the parent organism, eventually separating and maturing
into a new individual. E.g., yeast, hydra.
Spore formulation or Sporulation
• In sporulation, an organism forms spores, tiny, resilient cells covered by a hard protective coat to sur-
vive unfavourable conditions. When conditions improve, these spores germinate and develop into new
individuals. E.g., bread mould (Rhizopus), fern, amoeba.

163
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• In bread mould (Rhizopus), a fungus, tiny "blob-on-a-stick" structures called sporangia contain
spores, which can develop into new individuals when they land on a moist surface.
• Under unfavourable conditions, amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia and forms a protective covering
around itself called a cyst – a process called encystation. When conditions improve, the encysted
Amoeba undergoes multiple fission, producing many small amoebae (pseudopodiospores). The cyst
wall then breaks open, releasing the spores, which grow into new amoeba.

Fragmentation
• In simple multicellular organisms, the body of the parent organism breaks into fragments, and each
fragment grows into a new individual. E.g., Spirogyra (an algae), planaria, hydra.

Asexual Reproductive Structures

• Fungi and simple plants like algae reproduce asexually through special structures. The most common
are zoospores, which are tiny, motile spores. Other structures include conidia (Penicillium), buds (Hy-
dra), and gemmules (sponges). 164
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Vegetative Reproduction
• In vegetative propagation, new plants grow from roots, stems, leaves, or buds. In plants, units of vege-
tative propagation called vegetative propagules enable new plant growth. These structures are:
1. Runners: Horizontal stems that grow along the soil (e.g., strawberry).
2. Rhizomes: Underground stems that produce shoots and roots (e.g., ginger, turmeric).
3. Suckers: Shoot that arises from the base of a plant or its roots. (e.g., mint).
4. Tubers: Swollen underground stems with buds often called “eyes”. (e.g., potato).
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 165
 5. Offsets: A type of sub-aerial stem in aquatic plants, growing horizontally from the leaf axil with a
rosette of leaves above and adventitious roots at its tips (e.g. water hyacinth).
6. Leaf buds: Some plants can produce buds from leaf margins that grow into new plants when they
fall off (e.g., Bryophyllum)
7. Bulbs: A bulb is a short, modified stem surrounded by fleshy, nutrient-storing leaves. These allow
the plant to survive harsh conditions and regrow when conditions improve (e.g., tulips).

Vegetative Reproduction in Agriculture

• Vegetative propagation is used in agriculture to grow plants. Plants grown this way often flower and
fruit earlier than those from seeds and are also genetically similar. The methods used are:
1. Cutting: Parts of stems, roots, or leaves are cut and planted to grow new plants (e.g., rose).
2. Layering: Bending a stem to the ground, covering it with soil until roots form, then separating it as
a new plant (e.g., jasmine, grapevine).
3. Grafting: Joining the stem of one plant (scion) to the rooted stem of another (rootstock), often
used in fruit trees (e.g., apple, mango).
4. Tissue culture: Growing plants from cells in a nutrient medium under sterile conditions, useful for
mass production (e.g., orchids, bananas).
• The water hyacinth, known as the "terror of Bengal", is an invasive aquatic plant that depletes oxygen in
water bodies, killing fish. Introduced initially to India for its attractive flowers and leaves, it spreads rap-
idly through vegetative propagation, making it hard to control.

[UPSC 2014] Which of the following statements is / are correct regarding vegetative
propagation of plants?
1. Vegetative propagation produces clonal population.
2. Vegetative propagation helps in eliminating the virus.
3. Vegetative propagation can be practiced most of the year.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only 166
c) 1 and 3 only
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d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation
• Vegetative propagation results in clonal populations, meaning the new plants are genetically identi-
cal to the parent. This occurs because methods like cuttings, layering, and grafting regenerate new
plants from the parent plant's parts, bypassing seed production.
• Vegetative propagation does not eliminate viruses. In fact, if the parent plant is infected with a virus, it
 is likely to be passed on to the offspring since it replicates asexually.
• Vegetative propagation can be practised most of the year, depending on the method and environ-
mental conditions.

Answer: (c) 1 and 3 only

Parthenogenesis
• Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where an organism develops from an unfertilised
egg, also known as "virgin birth". Parthenogenesis can be obligate (the only way the species repro-
duces) or facultative (occurs only under certain conditions). E.g., rotifers, honeybees, aphids and some
lizards, fishes, and birds.

Apomixis
• Apomixis is a form of asexual seed production where seeds develop without fertilisation.

9.3. Sexual Reproduction

• In sexual reproduction, male and female gametes, produced by either the same or different individ-
uals, fuse to form a zygote that develops into a new organism.
• Advantages of sexual reproduction:
 Genetic diversity: Sexual reproduction creates genetic variation in offspring, boosting a species'
adaptability to environmental changes, diseases, predators, and climate change.
• Disadvantages of sexual reproduction:
 Slower reproduction rate: Sexual reproduction is typically a slower process than asexual reproduc-
tion, as it requires finding a mate, which can delay reproduction and limit population growth.
 Energy and resource intensive: Finding mates and raising offspring requires significant energy and
resources, which could otherwise support survival.

Life Cycles and Reproductive Phases

Juvenile Phase

167
• A period of growth and development before reproductive maturity. In plants, it is referred to as the
vegetative phase. The duration varies widely among species.
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Reproductive Phase
• The period of sexual maturity, when organisms can reproduce.

Plants
• This phase begins when plants start to flower. Some plants flower seasonally, while others flower year-
round. Some plants display unique flowering patterns. E.g., bamboo flowers only once in their lifetime
(after 50-100 years) and neelakuranji bloom once every 12 years.
Animals
• This phase involves morphological and physiological changes that prepare the organism for repro-
duction. During this phase, females of placental mammals go through cycles of changes in their ova-
ries, reproductive organs, and hormone levels. This cycle is called the oestrus cycle in non-primates
(like cows and dogs). In primates (like monkeys, apes, and humans), it’s called the menstrual cycle.
• Seasonal Breeders: Birds in nature, frogs, lizards, mammals like deer and bear.
• Continuous Breeders: Humans and other primates. Domesticated animals (like cows, pigs, and chick-
ens) can be bred year-round through controlled environmental conditions and hormonal manipulation.

Senescence (Old Age)

• A decline in physiological functions marks the ageing process. Reproductive capacity diminishes, and
eventually, the organism dies.
 Hormones and environmental factors regulate reproductive cycles and associated behaviours in plants
and animals.

Stages of Sexual Reproduction

• Sexual reproduction includes three stages: Pre-fertilisation, Fertilisation, and Post-fertilisation.

Pre-Fertilisation Events
• Pre-fertilisation includes all events before gamete fusion, mainly gametogenesis and gamete transfer.

Gametogenesis
• Gametogenesis is the formation of male and female haploid gametes.
• Types of gametes:
1. Isogametes: Similar in appearance (e.g., some algae)
2. Heterogametes: Morphologically distinct (e.g., most animals and plants), with the male gamete be-
ing called sperm or antherozoid and the female gamete egg or ovum.
• Sexuality in Organisms: Sexual reproduction typically involves two individuals, but self-fertilisation

168
can also occur in some plants.
1. Bisexual plants (homothallic and monoecious) have both male and female structures, e.g., cucur-
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bits and coconuts. Unisexual plants (heterothallic and dioecious) have male and female struc-
tures on separate plants, e.g., papaya and date palm. In flowering plants, the unisexual male flower
is staminate, i.e., bearing stamens, while the female is pistillate or bearing pistils.
2. Some animal species are unisexual (having distinct male and female individuals), e.g., cockroaches.
In contrast, others are bisexual or hermaphrodites (having both male and female reproductive or-
gans in the same individual), e.g., earthworms and sponges.
• Cell Division in Gamete Formation: In haploid organisms (e.g., monera, fungi, algae), gametes form
through mitosis. In diploid organisms (e.g., most animals and plants), meiosis produces haploid gam-
etes from diploid cells called meiocytes.

Gamete Transfer
• After formation, male and female gametes must meet for fertilisation. Generally, the male gamete is
motile, and the female is stationary, except in some fungi and algae, where both gametes are motile.
• Medium of Transfer:
1. Water: In simple plants like algae, bryophytes, and pteridophytes, water serves as the medium for
male gametes to reach female gametes.
2. Pollen Grains: In seed plants, pollen grains carry male gametes to the female gamete (ovule)
through pollination.
3. Special Mechanisms: In dioecious animals, the male gamete (sperm) is directly transferred to the
female reproductive tract using special mechanisms.

Fertilisation
• Fertilisation or syngamy involves the fusion of male and female gametes to form a diploid zygote.
• Types of Fertilisation:
1. External Fertilisation: In many aquatic organisms, like algae, fish, and amphibians, fertilisation oc-
curs externally in water. Both sexes release large numbers of gametes to increase fusion chances,
but the resulting offspring are vulnerable to predators.
2. Internal Fertilisation: In terrestrial organisms, like reptiles, birds, mammals, and most plants, ferti-
lisation occurs inside the female body.

Post-Fertilisation
• After fertilisation, the zygote forms and undergoes further development in post-fertilisation events.

Zygote
• The zygote can develop externally (in species with external fertilisation) or internally. It serves as a ge-
netic link to the next generation.
169
Embryogenesis PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Embryogenesis is the process of embryo development from the zygote, involving cell division and cell
differentiation to form tissues and organs.
• Types of animals based on the place of development of the zygote:
1. Oviparous (e.g., birds, reptiles): Fertilised eggs with hard shells are laid in the environment; young
ones hatch after incubation.
2. Viviparous (e.g., most mammals): The zygote develops inside the female’s body, giving birth to
live young with higher survival due to internal protection.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Flower Parts Involved in Sexual Production
• Sepals and Petals: Protect the inner parts and may attract pollinators.
• Stamens: Male reproductive part that produces pollen grains (male gametophyte).
• Pistil: Female reproductive part located at the centre, consisting of the ovary (swollen base, contains
ovules with egg cells), style (middle part), and stigma (top part, often sticky to catch pollen).

Pollination
• Pollination is the process by which pollen grains (carrying male gametes) are transferred from the an-
ther (the male part of a flower) to the stigma (the female part). This is a critical step in fertilisation for
seed plants, as it enables the male gametes to reach and fertilise the female gametes in the ovule.

Types of Pollination
1. Self-pollination: Pollen from the anther reaches the stigma of the same or another flower on the same
plant. This is common in bisexual, self-fertilising plants like peas. It results in low genetic variation
in the offspring. It ensures reproduction when pollinators are scarce or absent. It can be of two types:
i) Autogamy: Pollen from the anther lands directly on the stigma of the same flower. Common in
flowers that do not open fully (cleistogamous flowers), such as some species of peas and beans.
ii) Geitonogamy: Pollen is transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another
flower on the same plant. E.g., pumpkins and maize.
2. Cross-pollination or Xenogamy: Xenogamy is the transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower on
one plant to the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species. It is common in dioe-
cious or unisexual plants like papaya. It results in high genetic variation in the offspring.
Feature Self-Pollination Cross-Pollination (Xenogamy)
Definition Transfer of pollen within the same flow- Transfer of pollen between flowers of dif-
er or between flowers on the same plant ferent plants of the same species
Types Autogamy (same flower) -

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Genetic Diversity Low genetic diversity; offspring cannot High genetic diversity; offspring can bet-
easily adapt to environmental changes ter adapt to environmental changes
Common in which Bi-sexual Unisexual
Plant Type
Flower Structure Chasmogamous (open flower) Chasmogamous (open flower)
Cleistogamous (closed flower)
Pollinators Not essential (it can take place when Essential (it cannot take place without
 pollinators are scarce or absent) the help of pollinators)
Examples Peas, tomatoes, beans Apple, maize, sunflowers, most fruit trees

Agents of Pollination
• Pollination agents help transfer pollens from the anther to the stigma of flowers, enabling fertilisation.
There are two main categories of pollination agents: abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living).

Abiotic Agents
1. Wind (Anemophily): Wind carries lightweight, dry pollen grains from one flower to another. It is com-
mon in plants with small, inconspicuous flowers and exposed stamens. E.g., grasses, wheat, pine trees.
2. Water (Hydrophily): Water carries pollen from one plant to another, typically in aquatic plants. E.g.,
vallisneria, seagrasses.

Biotic Agents
1. Insects (Entomophily): Insects, attracted by flowers' bright colours, sweet scents, and nectar, are com-
mon pollinators. Pollen sticks to their bodies as they move between flowers, aiding pollination. Key in-
sect pollinators include bees, butterflies, moths, beetles, and flies. E.g., sunflowers, roses, orchids.
2. Birds (Ornithophily): Birds, particularly hummingbirds, are important pollinators in many ecosystems.
They are attracted to brightly coloured, tubular flowers that produce nectar. E.g., hibiscus, fuchsia.
3. Bats (Chiropterophily): Bats are nocturnal pollinators attracted to large, fragrant flowers that bloom at
night. They play a crucial role in pollinating many tropical plants. E.g., baobab, agave.
4. Animals (Zoophily): Small mammals and lizards may occasionally pollinate while seeking nectar or
pollen, especially in flowers accessible to ground or tree-dwelling animals, like some tropical and
ground-level plants.

Fertilisation
• Once pollen lands on the stigma, it absorbs moisture and germinates. It produces a pollen tube that
grows down the style, a long tube that connects the stigma to the ovary. The pollen tube carries the
male gametes (sperm cells) through the style towards the ovule in the ovary. The tube releases the male

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gametes once it reaches the ovule.

Double Fertilisation
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• Flowering plants or angiosperms undergo a unique process called double fertilisation. Once the pol-
len tube releases the male gametes in the ovary, one male gamete fuses with the egg cell to form a zy-
gote (which becomes the embryo). The other male gamete fuses with two polar nuclei in the ovule to
form the endosperm, which serves as a food source for the developing embryo.

Formation of Seed and Fruit

Seed
• After fertilisation, the ovule develops into a seed containing the embryo and endosperm.
• Types of Seeds
1. Non-Albuminous: All the endosperm is used during embryo development (e.g., pea, groundnut).
2. Albuminous: Retain some endosperm after development (e.g., wheat, maize, barley).
3. Perisperm: Some seeds also retain a part of the nucellus (e.g., black pepper, beet).

Fruit
• The ovary develops into a fruit, which protects the seed and can aid in its dispersal. Fruits may be
fleshy (like guava and mango) or dry (like groundnut and mustard).
• Types of fruits:
1. True Fruits: Develop only from the ovary.
2. False Fruits: Other flower parts (e.g., thalamus) contribute to fruit formation (e.g., apples, strawber-
ries, cashews).
3. Parthenocarpic Fruits: Fruits formed without fertilisation, like bananas, are seedless.

Seed Dispersal
• Agents like wind, water, and animals disperse seeds. Some fruits burst open, scattering seeds (explo-
sive dispersal). The seed contains the future plant or embryo, which develops into a seedling under
appropriate conditions. This process is known as germination.

Human Reproduction

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The Male Reproductive System
• The male reproductive system is responsible for producing sperm and delivering them to the female for
fertilisation. Sperm are tiny cells with a tail that helps them swim. They contain genetic material
that can create a new life when combined with a female egg.

Key Parts of the Male Reproductive System

• Testes: These are the primary male sex organs. They produce sperm and the hormone testosterone.
Testosterone aids sperm production and causes physical changes in boys during puberty.
• Scrotum: A sac-like structure that holds the testes outside the body, where the temperature is cooler,
ideal for sperm production.
• Vas Deferens: A long tube that carries sperm from the testes to the urethra.
• Prostate and Seminal Vesicles: These glands add fluids to the sperm, nourishing and aiding their
movement.
• Urethra: A tube that carries urine and sperm out of the body.

The Female Reproductive System

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• The female reproductive system is designed to produce eggs, nurture a developing baby, and give birth.

Key Parts of the Female Reproductive System

• Ovaries: These produce eggs (ova) and hormones like estrogen and progesterone. When a girl is
born, her ovaries already contain thousands of immature eggs. Starting at puberty, one egg matures
each month and is released from an ovary.
• Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes): These two tubes carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.
• Uterus (Womb): A muscular organ where a fertilised egg implants and grows into a baby. Each
month, the uterus prepares to nurture a fertilised egg by thickening its lining and increasing its
blood supply.
• Cervix: The lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina.
• Vagina: A muscular tube that leads from the cervix to the outside of the body.

Fertilisation and Pregnancy

• Fertilisation: During sexual intercourse, sperm can enter through the vagina and may meet the egg in
the oviduct. When a sperm fertilises an egg in the oviduct, a fertilised egg (zygote) is formed.
• Implantation: The zygote travels to the uterus and implants in its lining.
• Development: The implanted zygote develops into an embryo. The embryo becomes a fetus.
• Placenta: A special tissue that connects the developing baby to the mother's uterus, providing nutri-
ents and oxygen and removing waste products.
• Birth: After about nine months, the baby is born through the vagina.
• Hormones: The female body undergoes many changes during pregnancy to support the growing baby.
Hormones regulate these changes, ensuring a healthy pregnancy and childbirth.

Menstruation
• Each month, the ovary releases an egg, and the uterus prepares for a fertilised egg by forming a thick,
spongy lining to nourish an embryo. If fertilisation doesn’t occur, this lining isn’t needed and breaks
down, exiting the body as blood and mucus through the vagina. This monthly cycle, called menstrua-
tion, typically lasts two to eight days.
 If the egg is not fertilised, it lives for about one day.

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 10. Control and Coordination

• Coordination is the process of organs interacting and complementing each other’s functions. The neu-
ral system (enabling rapid response) and endocrine system (ensuring longer-lasting integration) work
together to manage these interactions.

10.1. Neural Control and Coordination in Humans

Neural System
• The neural system consists of neurons, specialised cells for detecting and transmitting stimuli. In
lower organisms, such as Hydra, it’s simple, with a neural network. In contrast, it includes a brain and
neural tissues organised for advanced control in more complex animals like insects and vertebrates.
• The human neural system is divided into:
1. Central Neural System (CNS): It includes the brain and spinal cord, responsible for information
processing and control.
2. Peripheral Neural System (PNS): It contains all nerves linked to the CNS.

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Neuron: Structural and Functional Unit
• Each neuron has three parts:
1. Cell body: It contains the nucleus and cytoplasm, with granules called Nissl’s granules.
2. Dendrites: Branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons to the cell body.
3. Axons: A long, slender projection that transmits signals away from the cell body to other neurons
and effector organs. Axons can be myelinated (with Schwann cells forming a myelin sheath) or
non-myelinated (without the myelin sheath).
 Myelin sheath is a protective layer of fat (lipids) and protein that coats the main “body” section of a neu-
ron called the axon and provides insulation.
• Neural Impulse: A nerve impulse is an electrical signal that travels along the axon. When a neuron is
stimulated, it undergoes a rapid change in electrical potential across its cell membrane, generating an
action potential. This action potential propagates along the axon to the synapse.
• Synapse: A synapse is a junction between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell that
transmits nerve impulses. There are two types of synapses:
1. Electrical Synapses: They allow direct electrical communication between neurons through gap
junctions. Signal transmission is faster and can be bi-directional.
2. Chemical Synapses: They use neurotransmitters to transmit signals across a small gap (synaptic
cleft) between neurons. Signal transmission is slower and is unidirectional.

Central Neural System (CNS)

Brain
• The brain is the body's main control centre, coordinating vital functions and processes. It oversees:
1. Voluntary Movements: Enables conscious control over muscle activities, allowing us to perform
tasks and respond to our environment.
2. Involuntary Functions: Regulates essential bodily functions like heart rate, digestion, and breath-
ing, which occur automatically without conscious thought.
3. Homeostasis: Maintains stable internal conditions, such as body temperature and hydration, essen-

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tial for survival.
4. Circadian Rhythms: Manages daily biological cycles, influencing sleep-wake patterns and hormonal
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fluctuations.
5. Higher Functions: Responsible for complex processes such as thinking, reasoning, emotional re-
sponses, and sensory perception.
• The brain is divided into three major parts: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

Forebrain
• The forebrain consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system.
1. Cerebrum: It is the largest brain region and is responsible for higher brain functions such as
thought, action, and emotion. It is divided into the left and right hemispheres and connected by the
corpus callosum for interhemispheric communication.
 Cerebral Cortex (Grey Matter): The cerebral cortex is the cerebrum's outer layer that processes
sensory information, directs motor activity and controls higher intellectual functions. It ap-
pears grey due to the presence of neuron cell bodies.
 White Matter: Located beneath the cortex, the white matter comprises myelinated axons facil-
itating communication between different brain regions. Its colour is given by myelin.
2. Thalamus: The thalamus, or "relay station" of the brain, processes and relays sensory (except
smell) and motor signals to the cerebral cortex.
3. Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus regulates autonomic functions and releases hormones that
influence the pituitary gland.
4. Limbic System: The inner cerebral hemispheres and deep structures like the amygdala and hippo-
campus form the limbic system, which, along with the hypothalamus, regulates sexual behaviour,
emotions, and motivation.

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Midbrain
• Located between the forebrain and hindbrain, the midbrain plays key roles in motor control, especially
eye movements and auditory and visual processing.
1. Cerebral Aqueduct: A channel that allows cerebrospinal fluid flow.
2. Corpora Quadrigemina: Processes visual and auditory reflexes, resulting in sensory integration.

Hindbrain
• The hindbrain comprises:
1. Pons: It consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different brain regions.
2. Cerebellum: It has a convoluted surface to provide additional space for many more neurons.
3. Medulla Oblongata: The medulla of the brain is connected to the spinal cord. It controls auto-
nomic functions like respiration, cardiovascular reflexes, and gastric secretions.
• Brain Stem: Three major regions comprise the brain stem: the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblon-
gata. The brain stem forms the connections between the brain and spinal cord.

Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord is a long, tubular structure of nerve tissue extending from the brainstem down the
spine. It is a significant pathway for transmitting information between the brain and the rest of the
body. Protected by the vertebrae, the spinal cord is essential for movement, sensation, and reflexes.
• Key functions of the spinal cord:
1. Motor control: It sends motor signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling movement and vol-
untary actions.
2. Sensory perception: It receives sensory signals from the body, such as touch, temperature, and
pain, and transmits them to the brain for processing.
3. Reflex actions: It also coordinates reflexes, enabling quick, automatic responses to certain stimuli
without directly involving the brain.
• The spinal cord carries sensory signals to the brain and motor commands from the brain to the muscles.

Reflex Action

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• A reflex action is an automatic response to a stimulus without conscious thought, like pulling your
hand away from a hot object. This type of response involves the part of the central nervous system but
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occurs quickly and involuntarily. E.g., Knee-jerk reflex.

• How reflexes work:
1. Sensory Input: A sensory receptor (like skin) detects a stimulus (e.g., heat, pain).
2. Nerve Impulse: A sensory neuron carries the signal to the spinal cord.
3. Spinal Cord Processing: The spinal cord processes the signal without involving the brain.
4. Motor Output: A motor neuron signals a muscle (effector) to respond (e.g., pulling the hand away).
Protection of the Central Neural System (CNS)
Cranial Meninges
• Three layers of cranial meninges protect the brain and the spinal cord:
1. Dura Mater: This is the outer layer closest to your skull.
2. Arachnoid: A thin, web-like middle layer.
3. Pia Mater: This is the inner layer closest to your brain tissue. Many blood vessels pass through this
layer to supply the brain tissue with blood.
• Apart from the meninges, the brain is also well-protected by the skull.
 Meningitis is an infection of the meninges caused by bacteria, fungus or viruses.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colourless liquid that surrounds and cushions the brain and spinal
cord. It provides several vital functions:
1. Protection: It acts as a shock absorber, protecting the delicate brain and spinal cord from injury.
2. Buoyancy: It reduces the brain's effective weight, preventing it from being crushed under its own
weight.
3. Chemical Stability: It maintains a stable chemical environment for optimal neural function.
4. Waste Removal: It helps remove waste products from the brain.
5. Nutrition: It provides nutrients to the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Neural System (PNS)

• The nerve fibres of the PNS are of two types:
1. Afferent Fibres: Carry impulses from tissues/organs to the CNS.
2. Efferent Fibres: Relay impulses from the CNS to peripheral tissues/organs.
• The PNS is divided into two divisions:
1. Somatic Neural System: This system transmits impulses between the CNS and skeletal muscles. It
controls voluntary actions like muscle movement.
2. Autonomic Neural System: This system transmits impulses between the CNS and involuntary or-

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gans and smooth muscles. It controls involuntary actions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing.
• The autonomic nervous system, also called the visceral nervous system, has two main parts:
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1. Sympathetic Nervous System: This system prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses by
increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate, dilating pupils, and slowing digestion.
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System: This system promotes "rest and digest" responses by decreas-
ing the heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate, constricting pupils and aiding digestion.
 Viscera refers to the body's internal organs, especially those within the main body cavities.

Sensory Reception and Processing

• Sensory organs detect environmental changes and communicate these signals to the central nervous
system (CNS) for processing and analysis. They include the nose, tongue, ears, and eyes.

Nose
• The nose contains mucus-coated receptors specialised for receiving the sense of smell called olfactory
receptors. These receptors extend into the olfactory bulb, connected to the brain’s limbic system.

Tongue
• The tongue detects taste through taste buds containing gustatory receptors that respond to dis-
solved chemicals. The brain integrates signals from taste buds to perceive complex flavours.

Eye
• The adult human eyes are nearly spherical and located in skull sockets called orbits.

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Parts of the Eye

• The adult human eye has three layers:
1. Outer Layer (Sclera): This is a dense connective tissue layer. The cornea is the transparent front
part that allows light to enter the eye.
 2. Middle Layer (Choroid): This layer contains many blood vessels and appears bluish. It is thin in
the back two-thirds of the eye but thickens in the front to form the ciliary body, which helps hold
the lens in place. The lens works with the cornea to correctly focus light on the retina. The ciliary
body also extends forward to create a pigmented and opaque structure called the iris, the col-
oured part of the eye. The opening in the centre of the iris is called the pupil. The pupil’s size is con-
trolled by muscle fibres in the iris.
3. Inner Layer (Retina): The inner layer of the eye has three types of neural cells: ganglion cells, bi-
polar cells, and photoreceptor cells. Photoreceptor cells contain light-sensitive proteins
called photopigments. There are two types of photoreceptor cells:
1. Rods: They enable twilight (scotopic) vision and contain rhodopsin, a light-sensitive protein
with Vitamin A.
2. Cones: They are responsible for daylight (photopic) and colour vision. They are of three types,
each responding to red, green, or blue light. Different combinations of these cones create col-
our sensations, and equal stimulation of all three produces the sensation of white light.
• The optic nerve (transmits visual information to the brain) exits the eye, and blood vessels enter at a
spot near the back of the eye. This area lacks photoreceptors and is called the blind spot. Nearby is the
macula lutea, a yellowish area that contains the fovea, where cones are densely packed, providing the
highest visual sharpness.
• The aqueous chamber is the space between the cornea and lens, filled with aqueous humor (a watery
fluid). The vitreous chamber between the lens and retina contains vitreous humor, a transparent gel.

Mechanism of Vision
• Light rays enter the eye and focus on the retina through the cornea and lens, stimulating rods and
cones. The light-sensitive compound (photopigments) in these cells, made of opsin (a protein) and ret-
inal (an aldehyde of Vitamin A), changes when exposed to light. This change alters cell membrane per-
meability, creating electrical signals. These signals pass from photoreceptor cells to bipolar cells and
then ganglion cells, which send impulses through the optic nerve to the brain’s visual cortex. Here, the
brain processes and recognises the image based on memory and experience.

Ear 181
The ears perform two sensory functions: hearing and maintaining body balance.
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•

Structure of the Ear

• It consists of three parts:
1. Outer Ear:
i) Pinna: The visible part of the ear that collects sound waves.
ii) External Auditory Canal: A tube that directs sound waves to the eardrum.
2. Middle Ear:
 i) Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum): The tympanic membrane, made of connective tissue with
skin outside and a mucous membrane inside, vibrates in response to sound waves.
ii) Ossicles: Three tiny bones (malleus, incus, and stapes) that amplify sound vibrations.
iii) Eustachian Tube: It connects the middle ear to the throat, equalising the pressures on either
side of the eardrum.
3. Inner Ear:
i) Cochlea: A coiled structure filled with fluid. It contains the Organ of Corti, which has hair cells
that serve as sound receptors.
ii) Vestibular Apparatus: Responsible for balance and equilibrium. It consists of: - a) semicircu-
lar canals (detect rotational movements of the head) and b) utricle and saccule (detect linear
acceleration and gravity).

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Mechanism of Hearing
• The ear converts sound waves into neural signals that the brain processes as sound. The external ear
directs sound waves to the eardrum, causing it to vibrate. These vibrations pass through the ossicles,
amplifying and transmitting them to the cochlea's oval window, creating waves in its fluid. These waves
move the basilar membrane, bending the hair cells against the tectorial membrane. This action gen-
 erates nerve impulses, which travel via auditory nerves to the brain's auditory cortex, where they are
analysed and recognised as sound.

10.2. Chemical Coordination and Integration in Humans

• Chemical coordination involves regulating physiological functions through hormones, as nerve fibres
do not reach every cell in the body. This process is slower than neural coordination but provides a
more sustained regulatory effect.

Endocrine Glands and Hormones

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• Endocrine glands are ductless glands that release hormones directly into the blood. Ductless means
that a gland does not have ducts or tubes to carry its secretions.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals that act as intercellular messengers and are produced in small
amounts. This updated definition includes new types of signalling molecules beyond those from tradi-
tional endocrine glands.
• In invertebrates, endocrine systems are simple and have few hormones, while vertebrates (like humans)
use many hormones for complex coordination.

Human Endocrine System

• The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands and their hormones.
• Organised endocrine glands include the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thy-
mus, and gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females). Other organs like the gastrointestinal tract,
liver, kidney, and heart also produce hormones.

The Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus, located in the forebrain, regulates various body functions. It contains neurosecre-
tory cells (nuclei) that produce hormones. These hormones regulate the synthesis and secretion of pi-
tuitary hormones. The hypothalamus produces two types of hormones:
1. Releasing hormones: Stimulate the secretion of pituitary hormones (e.g., Gonadotropin-releasing
hormone triggers the release of gonadotropins from the pituitary)
2. Inhibiting hormones: Suppress the secretion of pituitary hormones (e.g., somatostatin inhibits
growth hormone release).

The Pituitary Gland

• The pituitary gland, located in a bony cavity called the sella turcica, is attached to the hypothalamus
and divided into Adenohypophysis and Neurohypophysis.

Hormones Produced by Adenohypophysis (Anterior Pituitary)

• Growth Hormone (GH): Stimulates body growth; excess causes gigantism, while deficiency causes
dwarfism.
• Prolactin (PRL): Promotes growth of mammary glands and milk production.
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates thyroid hormone production. 184
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Stimulates adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids.
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• Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Regulates female ovulation and male testosterone production.
• Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Stimulates the growth of follicles in females and sperm produc-
tion in males.
• Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH): Acts on melanin-containing cells and regulates skin pig-
mentation.

Hormones Produced by Neurohypophysis (Posterior Pituitary)

• Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection.
• Vasopressin (Anti-diuretic Hormone, ADH): Regulates water balance by promoting water reabsorp-
tion in kidneys and reducing water loss through urine (diuresis). Diabetes Insipidus results from ADH
deficiency, leading to water loss and dehydration.

The Pineal Gland

• The pineal gland is located at the back of the forebrain and secretes the hormone melatonin. Melato-
nin regulates the body's 24-hour (diurnal) rhythm, including the sleep-wake cycle and body tem-
perature. Additionally, it affects metabolism, pigmentation, the menstrual cycle, and the body's de-
fence mechanisms.

Thyroid Gland
• The thyroid gland is butterfly-shaped and located in the front of the neck. The thyroid gland produces
two main hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These hormones control your body's
metabolism, support red blood cell formation, and help maintain water and electrolyte balance. The
thyroid also secretes thyrocalcitonin (TCT), a hormone that helps regulate blood calcium levels.
• Iodine is essential for the normal rate of hormone synthesis in the thyroid, and a deficiency can lead to
hypothyroidism and an enlarged thyroid gland, known as goitre.

Thyroid Disorders
• Hyperthyroidism: This condition occurs when the thyroid gland produces too much hormone. Symp-
toms include rapid heartbeat, weight loss, anxiety, and difficulty sleeping.
• Hypothyroidism: This condition occurs when the thyroid gland doesn't produce enough hormone.
Symptoms of hypothyroidism include fatigue, weight gain, cold sensitivity, and dry skin. During preg-
nancy, it can lead to stunted growth (cretinism) and developmental issues in the baby. In adult women,
it may cause irregular menstrual cycles.
• Exophthalmic Goitre (Graves' Disease): It is a form of hyperthyroidism characterised by an enlarged
thyroid, bulging eyes, increased metabolism, and weight loss.

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Parathyroid Gland
• The parathyroid glands are four tiny glands located behind the thyroid gland. They secrete parathyroid
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hormone (PTH), a hypercalcemic hormone (it increases blood calcium levels). PTH stimulates bone re-
sorption (breaking down bone to release calcium), reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys, and calci-
um absorption from digested food.

Thymus
• The thymus gland, a small, butterfly-shaped gland in the chest, is crucial for immune system devel-
opment. It secretes thymosins, hormones that help T-lymphocytes mature for cell-mediated immunity
 and support antibody production for humoral immunity. In older adults, the thymus degenerates, re-
ducing thymosin production and weakening immune responses.

Adrenal Gland
• The adrenal glands are two small glands on top of each kidney. They have two main parts: the Adrenal
Medulla and the Adrenal Cortex.

Hormones Produced by Adrenal Gland

• The adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine), also
known as catecholamines. These hormones are released during stress or emergencies, preparing the
body for a "fight or flight" response by increasing alertness, heart rate, respiration, blood glucose,
and breaking down fats and proteins.
• The adrenal cortex secretes hormones called corticoids: glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) and mineral-
ocorticoids (mainly aldosterone). Cortisol aids metabolism, anti-inflammatory responses, and RBC pro-
duction, while aldosterone regulates electrolytes, fluid balance, and blood pressure. The cortex also re-
leases small amounts of androgenic steroids, which support hair growth during puberty.

Imbalances in Adrenal Hormone Production

• Addison's disease (underproduction of adrenal hormones)
• Cushing's syndrome (overproduction of cortisol)

Pancreas
• The pancreas is both an exocrine and endocrine gland. Its endocrine portion, the Islets of Langer-
hans, contains α-cells (which produce glucagon) and β-cells (which produce insulin).
1. Glucagon raises blood glucose by stimulating glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis) and glucose
production (gluconeogenesis) in the liver, making it a hyperglycemic hormone.
2. Insulin lowers blood glucose by promoting glucose uptake in the liver and fat cells and converting
glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis), making it a hypoglycemic hormone.
• Both hormones work together to maintain blood glucose levels. Prolonged high blood glucose (hy-

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perglycemia) can lead to diabetes mellitus, which is managed with insulin therapy.

Testis
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• The testis in male individuals' scrotal sac functions as a primary sex organ and an endocrine gland. The
Leydig cells (or interstitial cells) in the testes androgen hormones, mainly testosterone.
• Androgen (mainly testosterone) plays a crucial role in male development and function:
1. Secondary sexual characteristics: It promotes facial hair growth, deep voice, and muscle growth.
2. Reproductive function: It regulates the development and function of male reproductive organs,
stimulates sperm production and regulates libido.
 3. Bone and muscle health: It helps maintain bone density and muscle mass.

Ovary
• The ovaries are the primary female reproductive organs on either side of the uterus.
• They serve two primary functions:
1. Egg production: The ovary produces one ovum (egg cell) during each menstrual cycle.
2. Hormone production: The ovary produces two steroid hormones: estrogen and progesterone.
• Estrogen promotes the growth of female secondary sex organs, development of follicles, secondary
sex characteristics (e.g., high pitch of voice), and mammary gland growth.
• Progesterone supports pregnancy and stimulates the formation of milk-producing alveoli (sac-like
structures which store milk) and milk secretion.

Hormones of Heart, Kidney, and Gastrointestinal Tract

Hormones Produced by Heart
• Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF): Released when blood pressure is high, ANF helps lower blood pres-
sure by increasing sodium and water excretion in the kidneys and relaxing blood vessels.

Hormones Produced by Kidneys

• Erythropoietin (EPO): Stimulates the production of red blood cells in response to low oxygen levels.

Hormones Produced by Gastrointestinal Tract

• Gastrin: Stimulates the secretion of gastric acid and pepsinogen, aiding digestion.
• Secretin: Stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate ions, which neutralise stomach acid.
• Cholecystokinin (CCK): Stimulates the pancreas to release digestive enzymes and the gallbladder to
release bile.
• Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP): Slows down gastric emptying and stimulates insulin release.

Hormones Produced by Other Tissues

Growth Factors: Various tissues, such as the skin, bones, and muscles, produce growth factors that reg-
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•
ulate cell growth and repair. PMF IAS – Science – Biology

10.3. Coordination in Plants

• Plants, unlike animals, lack a nervous system and muscles but still respond to environmental stimuli.
These responses can be categorised into two primary types of movement: movement independent of
growth and movement dependent on growth.

Immediate Response to Stimulus

• The sensitive plant moves its leaves in response to touch without growth. It detects touch and com-
municates through electrical-chemical signals. Movement happens when specific cells change shape by
adjusting their water content, causing them to swell or shrink. E.g., folding leaves of the touch-
sensitive plants of the Mimosa family.

Movement Due to Growth

• Tropism is an organism's directional growth or movement, usually a plant, in response to an envi-
ronmental stimulus like light or gravity. Different types of tropism are:
1. Phototropism: Growth towards or away from light.
2. Geotropism: Growth towards or away from gravity. E.g., roots growing downwards.
3. Hydrotropism: Growth towards water.
4. Chemotropism: Growth towards or away from chemicals.
5. Thigmotropism: Growth in response to touch or physical contact with a solid object. E.g., climbing
plants and tendrils.

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Plant Hormones
• Plant hormones are chemical messengers that regulate growth, development, and response to envi-
ronmental stimuli. Some key plant hormones include:
1. Auxins: Promote cell elongation, phototropism, and root development.
2. Gibberellins: Stimulate stem elongation, seed germination, and fruit development.
3. Cytokinins: Promote cell division and delay ageing.
4. Abscisic Acid (ABA): Inhibits growth and promotes seed dormancy and leaf senescence.

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 11. Locomotion and Movement

• Movement is a key feature of living beings, seen in both animals and plants. Humans can move various
body parts like limbs, jaws, and eyelids. Locomotion is a movement that causes a change in position.
E.g., walking, running, climbing, flying, and swimming.

11.1. Types of Movement

• Human cells show three main types of movement: amoeboid, ciliary, and muscular.
1. Amoeboid Movement: It is used by cells like macrophages and white blood cells. This movement
involves pseudopodia (false feet) formed by protoplasmic streaming aided by microfilaments.
2. Ciliary Movement: It occurs in organs lined with ciliated epithelium. E.g., the trachea (where cilia
help clear dust) and the female reproductive tract (where cilia help the movement of eggs).
3. Muscular Movement: It involves muscle contractions for movements like limb, jaw, and tongue
motions, requiring coordination of the muscular, skeletal, and neural systems.

11.2. Muscles

• Muscle is a specialised tissue of mesodermal origin, making up 40-50% of an adult human’s body
weight. It has unique properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility, and elasticity. Muscles
are categorised by location, appearance, and control type into three main types:
1. Skeletal Muscles: These are attached to the skeleton, appear striped (striated) under a micro-
scope, and are controlled voluntarily. They are involved in movement and posture changes.
2. Visceral Muscles: Found in the walls of internal organs like the digestive and reproductive tracts,
these smooth (non-striated) muscles are controlled involuntarily. They help transport substanc-
es through body systems like food and gametes.
3. Cardiac Muscles: Located in the heart, these striated muscles are controlled involuntarily. They
are arranged in a branching pattern and work to pump blood throughout the body.

Structure of Skeletal Muscle 190

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• A skeletal muscle comprises muscle bundles, or fascicles, held by connective tissue called fascia. Each
fascicle contains muscle fibres, which are multi-nucleated cells. Within each fibre are myofibrils, the
contractile units of the muscle. Myofibrils are further divided into sarcomeres, the functional units of
contraction. A sarcomere is made up of two main types of protein filaments:
1. Actin Filaments (thin filaments)
2. Myosin Filaments (thick filaments)
• The interaction between actin and myosin filaments, facilitated by calcium ions and Adenosine Tri-
phosphate (ATP), is responsible for muscle contraction. The arrangement of these filaments creates a
pattern of dark and light bands.

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Muscle Fibre Types

• There are two types of muscle fibre:
 1. Red Fibres: High in myoglobin (giving a red colour) and mitochondria, allowing these fibres to use
oxygen efficiently for aerobic energy. Red fibres are suited for endurance activities.
2. White Fibres: Low in myoglobin (giving a pale colour) and mitochondria. They rely on anaerobic
metabolism for energy and are suited for short, intense activities.
• Myoglobin is a red-coloured oxygen-storing pigment found in muscles.

11.3. Skeletal System

• The skeletal system comprises bones and a few cartilages, providing structure, protection, and ena-
bling movement. There are 206 bones in humans, divided into the axial and appendicular skeletons.
• Bones: Hard, mineralised tissues that provide strength and support.
• Cartilage: Flexible connective tissue found in joints and other areas.

Axial Skeleton
• Skull: It protects the brain and houses facial features. It is made of 22 bones.
• Vertebral Column: It supports the body and protects the spinal cord. It contains 26 vertebrae, divid-
ed into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrae.
• Sternum: A flat bone in the chest centre.
• Rib Cage: It protects vital organs like the heart and lungs. There are 12 pairs of ribs connected to the
vertebral column. The first 7 pairs are "true ribs" (attached to the sternum), the next 3 pairs are "false
ribs" (indirectly attached to the sternum), and the last 2 are "floating ribs" (not attached to the ster-
num). The thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum together form the rib cage.

Appendicular Skeleton
• Limbs: It includes arms and legs for movement.
1. Upper Limbs (Arms): Each arm has 30 bones, including the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals (wrist
bones), metacarpals (palm bones), and phalanges (finger bones).
2. Lower Limbs (Legs): Each leg has 30 bones, including the femur (thigh bone), tibia, fibula (leg
bones), tarsals (ankle bones), metatarsals (foot bones), and phalanges (toe bones). The knee is cov-
ered by the patella (kneecap). 192
• Girdles: They connect the limbs to the axial skeleton.
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1. Pectoral Girdle: Each side has a clavicle (collarbone) and scapula (shoulder blade), connecting the
arms to the torso. The scapula has a glenoid cavity for shoulder joint formation.
2. Pelvic Girdle: Made of two coxal bones, each formed by the fusion of the ilium, ischium, and pubis.
The two halves join at the pubic symphysis and connect the legs to the torso.

Joints
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• Joints are points where bones or bones and cartilage meet, allowing movement in the body. They al-
low muscles to generate force for movement, with the joint serving as a fulcrum.
• Joints are classified into three main types based on their structure and mobility:
1. Fibrous Joints: These joints do not allow movement. E.g., flat bones in the skull connect end-to-
end with dense fibrous tissue, forming the cranium.
2. Cartilaginous Joints: Bones in these joints are connected by cartilage, allowing limited move-
ment. An example is the joint between vertebrae in the spine.
3. Synovial Joints: These joints have a fluid-filled synovial cavity between bones, allowing signifi-
cant movement. They include:
i) Ball and socket (shoulder joint)
ii) Hinge (knee joint)
iii) Pivot ( joint between the first two vertebrae)
iv) Gliding ( joints between wrist bones)
v) Saddle ( joint at the base of the thumb)

11.4. Disorders of the Muscular and Skeletal System

• Myasthenia Gravis: An autoimmune disorder that affects the neuromuscular junction, causing muscle
fatigue, weakness, and paralysis.
• Muscular Dystrophy: A genetic disorder leading to the progressive weakening and degeneration of
skeletal muscles.
• Tetany: Rapid, involuntary muscle spasms caused by low calcium levels in body fluids.
• Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.
• Osteoporosis: An age-related condition with decreased bone mass and increased fracture risk, of-
ten due to lower estrogen levels.
• Gout: Joint inflammation due to the buildup of uric acid crystals.

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 12. Heredity and Evolution

12.1. Heredity

• The main result of reproduction is the creation of new individuals with similar designs. Heredity refers
to the rules governing how traits are passed from parents to offspring. Inheritance is passing traits
from parents to offspring, forming the basis of heredity.
• Inherited traits are characteristics passed from parents to offspring, such as eye colour, hair, or blood
type. These traits are based on genes and are typically consistent within families or species.
• Variations are differences within a species due to genetic diversity from mutations, gene recombina-
tion during sexual reproduction, or environmental factors. They result in unique combinations of in-
herited traits, leading to population diversity.

12.2. Principles of Inheritance and Variation

Mendel’s Experiments on Inheritance

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• Gregor Mendel often hailed as the "father of genetics", conducted groundbreaking experiments with
pea plants that led to the foundational principles of inheritance.
• He selected a pea plant for his experiments for the following reasons:
1. The pea plant can be easily grown and maintained.
2. They are naturally self-pollinating but can also be cross-pollinated.
3. It is an annual plant; therefore, many generations can be studied within a short period of time.
4. It has several contrasting characters.

Mendel’s Method: Controlled Cross-Pollination (Artificial Pollination)

• Mendel focused on seven traits, each with two contrasting forms (e.g., purple vs. white flowers, round
vs. wrinkled seeds).
• He used controlled cross-pollination to breed plants with specific traits. E.g., he cross-pollinated tall
plants with short plants to observe how height was passed down.
• He began with 14 true-breeding pea varieties with pairs of contrasting traits. A true-breeding line
consistently displays the same traits over generations due to continuous self-pollination. He used
purebred plants to ensure clear observations.

Experiments and Observations

• Mendel conducted his experiments in two major steps: Monohybrid Cross (Inheritance of One Gene)
and Dihybrid Cross (Inheritance of Two Genes)

Inheritance of One Gene

• Mendel crossed true-breeding tall (TT) and dwarf (tt) pea plants to study the inheritance of a single
gene. All first hybrid generation (F₁) plants were tall, showing only the trait from one parent (tall). The
dwarf trait did not appear, which suggested that tallness was dominant. When F₁ plants self-pollinated,
the second hybrid generation (F₂) had both tall and dwarf plants in a 3:1 ratio. This showed that the
dwarf trait, though hidden in F₁, reappeared in F₂, indicating dwarfness was recessive.

Key Observations and Findings

196
• No Blending of Traits: The F1 plants only showed the tall trait (dominant), while the dwarf trait (reces-
sive) reappeared in the F2 generation, proving that traits don’t blend.
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• Genes and Alleles: Mendel proposed that traits are passed through factors (now known as genes).
Each gene has two versions, called alleles. For height, the alleles are "T" (tall) and "t" (dwarf).
• Genotype vs. Phenotype: Genotype refers to the genetic makeup (TT, Tt, or tt). Phenotype refers to
the visible trait (tall or dwarf).
• Dominant and Recessive Traits: Even though F1 plants have both alleles (T and t), they appear tall,
showing that tallness is dominant.
• Segregation of Alleles: During reproduction, alleles (T and t) separate randomly, with each gamete
receiving one allele. This led to F2 generation plants having genotypes in a 1:2:1 ratio (1 TT: 2 Tt: 1tt),
producing a 3:1 phenotypic ratio of tall to dwarf.

Inheritance of Two Genes

• Mendel conducted experiments on pea plants to study the inheritance of two traits: seed colour (yel-
low or green) and shape (round or wrinkled). In the first-generation hybridisation (F1), in a cross-
pollination between yellow-round (YYRR) and green-wrinkled (yyrr) plants, all F1 offspring were yellow-
round (YyRr). These indicate that yellow and round traits were dominant over green and wrinkled. In
the F2 generation, traits were segregated independently, producing a phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1 for
yellow-round, yellow-wrinkled, green-round, and green-wrinkled seeds.

Mendel's Laws of Inheritance

• Mendel's laws of inheritance are foundational principles in genetics, based on Gregor Mendel's experi-
ments with pea plants. He formulated three key laws:
1. Law of Dominance
2. Law of Segregation
3. Law of Independent Assortment

Law of Dominance
• In a pair of alleles for a particular trait, one allele can mask the expression of the other. The expressed
allele is called the dominant allele, while the allele whose effect is masked is called the recessive allele.
• When an organism inherits two different alleles for a trait (heterozygous), the dominant allele deter-
mines the phenotype (observable trait). The recessive allele only appears in the phenotype if both al-
leles are recessive (homozygous recessive).
• E.g., in Mendel's experiments, in the case of height (gene), the tall allele (T) was dominant over the short
allele (t), so plants with Tt or TT were tall, while only plants with tt were short.
 Gene: A gene is a section of DNA that codes for an organism's specific trait or function. It acts as the

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basic unit of heredity and determines various traits such as hair colour, eye colour, or height.
 Allele: Alleles are different versions/variants of the same gene, which leads to different expressions of PMF IAS – Science – Biology

that trait. E.g., a gene for eye colour may have alleles for blue, brown, or green eyes. Each organism carries
two alleles for each trait (one from each parent).
 Heterozygous: An individual with two different alleles for a trait (one dominant and one recessive).
 Homozygous Dominant: An individual with two identical dominant alleles.
 Homozygous Recessive: An individual with two identical recessive alleles.

Law of Segregation
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• Each individual organism carries two alleles for each trait (one from each parent). These alleles sepa-
rate, or segregate, during the formation of gametes (sperm and egg cells).
• Each gamete receives only one allele from the pair. This means that the alleles for a trait are passed
on independently. (The alleles remain distinct and do not blend).
• During fertilisation, the combination of alleles from each parent is random. This means that offspring
have an equal chance of inheriting either allele from each parent.
• E.g., in a cross between plants with alleles for tallness (T) and dwarfness (t), the first hybrid generation
(F1) would all be tall (Tt) due to the dominant allele principle. However, when F1 plants (Tt) self-pollinate,
the second hybrid generation (F2) generation shows a 3:1 ratio: 3 tall plants (TT or Tt) to 1 dwarf plant
(tt). This is due to the segregation of T and t alleles during gamete formation.

Incomplete Dominance
• Incomplete dominance is when neither allele is completely dominant, so the heterozygous pheno-
type (observable trait) displays a mix of both alleles traits.
• E.g., Snapdragon Flower: When a red flower (RR) is crossed with a white flower (rr), all the offspring
in the F1 generation will be pink (Rr). This is due to the red and white alleles blend to produce an in-
termediate pink colour.

Co-dominance
• Co-dominance is genetic inheritance where both alleles in a heterozygous organism are fully ex-
pressed and equally, resulting in a phenotype (observable trait) that reflects both alleles simultane-
ously.

Co-dominance and ABO Blood Groups

• The ABO blood type is controlled by a gene called I, which has three alleles: IA, IB, and i.
Genotype (Genetic Makeup) Phenotype (Visible Trait)
IAIA or IAi Blood group A
IBIB or IBi Blood group B
IAIB Blood group AB (both A and B antigens are expressed)
ii Blood group O (no antigens) 199
• In the AB blood group, both the A and B antigens are expressed in the red blood cells. This is a clear
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

example of co-dominance, where both alleles contribute equally to the phenotype.

Law of Independent Assortment

• Alleles for different traits are passed to offspring independently of each other. This means one trait's
inheritance does not affect another trait’s inheritance.
• E.g., Mendel studies the inheritance of two traits simultaneously (e.g., seed shape and seed colour in
pea plants), crossed plants with round, yellow seeds (RRYY) with plants having wrinkled, green seeds
 (rryy). The F1 generation offspring all had the genotype RrYy, displaying round, yellow seeds because
round and yellow are dominant traits. When F1 plants were self-pollinated (RrYy crossed with RrYy), they
produced gametes: RY, Ry, rY, and ry. Each of these gametes forms with equal probability (25%). The
phenotypic ratio observed was 9:3:3:1 (9 yellow round, 3 yellow wrinkled, 3 green round, 1 green
wrinkled).

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

• The Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance explains how genes are transmitted from one generation to
the next through the behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis (cell division). It was developed in the
early 1900s by Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri.
• Key points of the theory include:
1. Genes are located on chromosomes: Genes, the units of heredity, are found in specific locations
on chromosomes. Thus, chromosomes carry genetic material.
2. Chromosomes exist in pairs: Like Mendel’s idea of paired alleles, chromosomes come in homolo-
gous pairs in diploid cells.
3. Chromosome segregation: During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate, segregating
gene pairs into different gametes. This explains Mendel’s law of segregation.
4. Independent assortment: The random alignment of chromosome pairs during metaphase I of
meiosis results in the independent assortment of genes located on different chromosomes, match-
ing Mendel’s law of independent assortment.
Feature Genes Chromosomes
Definition Segments of DNA that code for proteins Thread-like structures composed of DNA and
or RNA proteins that contain genetic material
Size The smallest functional unit of heredity Larger structures composed of many genes
Structure Linear sequence of nucleotides Complex structure of DNA wrapped around
proteins (histones)
Number Humans have approximately 20,000- Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) in
25,000 genes each cell
Location Found on chromosomes. Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells (and 200
in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes).
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Composition Composed of DNA sequences (exons and Composed of tightly packed DNA and histone
introns) proteins
Function Encode proteins and RNA, determining Store and carry the complete genetic blue-
traits and biological functions print of an organism
Inheritance Passed from parents to offspring as part Carry genes that are inherited in pairs (alleles)
of chromosomes
Thomas Hunt Morgan's Experiments
• Thomas Hunt Morgan's experiments with fruit flies provided critical evidence for the chromosomal
theory of inheritance. Important concepts of inheritance established by these experiments:

Sex-Linked Inheritance
• Sex-linked inheritance refers to the inheritance of genes located on the sex chromosomes (X and
Y). This type of inheritance leads to specific patterns because males and females have different combi-
nations of sex chromosomes.
 Females have two X chromosomes (XX), and males have one X and Y chromosome (XY).

X-Linked Inheritance
• Most common form of sex-linked inheritance because the X chromosome carries more genes than
the Y chromosome. Males (XY) are more affected by X-linked recessive traits because they only have
one X chromosome, so a single recessive allele will express the trait.

201
• E.g., Haemophilia, red-green colour blindness, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Inheritance Pattern of X-Linked Inheritance

PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• If a mother carries an X-linked trait, her sons have a 50% chance of being affected.
• Daughters have a 50% chance of being carriers if the mother is a carrier and can only be affected if their
father has the trait and the mother is a carrier.

Y-Linked Inheritance
• Y-linked inheritance traits are passed from father to son because only males have a Y chromosome. It
is less common as the Y chromosome carries fewer genes. E.g., certain types of male infertility.
Linkage and Recombination
• Linkage is the tendency of genes located close together on the same chromosome to be inherited
together. These genes are said to be linked & do not follow Mendel's law of independent assortment.
• Types of linkage:
1. Complete Linkage: If two genes are very close, they may be inherited together without any recom-
bination.
2. Incomplete Linkage: When genes are somewhat close but can occasionally be separated by cross-
ing over, leading to recombination.
• Recombination is the process during meiosis where homologous chromosomes exchange genetic
material due to crossing over, resulting in new combinations of alleles. It leads to genetic variation
by producing offspring with traits not found in either parent. The frequency of recombination be-
tween two genes on the same chromosome depends on the distance between them. Genes far apart
are more likely to be separated by crossing over, leading to higher recombination rates.
 Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material or chromosome segments between non-sister chro-
matids during meiosis. This results in a mix of parental genes in the offspring.

Genetic Mapping
• Alfred Sturtevant, Morgan’s student, developed the first genetic map by using recombination fre-
quencies. He showed that the frequency of recombination between two genes can be used to indicate
their distance apart on the chromosome.
• Genetic mapping is the process of determining the location of genes on chromosomes. The distance
between genes is measured in map units or centimorgans (cM). One map unit equals a 1% recombi-
nation frequency between two genes.

Polygenic Inheritance
• Polygenic inheritance refers to a type of inheritance where multiple genes interact to control a sin-
gle trait. This results in a range of phenotypes (visible traits) rather than distinct categories.
Mendel's studies focused on traits with clear, alternate forms (like purple or white flowers). However,
202
•
many traits in humans show a range of variations, not just two distinct possibilities. E.g., human skin
colour is controlled by multiple genes. Let's assume, in this case, dominant alleles (A, B, C) lead to dark-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

er skin, while recessive alleles (a, b, c) result in lighter skin. A person with all dominant alleles (AABBCC)
has the darkest skin, and one with all recessive alleles (aabbcc) has the lightest skin. A mix of alleles re-
sults in intermediate skin tones.
• This pattern is called additive because each gene involved has a small, additive effect on the trait. Envi-
ronmental factors can also influence the expression of polygenic traits, such as sun exposure affecting
skin colour.
• The polygenic traits in humans are height, skin
colour, eye colour, weight, intelligence, behav-
iour, and susceptibility to certain diseases.

Pleiotropy
• Pleiotropy occurs when one gene affects multi-
ple traits or characteristics in an organism. This
happens because the gene influences metabolic
pathways that impact various traits.
• E.g., in humans, the genetic condition phenylke-
tonuria is due to a mutation in one gene. This
mutation not only causes mental retardation but
also affects hair and skin pigmentation.

Sex Determination
• Sex determination is the process that decides
whether an organism will develop as male or fe-
male. This is controlled by specific chromosomes
called sex chromosomes.
 The rest of the chromosomes, apart from sex chro-
mosomes, were named autosomes.

Sex Determination Systems

Chromosomal Sex Determination System
XO System
• The XO system is present in some insects, like
grasshoppers. In this system, females have two
X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X

203
chromosome (XO). Males produce sperm that
carry either an X or an O chromosome, while fe-
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males produce eggs that only carry an X chromo-

some. Thus, male sperm determines the sex of the
offspring.

XY System
• The XY system exists in some insects and mam-
mals, including humans. In this system, females
 have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and Y chromosome (XY). Males produce
sperm that carry either an X or a Y chromosome, while females produce eggs that only carry an X
chromosome. Thus, male sperm determines the sex of the offspring.
 Male heterogamety is a sex-determination system where males produce two different types of gam-
etes (sperm) with different sex chromosomes. Thus, the male determines the sex of the offspring. E.g.
XO system and XY system.

ZW System
• The ZW system is found in birds, some reptiles, and certain fishes. In this system, females have one Z
and one W chromosome (ZW), while males have two chromosomes (ZZ). Females produce eggs that
carry either a Z or a W chromosome, while males produce sperm that only carry a Z chromosome. Thus,
female eggs determine the sex of the offspring.
 Female heterogamety is a sex-determination system where females produce two different types of
gametes (eggs) with different sex chromosomes. Thus, the female determines the sex of the offspring.

Haplodiploid Sex Determination System

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• The haplodiploid system is a unique sex-determination system followed by honeybees, ants, and
wasps. In this system, the sex is determined by the number of chromosome sets.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 205
• Females (queen or worker) develop from fertilised eggs and are diploid (having 32 chromosomes).
Males (drones) develop from unfertilised eggs through parthenogenesis and are haploid (having 16
chromosomes).
• This system has special characteristic features, such as the males producing sperms by mitosis; they
do not have a father and thus cannot have sons, but they have a grandfather and grandsons.

Environmental Sex Determination

• Environmental sex determination is a form of sex determination in which environmental factors, such as
temperature, determine the sex of an organism.
• In most turtles, crocodiles, and certain fish species, the temperature during egg incubation after ferti-
lisation determines the sex of the offspring. Small temperature changes can cause significant changes in
the sex ratio. Generally, eggs incubated at low temperatures (22-27°C) produce males, whereas eggs
incubated at higher temperatures (30°C and above) produce females.

Sex Determination in Humans

• Human sex determination follows the XY system, which is a male heterogamety. Humans have 23
pairs of chromosomes. 22 pairs are autosomes, which are the same in both sexes. The 23rd pair are
the sex chromosomes, which differ between the sexes; females have two X chromosomes (XX), while
males have one X and Y chromosome (XY).
• Males produce two types of sperm: 50% carry an X chromosome, and 50% carry a Y chromosome. Fe-
males produce eggs that have an X chromosome. If an X-carrying sperm fertilises the egg, the result is a
female (XX). If a Y-carrying sperm fertilises the egg, the result is a male (XY). Thus, the child's sex de-
pends on the genetic makeup of the sperm, and each pregnancy has a 50% chance of resulting in ei-
ther a male or a female offspring.

Mutation
• Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that can alter an organism’s genotype (genetic makeup)
and phenotype (physical traits). Mutations are a key source of genetic variation.

206
• The ways mutation can occur are:
1. Chromosomal Mutations: They involve the loss (deletion) or addition (insertion/duplication) of PMF IAS – Science – Biology

larger DNA segments, which can lead to abnormalities. E.g., cancer cells.
2. Point Mutations: Mutation that occurs due to a change in a single base pair of DNA. E.g., sickle
cell anaemia.
3. Frame-Shift Mutations: These occur due to the insertion or deletion of base pairs of DNA.
• Mutagens are chemical substances and physical factors like UV radiation that induce mutation.

Genetic Disorders
• Genetic disorders can be broadly classified into two main categories:
1. Mendelian Disorders: These are caused by changes in a single gene.
2. Chromosomal Disorders: These are caused by changes in the number or structure of chromo-
somes.

Mendelian Disorders
• Mendelian disorders are genetic disorders caused by mutations in a single gene, and they follow
Mendel’s laws of inheritance. Pedigree analysis is used to trace their inheritance patterns in families.
• These disorders can be:
1. Dominant: Only one copy of the mutated gene is needed to express the disorder.
2. Recessive: To express the disorder, two copies of the mutated gene (one from each parent) are
needed.
• These disorders can be autosomal (related to non-sex chromosomes) or sex-linked (linked to X or Y
chromosomes).

Pedigree Analysis
• Pedigree analysis is a genetic representation of a family tree that diagrams the inheritance of a
trait or disease through several generations. It helps to understand whether a disorder is inherited in
a dominant or recessive pattern and whether it is linked to autosomes or sex chromosomes.

Colour Blindness
• Colour blindness (or colour vision deficiency) is a condition where a person has difficulty distinguish-
ing between colours. It is caused by abnormalities in the photoreceptor cells (cones) in the eye's
retina, which are responsible for colour perception. It is a sex-linked recessive disorder caused by a
mutation in the genes. This defect is carried on the X chromosome.
• Colour blindness occurs in about 8% of males and 0.4% of females. This is because males have one X
chromosome, so if they inherit the mutated gene, they will be colour-blind.
• Females have two X chromosomes, so they need two copies of the mutated gene (one from each par-

207
ent) to be colour-blind. If a female has one mutated gene, she becomes a carrier, not colour-blind.
• A carrier mother has a 50% chance of passing the mutated gene to her offspring. If she passes it to her
son, he will be colour-blind. But if she passes it to her daughter, she will be colour-blind only if her fa-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

ther is also colour-blind; otherwise, she will be just a carrier.

• Types of colour blindness are:
1. Red-Green Colour Blindness: This is the most common type, and it causes difficulty distinguishing
between red and green colours. Its subtypes are protanopia (reduced sensitivity to red light) and
deuteranopia (reduced sensitivity to green light).
 2. Blue-Yellow Colour Blindness: This is less common, and it causes difficulty distinguishing between
blue and yellow colours. Tritanopia (reduced sensitivity to blue light) is a subtype.
3. Complete Colour Blindness (Monochromacy): This is rare and causes the inability to see any col-
our. The affected person can perceive only shades of grey.

Haemophilia

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• Haemophilia is a sex-linked recessive disorder that affects blood clotting. It occurs due to a defect in
one of the proteins involved in blood clotting, leading to excessive bleeding even from minor injuries.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Haemophilia is an X-linked recessive disorder, meaning males primarily inherit it because males have
only one X chromosome. It is extremely rare for a female (XX) to be haemophilic, as she needs to in-
herit the mutated gene from both parents (i.e., the father must be haemophilic, and the mother must be
a carrier or haemophilic).
• Haemophilia is typically passed from a heterozygous carrier female (females with only one mutated
gene) to some of her male children. Queen Victoria was a carrier of haemophilia, and many of her de-
scendants were affected by the disease.
Sickle-Cell Disease
• Sickle-cell disease is a group of inherited red blood cell (RBC) disorders that affect haemoglobin,
the protein that carries oxygen through the body. Normally, RBCs are flexible disc-shaped cells that
move easily through blood vessels. In sickle-cell disease, RBCs become crescent or sickle-shaped due
to a genetic mutation of haemoglobin. These sickled RBCs do not bend or move easily and can block

209
blood flow to the rest of the body.
• Sickle-cell disease is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder, meaning an individual must inherit two
copies of the mutated gene (one from each parent) to have the disease. Individuals with one copy of
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

mutated are carriers and can pass the defective gene to their offspring.
• Symptoms/complications of SCD: Pain, anaemia, jaundice, stroke, organ failure etc.
• Treatment: A blood and bone marrow transplant are the only cure for sickle-cell disease, but it is not
for everyone because of the dearth of donors and the associated risk. Hydroxyurea is the only availa-
ble oral medication and can improve a patient’s quality of life if taken consistently.

Sickle-Cell Anaemia
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 210
• Sickle-cell anaemia is the most common type of sickle-cell disease that causes the most severe anae-
mia. Recently, gene therapy has shown promising results for treating sickle-cell anaemia.

India and Sickle-Cell Anaemia

• India has the second-highest disease burden of sickle cell anaemia globally after African coun-
tries. It is more prevalent among India’s tribal population. It is highly prevalent in 15 Indian
states, with Maharashtra leading in incidence.

Initiatives by India for Sickle-Cell Anaemia

National Health Mission (NHM)
• Under the National Health Mission, GoI supports the states in preventing and managing sickle cell
anaemia.
 The National Health Mission aims to provide universal access to affordable, quality healthcare services
that are accountable and responsive to people’s needs.

State Haemoglobinopathy Mission

• State Haemoglobinopathy Mission has been established in Madhya Pradesh to tackle the challenges
of screening and managing sickle cell anaemia. It was launched in 2021.

National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission (NSCAEM)

• NSCAEM aims to eliminate sickle cell anaemia as a public health problem in India before 2047. It
was introduced in the Union Budget 2023. It is being implemented in 17 states: Gujarat, Maharash-
tra, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Telanga-
na, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Bihar, and Uttarakhand.
• It is executed in a mission mode as part of the National Health Mission (NHM).

Phenylketonuria
• Phenylketonuria is an inherited autosomal recessive metabolic disorder. The affected individuals lack
an enzyme to convert phenylalanine into tyrosine. This causes phenylalanine to build up and form

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phenylpyruvic acid, leading to intellectual disability. Excess phenylpyruvic acid is excreted in the
urine due to poor kidney absorption.
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Thalassemia
• Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder where the body produces fewer healthy haemoglobin
molecules, leading to anaemia. Red blood cells (RBCs) carry oxygen through the body with the help of
haemoglobin. Without haemoglobin, RBCs do not last long.
• Thalassemia is passed down as an autosomal recessive trait, meaning both parents must be carriers
for a child to be affected.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 212
• Symptoms: Fatigue, shortness of breath, and irregular heartbeats.
• Treatment: Blood transfusions throughout life. Gene therapy is also being explored recently.
• Complication: Transfusions cause excess iron buildup, necessitating chelation therapy.
 India has the largest number of children with Thalassemia major in the world.

Thalassemia Major vs Thalassemia Minor

Feature Thalassemia Major (Cooley’s Anaemia) Thalassemia Minor (Carrier state)
Severity Severe Mild
Genetics Homozygous (defective genes from Heterozygous (defective gene from one
both parents) parent)
Symptoms Severe anaemia, growth issues, bone de- Mild anaemia, possibly slight fatigue, often
formities, fatigue, jaundice asymptomatic
Treatment Re- Regular blood transfusions, possible Usually, no treatment is needed; may require
quired bone marrow transplant occasional iron supplements
Impact on Life Significant impact on quality of life with- Minimal to no impact
out treatment
Lifespan Reduced lifespan without treatment Normal lifespan

Chromosomal Disorders
• Chromosomal disorders occur due to abnormalities in chromosome structure (e.g., deletions, dupli-
cations, translocations) or number (e.g., extra or missing chromosomes).
• These abnormalities can happen due to errors in cell division:
1. Aneuploidy: This leads to the gain or loss of one or more chromosomes. E.g., Down’s Syndrome
and Turner’s Syndrome.
2. Polyploidy: This leads to an entire extra set of chromosomes, commonly seen in plants.

Down Syndrome
• Down syndrome (trisomy 21) is a genetic disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

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Langdon Down first described it.
• Types of Down’s syndrome: PMF IAS – Science – Biology

1. Trisomy 21: Each cell in the body has three separate copies of chromosome 21. About 95% of peo-
ple with Down syndrome have Trisomy 21.
2. Mosaic Down Syndrome: Some cells have three copies of chromosome 21, and others have the
typical two copies. About 2% of people with Down syndrome have mosaic Down syndrome.
3. Translocation Down Syndrome: An extra part or a whole extra chromosome 21 is present. Howev-
er, the extra chromosome is attached to a different chromosome rather than a separate chromo-
some 21. This type accounts for about 3% of people with Down syndrome.
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• Physical Features: Flattened facial profile and nose bridge, almond-shaped eyes that slant upward,
short neck and small ears, a furrowed tongue, a single crease across the palm (palmar crease), short
stature, muscle hypotonia (low muscle tone).
• Cognitive and Developmental Issues: Mild to moderate intellectual disability, delayed speech and
language development, and learning difficulties that vary among individuals.
• Health Risks: Congenital heart defects (present in about 50% of cases), respiratory infections, hearing
and vision problems, thyroid disorders and risk of developing Alzheimer's disease later in life.

Klinefelter’s Syndrome
• Klinefelter’s syndrome is a genetic condition that affects males. It occurs when a male is born with an
extra X chromosome, making their chromosome makeup 47, XXY instead of the usual 46, XY.
• Cause: Klinefelter syndrome occurs due to nondisjunction, a failure of chromosomes to separate
properly during cell division.
• Physical Features: Taller than average stature, longer arms and legs relative to the body, reduced
muscle mass and strength, enlarged breast tissue (gynecomastia), small testicles (testicular atrophy)
and reduced penis size, and sparse facial and body hair.
• Reproductive Health: Low levels of testosterone (hypogonadism), infertility (due to impaired sperm
production), decreased libido in some cases, and sexual dysfunction.
• Cognitive and Behavioural Issues: Delayed speech and language development, learning difficulties,
challenges with attention and organisation, emotional sensitivity and social difficulties.
• Health Risks: Osteoporosis (due to low testosterone levels), type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases,
autoimmune disorders such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, & increased risk of breast cancer (rare).

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Turner’s Syndrome
• Turner’s syndrome is a genetic condition that only affects females. It happens when one of the X
chromosomes is missing or partially missing, making their chromosome makeup 45, XO.
• Cause: Turner’s syndrome occurs due to nondisjunction or other chromosomal errors during the for-
mation of reproductive cells or early embryonic development.
• Physical Features: Short stature, broad chest with widely spaced nipples, low hairline at the back of
the neck, low-set ears, webbed neck (extra skin folds), swelling (lymphedema) of hands and feet, es-
pecially at birth.
• Reproductive Health: Underdeveloped ovaries, delayed puberty or absent menstrual cycles (amen-
orrhea), and infertility in most cases.
• Cognitive and Behavioural Issues: Learning difficulties and challenges with attention, reasoning, and
social adjustment.
• Health Risks: Heart defects, kidney abnormalities, osteoporosis (due to low estrogen levels), hyperten-
sion, autoimmune disorders (e.g., diabetes), and thyroid disorders (especially hypothyroidism).

[UPSC 2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements:
1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replace-
ment therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of egg.
2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation
• Mitochondrial diseases are genetic disorders caused by defects in mitochondria, the energy-producing

216
structures in cells. Defects in mitochondria impair their ability to produce energy, affecting organ func-
tion and leading to symptoms such as brain damage, organ failure, and muscle wastage.
Mitochondria are inherited maternally, meaning they are passed from the mother to the child. The
PMF IAS – Science – Biology
•
sperm provides almost no cytoplasm (and hence no mitochondria) to the fertilised egg.
• Mitochondrial donation (or mitochondrial replacement therapy) is a technique that allows women
whose eggs contain unhealthy mitochondria to have healthy children. This therapy creates an em-
bryo with the nuclear genome of the mother and father but the mitochondria of a donor.
• There are two different methods of mitochondrial replacement therapy and both are used in vitro
fertilisation (IVF). In the first, the nuclear genetic material from the mother’s egg is transferred into a
 donor egg whose own nuclear genetic material is removed. This egg is then fertilised with the fa-
ther’s sperm to create an embryo. The second technique is identical, except it takes place after ferti-
lisation in a single-celled embryo rather than an egg.
• Mitochondrial replacement therapy cannot cure people with existing mitochondrial disease or pre-
vent mitochondrial disease caused by a mutation in nuclear DNA.

Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2

12.3. Molecular Basis of Inheritance

• Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the primary information-
carrying molecules in cells. Their major function is the storage and expression of genomic infor-
mation.
• The two types of nucleic acid are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

• DNA is a double-stranded long polymer of smaller units called nucleotides. It carries an organism’s
genetic information. The information encoded in DNA is used to produce proteins, which are the
building blocks of life and carry out various functions within cells.
• DNA as an acidic substance in the nucleus was first identified by Friedrich Meischer in 1869. He
named it as ‘Nuclein’. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick proposed the Double Helix model
for the structure of DNA.

Polymers
• A polymer is a large molecule comprising many smaller, repeating units called monomers. Polymers
can be natural or synthetic.
• Examples of natural polymers:
1. Proteins (made of amino acids)
2. Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA (made of nucleotides)

217
3. Cellulose and starch (made of glucose, found in plants)
4. Rubber (made of isoprene, found in rubber trees)
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• Examples of synthetic polymers:

1. Plastics (like polyethylene, PVC, and nylon)
2. Synthetic rubber (like neoprene and silicone)

Structure of the DNA

Nucleotides
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• Nucleotides are the fundamental units of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). It consists of three compo-
nents:
1. Phosphate group: A molecule containing phosphorus.
 2. Pentose sugar: A five-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA).
3. Nitrogenous base: A nitrogen-containing molecule that can be one of four types: adenine (A),
guanine (G), cytosine (C), or thymine (T) in DNA {uracil (U) replaces thymine (T)in RNA}.
• There are two types of nitrogenous bases:
1. Purines: These are larger, double-ring structures, which include Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
2. Pyrimidines: These are smaller, single-ring structures, which include Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T).
• The nucleotides form a chain where the sugar and phosphate groups form the chain's backbone, with
the nitrogenous bases sticking out.

Double Helix Structure

• DNA is structured as a double helix, where two polynucleotide strands are coiled around each other,
with the sugar-phosphate backbone on the outside and the nitrogenous bases on the inside. It resem-
bles a twisted ladder. The two strands run anti-parallel (parallel but oriented in opposite directions).
• Base pairing refers to the specific hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous bases in the two strands
of the DNA double helix. This precise pairing is essential for the DNA molecule's structure, stability and
functionality. The rules of base pairing are:
 Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T) using two hydrogen bonds.
 Guanine (G) always pairs with Cytosine (C) using three hydrogen bonds.
• Base pairing makes the DNA strands complementary and ensures genetic code integrity. If the se-
quence of one strand is known, the sequence of the other can be inferred.
• Complementary base pairing allows accurate DNA replication, as each strand can serve as a template
for creating a new, matching strand.

Packaging of DNA Helix

• The DNA molecule in a cell is very long and must be compacted to fit inside the tiny nucleus of the cell.

DNA Packaging in Prokaryotes

• Prokaryotes (e.g., E. coli) do not have a defined nucleus. So, the DNA is compacted into a region
called the nucleoid, which contains loops of DNA held together by positively charged proteins that

219
neutralise the negative charge of DNA.

DNA Packaging in Eukaryotes

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• In eukaryotic cells, DNA wraps around proteins called histones to form a structure known as a nucleo-
some (which appears as a "beads-on-a-string"). Histones are rich in positively charged amino acids
like lysine and arginine, which help them bind tightly to the negatively charged DNA.
• Nucleosomes are further coiled and folded to form chromatin fibres. Types of chromatins are eu-
chromatin (less condensed and transcriptionally active) and heterochromatin (highly condensed and
transcriptionally inactive).
• During cell division, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes (thread-like structures). Non-
histone Chromosomal (NHC) proteins help in the higher-level packaging of chromatin.
 Chromatin and chromosomes are different forms of DNA organisation within the nucleoplasm.
Chromatin Chromosomes
Structure A less condensed form of DNA wrapped Highly condensed chromatin fibres with two
around histone proteins sister chromatids
Function DNA replication, transcription, and repair Ensure the accurate distribution of DNA dur-
ing cell division

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Appearance “Beads on a string” appearance Thread-like structures
Presence Found during interphase (non-dividing Found during the cell division phase
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phase of the cell)

[UPSC 2022] Consider the following statements: DNA Barcoding can be a tool to:
1. Assess the age of a plant or animal.
2. Distinguish among species that look alike.
3. Identify undesirable animal or plant materials in processed foods.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 3 only
c) 1 and 2
d) 2 and 3

Explanation
• DNA barcoding is a method of specimen identification using short, standardised segments of DNA.
Every species has its own barcode, just as every person has their own fingerprint. DNA barcoding in-
volves analysing a specific region of DNA to identify species, but it does not provide information
about the age of an individual organism.
• DNA barcoding is a powerful tool to distinguish between morphologically similar species (i.e., spe-
cies that look alike). It works by comparing the DNA sequence of the barcode region between species.
Even closely related species often have distinct barcode sequences, making it possible to differentiate
them accurately. This method is particularly useful in identifying cryptic species (genetically distinct but
visually indistinguishable).
• DNA barcoding can be used in the food industry to verify the authenticity of ingredients and to de-
tect contamination or adulteration by undesirable species. E.g., it can identify specific plant or animal
materials that are not supposed to be in a processed food product.

Answer: (d) 2 and 3

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

• RNA is a mostly single-stranded polymer of ribonucleotides. RNA is present in all living cells and is
mainly found in the cytoplasm.
• RNA acts as genetic material in many viruses, and such viruses are called retroviruses. In hu-
mans, RNA does not serve as genetic material. Rather, it acts as an adaptor and an enzyme and
helps in protein synthesis, among other things.

Structure of RNA 221

• RNA nucleotides consist of a nitrogenous base (adenine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil), a ribose sugar,
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and a phosphate. The nucleotides form a chain, with the sugar and phosphate groups forming the
chain's backbone and the nitrogenous bases sticking out.
• Most RNA molecules are single-stranded but can fold back on themselves to form regions of comple-
mentary base pairing, creating bulges, internal loops, or hairpin loops.
• Some double-stranded RNA is found in some viruses.

Types of RNA
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Messenger RNA (mRNA)

• mRNA carries genetic information from DNA (in the nucleus) to ribosomes (protein-making machinery
in the cytoplasm). In ribosomes, it serves as a template for assembling amino acids into proteins.
• mRNA generally comprises only 3–5% of the total RNA in a mammalian cell.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

• rRNA combines with proteins to form ribosomes, the cellular structures for protein synthesis.
• rRNA helps control mRNA translation into proteins and binds to tRNAs and other molecules involved in
protein synthesis. It helps form peptide bonds between amino acids, building the protein chain.
• rRNA makes up 80% of the total RNA in a cell.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

• tRNA is a small RNA molecule that acts as an adaptor to link mRNA to amino acids during protein
synthesis. tRNA reads the mRNA sequence and brings the appropriate amino acid to the ribosome,
where the amino acids are linked to form a protein.

Other RNA Types

• MicroRNAs (miRNAs): They are short, non-coding RNA molecules that regulate gene expression at
the post-transcriptional level. It typically binds to complementary sequences in mRNA, leading to
mRNA degradation or inhibition of translation, thereby silencing gene expression.
• Small interfering RNA (siRNA): siRNA non-coding RNA that plays a role in gene regulation and is
being investigated as a therapeutic agent for various disorders.

DNA vs RNA
Feature DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Strands Double-stranded Single-stranded (usually)
Nitrogenous Ba- Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Adenine (A), Uracil (U), Cytosine (C),
ses Guanine (G) Guanine (G)
Base Pairing Pairs with T, C pairs with G Pairs with U, C pairs with G
Location Found mainly in the nucleus (in eukary- Found in the nucleus and cytoplasm
otes)
Length Longer (because it contains many genes) Shorter (because it usually corresponds
to a single gene or function)

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Types One main type Multiple types (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, etc.)
Genetic Material DNA is the genetic material in almost all RNA is the genetic material in some vi-
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living organisms ruses

Role in Protein Template for RNA synthesis (transcription) Carries the genetic code and helps in
Synthesis protein synthesis (translation)
Stability More stable, less reactive Less stable, more reactive
Mutation Rate Lower (because DNA polymerase has the Higher (because RNA polymerase lacks
proofreading capability) the proofreading capability)
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Genetic Code
• The genetic code is the set of instructions by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or
RNA sequences) is translated into proteins. It dictates how the sequences of nucleotides (codons) in
mRNA are converted into amino acids, which then form proteins.
• Main features of the genetic code:
1. Triplet Codon: Each amino acid is coded by a sequence of three nucleotides (a codon).
2. Total Codons: There are 64 possible codons; 61 codes for amino acids, and 3 are stop signals.
3. Degenerate Nature: Multiple codons can code for the same amino acid (e.g., UCU, UCC, UCA, and
UCG all code for serine), making the code redundant.
4. Universality: The genetic code is nearly identical across all living organisms, indicating a common
evolutionary origin. Minor exceptions are found in mitochondrial DNA and some microorganisms.
5. Non-overlapping: Codons are read sequentially, without overlapping.
6. Start Codon: AUG is the codon that codes for methionine, initiating protein synthesis.
7. Stop Codons: UAA, UAG, and UGA do not code for any amino acids and signal the end of transla-
tion.

Process of Protein Synthesis from DNA and RNA

DNA Replication
• DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes identical copies of its DNA before cell division.
This is necessary so that each resulting daughter cell has its own complete genome after cell division.
• DNA replication is semiconservative, meaning each new DNA molecule has one original (parental)
strand and one newly made strand.
• Enzymes involved in DNA replication are:
1. DNA Polymerase I: It fills the small DNA gaps during replication and repair.
2. DNA Polymerase II: It proofreads and edits the errors.
3. DNA Polymerase III: The main enzyme that adds nucleotides to form new DNA strands.
4. Primase: It creates short RNA primers to start DNA synthesis.

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5. Helicase: It unwinds the DNA double helix into single strands for copying.
6. DNA Gyrase: It reduces the supercoiling that forms as DNA unwinds.
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7. DNA Ligase: It connects the discontinuously synthesised DNA fragments.

Transcription
• Transcription is the process of copying genetic information from DNA into RNA. It follows base-
pairing rules with uracil (U) replacing thymine (T).
• The main enzyme involved in transcription is RNA polymerase, which uses a single-stranded DNA
template to synthesise a complementary strand of RNA.
• In prokaryotes, transcription starts directly in the cytoplasm. However, in eukaryotes, transcription oc-
curs in the nucleus and then mRNA is transported to the cytoplasm.
• The process of transcription:
1. Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of DNA. The DNA unwinds, exposing
the template strand.
2. Elongation: RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template and synthesises RNA by adding nu-
cleotides.
3. Termination: RNA polymerase reaches the terminator sequence, releases the newly made RNA
strand, and detaches from the DNA.

Translation
• Translation is the process by which the genetic information encoded in mRNA is decoded to pro-
duce a specific protein.
• The process of translation
1. Initiation: The ribosome binds to the mRNA at the start codon (AUG). The initiator tRNA, carrying
the amino acid methionine, binds to the start codon.
2. Elongation: The ribosome moves along the mRNA, reading the codons. Each codon is matched by
the anticodon of a tRNA carrying the corresponding amino acid. Amino acids are linked together
by peptide bonds, forming a growing polypeptide chain.
3. Termination: Translation terminates when the ribosome encounters a stop codon. The newly syn-
thesised protein is released, and the ribosome disassembles.

Regulation of Gene Expression

• Gene regulation controls when and how genes are expressed (turned on or off) in a cell. This de-
termines when and how much of a gene's product (i.e., protein) is made.
• Gene expression can be regulated at various levels, including transcription, translation, and post-
translational. In prokaryotes (bacteria), gene expression is primarily controlled at the transcription level
by proteins called activators (which promote transcription) and repressors (which inhibit transcription).

226
• Cells regulate gene expression based on their needs. E.g., the bacterium E. coli produces the enzyme
beta-galactosidase (which breaks down lactose) only when lactose is available using lac operon. Regula-
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tion helps cells conserve energy and resources by producing enzymes only when needed.

Significance of Gene Expression

• Development: Gene expression ensures that specific genes are expressed at the right times during
growth and differentiation, making the development of organisms from a single cell possible.
• Cell specialisation: It allows cells to take on specialised functions despite having the same DNA.
• Response to environmental change: It helps the cells adapt by switching genes on or off in response
to external signals.
• Disease prevention: Gene dysregulation can lead to diseases like cancer, where genes controlling cell
growth and division are improperly expressed.

12.4. Evolution

• Evolution is the change which gives rise to new species (speciation).

Theories of Origin of Life

• Panspermia: According to this hypothesis, life has originated elsewhere in outer space and reached
Earth via comets, asteroids, or meteorites.
• Spontaneous generation: It was the disproven belief that living organisms could arise from non-
living matter, such as decaying meat or mud. Louis Pasteur's experiments refuted this idea, demon-
strating that life only comes from existing life.

Evolution of Life Forms: Charles Darwin’s Theory

• Charles Darwin's theory of evolution explains how living things evolve over time through natural selec-
tion. According to the concept of natural selection, some organisms within a population have traits
that help them adapt to their environment. Such organisms can survive longer, reproduce more, and
pass their beneficial traits to the next generation. This process of adaptation causes the species to
change and evolve. Over generations, these gradual changes add up and lead to the emergence of
new species.
• In simple words, this theory describes how species evolve from a common ancestor through variation,
competition, and adaptation.

Key Components of the Darwin’s Theory

1. Variation: Within a population of organisms, individuals exhibit variations in traits (e.g., size, behaviour).
2. Overproduction: Most species produce more offspring than can survive as there are limited resources.

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3. Struggle for Existence: Limited resources create competition, leading to a struggle where only some
offspring survive to reproduce.
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4. Survival of the Fittest: Individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.
"Fittest" means best adapted to the given environment, not just physical strength.
5. Inheritance: The advantageous traits of the surviving individuals are passed on to their offspring.
6. Speciation: Over many generations, accumulated changes can lead to the formation of new species as
populations become sufficiently distinct from their ancestors.
 Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species outlines the theory of evolution. It was inspired by his obser-
 vations during his voyage on the HMS Beagle, especially his study of the finches in the Galápagos Is-
lands.
 While Darwin believed gradual evolution caused speciation, deVries believed mutation caused specia-
tion and called it saltation (single-step large mutation).

Evidences of Evolution

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1. Fossils: Fossils found in rock layers show different life forms found during different geological periods.
(e.g., dinosaurs, which are now extinct). They show how species have changed over time.
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2. Comparative Anatomy:
(a) Homologous Structures: Similar structures in different animals, like the forelimbs of whales, bats,
cheetahs, and humans, show they share a common ancestor. These structures are adapted for dif-
ferent uses (e.g., flying, running, swimming), showing divergent evolution.
(b) Analogous Structures: Different structures with the same function, like bird and butterfly wings, in-
dicate convergent evolution, where unrelated species evolve similar traits due to similar envi-
ronments.
3. Biochemical Evidence: Similar proteins and genes in different organisms suggests a shared ancestry.
4. Artificial Selection: Humans have selectively bred plants and animals for specific traits (such as differ-
ent dog breeds). This illustrates that nature can also produce diverse forms through selection.
5. Industrial Melanism: Before industrialisation, light-coloured moths were more common in England.
However, after industrialisation, trees darkened due to pollution, favouring darker moths for camou-
flage. This shift is known as industrial melanism, and it demonstrated natural selection in response
to environmental changes.
6. Anthropogenic Selection: Overuse of pesticides and antibiotics has led to the quick evolution of re-
sistant species, showing that evolution can happen over short timeframes due to human influence.

Adaptive Radiation

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• Adaptive radiation is the process by which a single species evolves into multiple species adapted
to different habitats. Charles Darwin observed this in the Galapagos Islands, where finches had differ-
 ent beak shapes adapted for various food sources. Another example is Australian marsupials, where
many species evolved from one ancestral type but adapted to various habitats.
• When more than one adaptive radiation occurs in an isolated habitat, it can lead to convergent
evolution – where unrelated species evolve to have similar traits due to living in similar environments,
like the Placental mammals and the Tasmanian wolf.

Hardy-Weinberg Principle
• The Hardy-Weinberg principle is a fundamental concept in population genetics. It states that allele and
genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the
absence of evolutionary influences.

Assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

• No mutations: The gene pool must not be altered by mutations.
• Random mating: Individuals mate randomly without regard to genotype.
• No natural selection: All genotypes have equal chances of survival and reproduction.
• Large population size: This prevents genetic drift (random changes in allele frequencies).
• No migration: Individuals must not move into or out of the population.

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A Brief Account of Evolution

1. Origin of Life: The first cellular life forms appeared on Earth about 2000 million years ago (mya). The
exact process of how non-cellular molecules evolved into cells is unknown. Some early cells could pro-
duce oxygen, possibly through a process similar to photosynthesis.
2. Multi-Cellular Life: Single-celled organisms eventually evolved into multi-cellular life forms.

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3. Invertebrates and Early Vertebrates: Invertebrates appeared and began to dominate about 500 mya.
Jawless fish evolved about 350 mya, marking the beginning of vertebrate life. PMF IAS – Science – Biology

4. Plants and Animal Life on Land: Plants were the first organisms to invade land (around 320 mya), fol-
lowed by animals. Fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and return to water.
5. Amphibians: Lobefins (fish with lobe-like fins) evolved into the first amphibians, which were the an-
cestors of modern-day frogs and salamanders.
6. Reptiles: Amphibians evolved into reptiles. Unlike amphibians, reptiles laid thick-shelled eggs that
could withstand dry conditions. Their modern-day descendants are the turtles, tortoises, and croco-
diles. Reptiles dominated Earth for over 200 million years.
7. Age of Dinosaurs: The largest reptiles were dinosaurs. They became extinct about 65 mya, possibly
due to climatic changes or because they evolved into birds.
8. Mammals: After the decline of dinosaurs, mammals began to thrive. Early mammals were small, shrew-
like creatures that gave birth to young ones. Mammals were viviparous and protected their unborn
young inside the mother’s body. They were more intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger.
9. Evolution of Modern Mammals: Mammals diversified into different species. Continental drift played
a key role in their distribution.
10. Aquatic Mammals: Some mammals, such as whales and dolphins, adapted to life in the water.
11. Human Evolution: Humans evolved with distinct features, such as language and self-awareness, mark-
ing a significant achievement in the story of evolution.

Origin and Evolution of Humans

• Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus: Around 15 million years ago, primates called Dryopithecus (more
ape-like) and Ramapithecus (more human-like) existed. They were hairy and walked like gorillas and
chimpanzees. The first Ramapithecus fossils were discovered in the Siwalik hills of northern India.
• Primates have distinct traits like fingerprints, grasping hands, forward-facing eyes, and complex
social behaviours. They are divided into two main groups:
1. Old World Primates: Found in Africa and Asia
2. New World Primates: Found in South America
• Hominoid is a group which includes all apes: great apes (humans, chimpanzees, gorillas,
orangutans, bonobos) and lesser apes (gibbons).
• Hominid is a subgroup of hominoids that includes only great apes and humans. They are bipedal
and can stand upright.
• Hominin is a subgroup of hominids that includes modern humans and their extinct ancestors.
 The closest living relatives to humans are chimpanzees and bonobos.

Early Hominids
Australopithecines
• Around 3-4 million years ago, Australopithecines were found in Africa. They were bipedal, had small 232
brains, used stone tools, and primarily ate fruits and vegetables (though some may have also eaten
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

meat).

Homo habilis
• About 2 million years ago, Homo habilis inhabited sub-Saharan Africa. They are called the "handy
man" because they were earlier believed to be the first known hominins to use stone tools. However,
currently, it is established that stone tools were in use before the genus Homo. They are considered the
 first true human-like species. They had larger brains compared to Australopithecines and were om-
nivorous.

Homo erectus
• Around 1.5 million years ago, Homo erectus appeared. They were the first hominins to migrate out of
Africa. They had larger brains than Homo habilis and have robust structures. Homo erectus appears to
have been the first hominin species to control fire.

Neanderthals
Neanderthals lived in Europe and Asia between 100,000 and 40,000 years ago. They had brains larger

233
•
than modern humans. They are physically robust and adapted to cold climates. They used hides to
protect their body. They were skilled hunters who used complex tools.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• They took care of their sick and elderly and buried their dead.
• Coexisted with early modern humans (Homo sapiens), with some evidence of interbreeding. Today,
Neanderthal portions of the genome are carried by non-African individuals. They eventually went ex-
tinct, possibly due to competition or climate changes.

Modern Humans: Homo sapiens

• Homo sapiens evolved in Africa around 200,000 years ago. They migrated out of Africa and spread to
different parts of the world. They have highly developed brains, capable of complex thought, language,
and problem-solving.
• Humans developed complex cultures, including art, music, and language. They shifted from hunting
and gathering to farming about 10,000 years ago, leading to settled communities and civilisations.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

234
PMF IAS – Science – Biology
 13. Diseases and Immunity

13.1. Classification of Diseases

Based on Causative Agents

1. Infectious Diseases: These are caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, parasites). E.g.,
i) Bacterial: Tuberculosis, pneumonia, and food poisoning
ii) Viral: Flu, HIV/AIDS, COVID-19, and common cold
iii) Fungal: Athlete's foot and ringworm
iv) Parasitic: Malaria and giardiasis
2. Non-Infectious Diseases: They are not caused by pathogens. E.g., diabetes, cancer, osteoporosis.

Based on the Mode of Transmission

1. Communicable Diseases: They spread from person to person in various ways, which can be divided
into direct and indirect transmission modes.
i) Direct Transmission: This occurs when a pathogen is transferred directly from an infected person
or reservoir to a susceptible individual. Examples of direct transmission are:
a) Person-to-Person Contact: Physical touch, kissing, or sexual contact. E.g., chickenpox,
HIV/AIDS, and syphilis.
b) Droplet Transmission: Spread through respiratory droplets from coughing, sneezing, or talking.
E.g., COVID-19, influenza, and tuberculosis.
c) Vertical Transmission: From mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. E.g.,
HIV/AIDS, hepatitis B, and rubella.
d) Contact with Infected Fluids: Contact with blood, saliva, or other bodily fluids. E.g., hepatitis B
and C and HIV/AIDS.
ii) Indirect Transmission: This occurs when the pathogen is transmitted via an intermediary or me-
dium. Examples of indirect transmission are:

235
a) Airborne Transmission: When pathogens are suspended in air and inhaled. E.g., measles, tu-
berculosis, and chickenpox.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

b) Fomite Transmission: Contact with contaminated surfaces or objects (e.g., door handles, uten-
sils). E.g., norovirus and common cold.
c) Waterborne Transmission: Consumption of contaminated water. E.g., cholera and typhoid.
d) Foodborne Transmission: Eating contaminated or undercooked food. E.g., salmonella and E.
coli infection.
e) Vector-Borne Transmission: Spreads through vectors like mosquitoes, ticks, or fleas. E.g., ma-
laria, dengue fever, and Zika virus.
 f) Zoonotic Transmission: Transmission from animals to humans via direct contact or vectors. E.g.,
rabies, avian flu, and plague.
2. Non-Communicable Diseases: These diseases are not transmitted from one person to another. All
non-infectious diseases are non-communicable. They are typically chronic and result from genetic,
lifestyle, or environmental factors. E.g., heart disease, stroke, and Alzheimer’s disease.

Based on Duration
1. Acute Diseases: These diseases develop suddenly and usually last for a short period, typically a few
days or weeks. E.g., common cold and influenza.
2. Chronic Diseases: These diseases develop slowly and last for a prolonged period. They are generally
not curable but are typically manageable with treatment. E.g., arthritis and hypertension.

Based on Origin and Nature

1. Genetic Diseases: They are caused by abnormalities in genes or chromosomes. These abnormalities
can be inherited from parents or may occur spontaneously. E.g., Down syndrome and cystic fibrosis.
2. Deficiency Diseases: These diseases result from the lack of essential nutrients (such as vitamins, min-
erals, proteins, etc.) in the diet. E.g., scurvy, rickets, and anaemia.
3. Degenerative Diseases: These diseases are characterised by a progressive decline in cell, tissue, or
organ function. They often result from ageing, genetic, and environmental factors. E.g., Alzheimer's
disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and osteoporosis.
4. Environmental Diseases: These diseases result from exposure to harmful substances or conditions in
the environment, such as pollution, radiation, or toxins. E.g., asthma and skin cancer.
5. Lifestyle Diseases: These diseases are linked to unhealthy lifestyles. E.g., obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Based on the System Affected

1. Cardiovascular Diseases: They affect the heart and blood vessels. E.g., Coronary Artery Disease and
hypertension.
2. Respiratory Diseases: They affect the lungs and breathing. E.g., asthma, pneumonia, and tuberculosis.

236
3. Neurological Diseases: They affect the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. E.g., Parkinson’s disease, menin-
gitis, and epilepsy. PMF IAS – Science – Biology

4. Digestive Diseases: They affect the gastrointestinal tract. E.g., Crohn’s disease and peptic ulcer.
5. Endocrine Diseases: They affect hormonal systems. E.g., hypothyroidism and diabetes.
6. Musculoskeletal Diseases: They affect bones, muscles, and joints. E.g., osteoporosis and arthritis.

Based on Immune System Involvement

1. Autoimmune Diseases: These diseases occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks the
body’s own cells, tissues, or organs, perceiving them as foreign. E.g., Type 1 diabetes and psoriasis.
2. Immunodeficiency Diseases: These disorders occur when the immune system’s ability to fight in-
fections and diseases is weakened or entirely absent. E.g., AIDS.
3. Allergic Diseases: These diseases occur when the immune system overreacts to usually harmless
substances (such as pollen, pet dander, or certain foods). These substances are known as allergens. E.g.,
hay fever and food allergies.

Based on Age Group

1. Paediatric Diseases: They primarily affect children. E.g., chickenpox and rickets.
2. Geriatric Diseases: They primarily affect older adults. E.g., Alzheimer’s disease and osteoarthritis.

Based on Global Impact

1. Epidemic Diseases: They spread rapidly within a specific population, region, or community over a
short period. E.g., Ebola and cholera.
2. Pandemic Diseases: These diseases spread across a wide geographical area (such as multiple coun-
tries or continents). E.g., COVID-19 and influenza.
3. Endemic Diseases: These diseases are consistently present in a specific population, region, or geo-
graphical area. E.g., malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa and dengue fever in tropical and subtropical regions.

Based on the Time of Occurrence

1. Congenital Diseases: These diseases are present at the time of birth. E.g., albinism, Down’s syndrome,
haemophilia etc.
2. Acquired Diseases: These diseases are developed after birth. E.g., influenza, malaria, and cancer.

13.2. Communicable Diseases Caused by Bacteria

Disease Causative Bacterium Transmission Key Symptoms Affected Areas

Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuber- Airborne (cough, Persistent cough, chest Lungs, but can
(TB) culosis sneeze) pain, fatigue, fever, night affect other or-
sweats, weight loss gans

237
Cholera Vibrio cholerae Contaminated Severe diarrhoea, dehydra- Intestines
water/food tion, electrolyte imbalance
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Typhoid Fe- Salmonella Typhi Contaminated High fever, abdominal Blood and intes-
ver food/water pain, rash, constipa- tines
tion/diarrhoea
Diphtheria Corynebacterium Respiratory Sore throat, fever, thick Throat and res-
diphtheriae droplets gray throat membrane, piratory system
difficulty breathing
Disease Causative Bacterium Transmission Key Symptoms Affected Areas
Pertussis Bordetella pertussis Airborne drop- Severe coughing fits with Respiratory sys-
(Whooping lets "whooping" sound, vomit- tem
Cough) ing after coughing
Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae Prolonged close Skin lesions, numbness, Skin, peripheral
(Hansen’s contact muscle weakness, deformi- nerves
Disease) ties
Plague Yersinia pestis Flea bites, con- Swollen lymph nodes (bu- Lymphatic sys-
tact with infect- boes), fever, chills, septi- tem, lungs
ed animals cemia, pneumonia
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Wound contam- Muscle stiffness, spasms, Muscles and
(Lockjaw) ination (soil, difficulty swallowing nervous system
rust)
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Inhalation, in- Fever, chest pain, sores, Skin, lungs, gas-
gestion, skin difficulty breathing, gastro- trointestinal tract
contact intestinal distress
Meningitis Neisseria meningitidis, Close contact, Stiff neck, severe head- Brain and spinal
(Bacterial) Streptococcus pneu- droplets ache, fever, confusion, nau- cord membranes
moniae, Haemophilus sea
influenzae
Syphilis Treponema pallidum Sexual contact, Sores (chancre), rashes, Genitals, skin,
mother-to-child fever, neurological issues nervous system
(in late stages)
Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrhoeae Sexual contact Painful urination, dis- Reproductive
charge, pelvic pain organs
Lyme Disease Borrelia burgdorferi Tick bite Bull's-eye rash, joint pain, Joints, skin,
neurological symptoms nervous system

13.3. Communicable Diseases Caused by Viruses 238

PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Disease Causative Virus Transmission Key Symptoms Affected Areas

COVID-19 SARS-CoV-2 Respiratory drop- Fever, cough, Respiratory system
lets, contact shortness of
breath, fatigue,
loss of taste/smell
Influenza (Flu) Influenza virus (A, B, Respiratory drop- Fever, chills, sore Respiratory system
 C, D types) lets, contact throat, body aches,
fatigue
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus Contaminated Jaundice, fatigue, Liver
(HAV) food/water abdominal pain,
nausea
Hepatitis B Hepatitis B virus Blood, sexual con- Jaundice, ab- Liver
(HBV) tact, vertical dominal pain, joint
transmission pain
Hepatitis C Hepatitis C virus Blood, needles, Chronic liver dis- Liver
(HCV) sexual contact ease, jaundice, fa-
tigue
Hepatitis D Hepatitis D virus Blood, sexual con- Jaundice, ab- Liver
(HCD) tact, vertical dominal pain, joint
transmission pain
Hepatitis E Hepatitis E virus Contaminated Jaundice, ab- Liver
(HAV) food/water dominal pain, nau-
sea
HIV/AIDS Human immunode- Blood, sexual con- Weight loss, recur- Immune system
ficiency virus (HIV) tact, vertical rent infections, fa-
transmission tigue
Dengue Dengue virus Mosquito bite (Ae- High fever, rash, Blood, immune sys-
des aegypti) joint pain, severe tem
cases: bleeding,
shock
Chikungunya Chikungunya virus Mosquito bite (Ae- Fever, joint pain, Joints, immune sys-
des aegypti) rash tem
Zika Virus Dis- Zika virus Mosquito bite (Ae- Fever, rash, joint Nervous system

239
ease des aegypti), verti- pain, microcephaly
cal transmission (in foetuses)
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Polio (Poliomye- Poliovirus Faecal-oral, con- Paralysis, muscle Nervous system

litis) taminated water weakness, fever
Rabies Rabies virus Animal bite (saliva) Anxiety, hydro- Nervous system
phobia, paralysis,
fatal if untreated
Measles Measles virus Airborne droplets Fever, rash, cough, Respiratory system,
conjunctivitis skin
Mumps Mumps virus Saliva, respiratory Swollen salivary Salivary glands
droplets glands, fever,
headache
Rubella (Ger- Rubella virus Respiratory drop- Rash, fever, con- Skin, immune system
man Measles) lets, vertical trans- genital abnormali-
mission ties (in foetuses)
Chickenpox Varicella-zoster vi- Airborne droplets, Itchy rash, fever, Skin, immune system
rus contact fatigue
Herpes Simplex Herpes Simplex Vi- Contact, sexual Painful blisters or Different parts of the
rus (HSV) contact, bodily flu- ulcers, fever, head- body (eyes, mouth
ids, vertical trans- ache, muscle aches area, genital area and
mission fingers)
Ebola Virus Dis- Ebola virus Body fluids, con- Fever, bleeding, Blood, multiple or-
ease tact organ failure gans
Marburg Virus Marburg virus Body fluids, con- Severe bleeding, Blood, multiple or-
Disease tact fever, organ failure gans
Yellow Fever Yellow fever virus Mosquito bite (Ae- Fever, jaundice, Liver, kidneys
des aegypti) bleeding, kidney
failure
Japanese En- Japanese encephali- Mosquito bite (Cu- Fever, headache, Nervous system
cephalitis tis virus lex spp.) seizures, brain
swelling
Common Cold Rhinoviruses, Coro- Respiratory drop- Sneezing, nasal Respiratory system
naviruses lets, contact congestion, sore
throat
Smallpox (Eradi- Variola virus Airborne droplets, Fever, pustular Skin, immune system
cated) contact rash

240
Human Papillo- HPV Sexual contact Warts, cervical Skin, reproductive
mavirus (HPV) cancer organs
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Norovirus Infec- Norovirus Contaminated Severe vomiting, Gastrointestinal tract

tion food/water diarrhoea, stom-
ach cramps
Rotavirus Infec- Rotavirus Contaminated Severe diarrhoea, Gastrointestinal tract
tion food/water vomiting, dehydra-
tion
Hand, Foot, and Coxsackievirus and Contact, droplets, Fever, sore throat, Hands, feet, mouth,
Mouth Disease Enterovirus faeces, contami- painful blisters, and sometimes geni-
nated objects loss of appetite tals and buttocks

Diarrhea
• Diarrhea is a condition characterised by frequent, loose, or watery bowel movements. It can lead to
dehydration and electrolyte imbalances if prolonged or severe.
• Causes of diarrhoea are:
1. Infectious Causes: Virus (e.g., rotavirus, norovirus, adenovirus), bacteria (e.g., E. coli, salmonella,
shigella, campylobacter), and parasites (e.g., giardia, entamoeba histolytica, cryptosporidium)
2. Non-Infectious Causes: Food intolerance (e.g., lactose intolerance), medications (e.g., antibiotics),
chronic conditions (e.g., celiac disease, Crohn’s disease), and stress or anxiety.
• Types of Diarrhoea:
1. Acute Diarrhoea: It lasts 1-2 days. It is commonly caused by infections and food intolerance.
2. Persistent Diarrhoea: It lasts 2-4 weeks and is often associated with infections or underlying
health conditions.
3. Chronic Diarrhoea: It lasts more than 4 weeks or comes and goes regularly over a long period.
It is linked to conditions like irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD),
or malabsorption disorders.

[UPSC 2014] Consider the following diseases

1. Diphtheria
2. Chickenpox
3. Smallpox

Which of the above diseases has/have been eradicated in India?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None 241
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Explanation
• Smallpox, caused by the variola virus, was eradicated globally in 1980 through a successful world-
wide vaccination campaign led by the World Health Organization (WHO).
• India declared itself free of smallpox in 1979.

Answer: (b) 3 only

13.4. Communicable Diseases Caused by Protozoa

Disease Causative Protozoa Transmission Key Symptoms Affected Area

Malaria Plasmodium species Bite of infected Fever, chills, anae- Blood (RBCs),
(P. falciparum, P. vi- Anopheles mos- mia, fatigue Liver
vax, etc.) quito
Amoebiasis Entamoeba histolyti- Contaminated Diarrhoea, ab- Intestines, Liver
ca food/water dominal pain, (abscess in se-
blood in stool vere cases)
Giardiasis Giardia lamblia Contaminated Watery diarrhoea, Intestines
food/water nausea, bloating
Kala-azar (Leishman- Leishmania species Bite of an infected Skin ulcers, fever, Skin (cutane-
iasis) sandfly weight loss, organ ous), Spleen,
enlargement Liver (visceral)
Sleeping Sickness Trypanosoma brucei Bite of infected Fever, headache, Blood, Central
(Trypanosomiasis) tsetse fly neurological disor- Nervous System
ders (CNS)
Chagas Disease Trypanosoma cruzi Bite of infected Fever, swelling, Heart, Digestive
Triatomine/kissing heart/intestine System, Nervous
bug damage System
Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma gondii Contaminated Flu-like symptoms, Brain, Eyes,
food, water, cat vision issues, preg- Muscles
faeces nancy risks
Babesiosis Babesia species Bite of infected Fever, fatigue, he- Blood (RBCs)
ticks molytic anaemia

13.5. Non-Communicable Diseases Caused by Genetics

242
Disease Cause Inheritance Pattern Key Features
Cystic Fibrosis (CF) Mutation in the CFTR Autosomal Reces- Affects lungs and digestive sys-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

gene sive tem; characterized by thick mu-

cus production and recurrent
infections.
Huntington's Disease Mutation in the HTT Autosomal Domi- Progressive brain disorder lead-
gene (trinucleotide nant ing to movement, cognitive, and
repeat expansion) psychiatric issues.
Sickle Cell Anaemia Mutation in the HBB Autosomal Reces- Red blood cells take on a sickle
 gene sive shape, leading to anaemia, pain,
and organ damage.
Marfan Syndrome Mutation in the FBN1 Autosomal Domi- Affects connective tissue; symp-
gene nant toms include tall stature, heart
problems, and joint issues.
Haemophilia Mutations in F8 or F9 X-Linked Recessive Blood clotting disorder leading
genes to excessive bleeding.
Down Syndrome Extra copy of chromo- Not inherited (ran- Causes developmental delays,
some 21 (Trisomy 21) dom chromosomal intellectual disabilities, and dis-
event) tinctive physical traits.
Turner Syndrome Missing or partially Not inherited Affects females; leads to short
missing X chromo- stature, infertility, and heart de-
some (Monosomy X) fects.
Type 1 Diabetes Polygenic mutations Multifactorial Autoimmune destruction of in-
(e.g., HLA genes) sulin-producing pancreatic cells.
BRCA-Linked Breast Mutations in BRCA1 Autosomal Domi- Increases the risk of breast,
Cancer or BRCA2 genes nant (with variable ovarian, and other cancers.
expression)
Albinism Mutations in genes Autosomal Reces- Lack of pigmentation in skin,
affecting melanin sive hair, and eyes; associated with
production vision problems.
Tay-Sachs Disease Mutation in the HEXA Autosomal Reces- Causes nerve cell damage in the
gene sive brain and spinal cord; typically
fatal in early childhood.
Familial Hypercholes- Mutations in LDLR, Autosomal Domi- Leads to high cholesterol levels,
terolemia APOB, or PCSK9 nant increasing risk of early heart
genes disease.

13.6. Non-Communicable Diseases Caused by Deficiencies 243

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Disease Cause Key Symptoms Prevention/Treatment

Rickets Vitamin D deficiency Bone deformities, de- Vitamin D, calcium, and phospho-
(or calcium, phos- layed growth, soft rus-rich diet; sunlight exposure
phorus) bones
Scurvy Vitamin C deficiency Bleeding gums, joint Vitamin C-rich foods (citrus fruits,
pain, fatigue, poor peppers, etc.) or supplements
 wound healing
Pernicious Anaemia Vitamin B12 defi- Fatigue, numbness, dif- Vitamin B12 supplements or in-
ciency ficulty walking, memory jections
issues
Iron-Deficiency Insufficient iron in- Fatigue, pale skin, Iron-rich diet (red meat, spinach)
Anaemia take or absorption shortness of breath, and supplements
dizziness
Beriberi Vitamin B1 (Thia- Weakness, nerve dam- Thiamine-rich foods (whole
mine) deficiency age, heart issues grains, pork) or supplements
Pellagra Vitamin B3 (Niacin) Dermatitis, diarrhoea, Niacin-rich foods (meat, fish,
deficiency dementia, irritability whole grains) or supplements
Goitre Iodine deficiency Enlarged thyroid gland, Iodised salt, iodine supplements
neck swelling
Hypocalcemia Calcium deficiency Muscle cramps, brittle Calcium-rich foods (dairy, leafy
nails, osteoporosis greens) or supplements
Night Blindness Vitamin A deficiency Poor vision in low light, Vitamin A-rich foods (carrots, liv-
dry eyes er) or supplements
Kwashiorkor Protein deficiency Swollen abdomen, irri- Protein-rich diet (eggs, fish, leg-
tability, poor growth umes)
Marasmus General calorie and Severe weight loss, Balanced, high-calorie diet
protein deficiency muscle wasting, stunt-
ed growth
Osteoporosis Calcium and Vita- Bone fractures, reduced Calcium and Vitamin D-rich diet,
min D deficiency bone density weight-bearing exercises
Hypomagnesemia Magnesium deficien- Weakness, muscle Magnesium-rich foods (nuts,
cy cramps, irregular seeds, whole grains)
heartbeat

244
Hypokalemia Potassium deficiency Muscle weakness, fa- Potassium-rich foods (bananas,
tigue, irregular heart potatoes, citrus fruits)
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

rhythm
Zinc Deficiency Inadequate zinc in- Delayed wound heal- Zinc-rich foods (meat, shellfish,
take ing, growth retardation, seeds)
hair loss

13.7. Non-Communicable Diseases Caused by Lifestyle

Disease Primary Cause Key Symptoms Prevention/Treatment
Obesity High-calorie diet, Excess body weight, Healthy diet, regular exercise,
physical inactivity joint pain, fatigue behavioural therapy
Type 2 Diabetes Poor diet, obesity, Increased thirst, fre- Weight management, blood
sedentary lifestyle quent urination, fa- sugar control, medication
tigue
Hypertension (High High-sodium diet, Headaches, shortness Low-sodium diet, regular exer-
Blood Pressure) stress, obesity of breath, heart strain cise, stress management
Heart Disease (e.g., High-fat diet, smok- Chest pain, shortness A balanced diet, exercise, med-
Coronary Artery Dis- ing, lack of exercise of breath, fatigue ications, smoking cessation
ease)
Stroke Smoking, poor diet, Paralysis, speech diffi- Lifestyle changes, medications,
hypertension, obe- culties, sudden weak- rehabilitation
sity ness
Liver Disease (e.g., Fatty Excessive alcohol Abdominal pain, fa- Reduced alcohol intake, weight
Liver) consumption, high- tigue, jaundice loss, medications
fat diet
Chronic Respiratory Smoking, air pollu- Chronic cough, breath- Smoking cessation, medication,
Diseases (e.g., COPD) tion lessness, wheezing oxygen therapy
Cancer (e.g., Lung, Col- Smoking, poor diet, Depends on cancer Early detection, treatment (sur-
orectal) lack of exercise type (lumps, fatigue) gery, chemo), lifestyle changes
Osteoarthritis Obesity, repetitive Joint pain, stiffness, Weight management, physical
stress on joints swelling therapy, medication
Gastroesophageal Re- Poor diet, overeat- Heartburn, regurgita- Weight loss, dietary changes,
flux Disease (GERD) ing, smoking tion, throat discomfort medication
Metabolic Syndrome Poor diet, obesity, High blood pressure, Healthy diet, physical activity,
sedentary lifestyle high blood sugar, ab- medications

245
dominal fat
Depression and Anxiety Chronic stress, lack Sadness, fatigue, diffi- Therapy, stress management,
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

Disorders of social support culty concentrating medications

Alcohol-Related Disor- Excessive alcohol Liver damage, addic- Counselling, rehabilitation, ab-
ders consumption tion, memory prob- stinence
lems
Smoking-Related Dis- Tobacco use Lung damage, cardio- Smoking cessation, health
orders vascular diseases monitoring
Sleep Disorders (e.g., Irregular sleep pat- Difficulty sleeping, fa- Sleep hygiene, reduced screen
Insomnia) terns, screen time tigue, irritability time, therapy

13.8. Non-Communicable Autoimmune Diseases

Disease Causes Key Features Affected Area

Type 1 Diabetes Genetic predisposition (HLA Destruction of insulin- Pancreas (beta cells)
genes), environmental trig- producing cells, leading to
gers (viral infections like high blood sugar levels.
Coxsackievirus).
Rheumatoid Arthritis Genetic factors (HLA-DR4), Chronic joint inflammation, Joints (and some-
(RA) smoking, gut microbiome pain, and stiffness. times other organs)
imbalance, and stress.
Systemic Lupus Ery- Genetic predisposition, UV Widespread inflammation Skin, joints, kidneys,
thematosus (SLE) light exposure, infections and tissue damage in mul- heart, and more
(e.g., Epstein-Barr virus), tiple organs.
hormonal changes.
Multiple Sclerosis Genetic factors (HLA-DR2), Immune attack on myelin, Central nervous
(MS) infections (e.g., Epstein-Barr leading to neurological system (brain and
virus), low vitamin D levels, symptoms like weakness, spinal cord)
smoking. vision loss.
Psoriasis Genetic predisposition Overproduction of skin cells Skin
(PSORS1 gene), infections, causing scaly patches, often
stress, medications, and en- associated with arthritis.
vironmental factors.
Psoriatic Arthritis Similar triggers as psoriasis, Joint inflammation along Joints and skin
with additional joint-specific with symptoms of psoriasis.
immune responses.

246
Graves' Disease Genetic predisposition, Overproduction of thyroid Thyroid gland
stress, smoking, iodine ex- hormones (hyperthyroid-
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

cess, and infections. ism).

Hashimoto's Thyroidi- Genetic predisposition, se- Underproduction of thyroid Thyroid gland
tis lenium deficiency, excessive hormones (hypothyroid-
iodine intake, and infec- ism).
tions.
Celiac Disease Genetic factors (HLA-DQ2 Gluten intolerance leading Small intestine
 and HLA-DQ8), gluten con- to intestinal damage and
sumption, and gut infec- malabsorption.
tions.
Inflammatory Bowel Genetic factors (NOD2 Includes Crohn's disease Gastrointestinal
Disease (IBD) gene), altered gut microbio- and ulcerative colitis, caus- tract
ta, smoking (for Crohn's), ing chronic gut inflamma-
and immune dysregulation. tion.
Addison’s Disease Autoimmune destruction of Insufficient hormone pro- Adrenal glands
adrenal cortex, genetic pre- duction from adrenal
disposition, and infections glands.
like tuberculosis.
Pernicious Anaemia Autoimmune destruction of Autoimmune destruction of Stomach lining and
stomach parietal cells, lead- stomach cells leading to blood
ing to vitamin B12 deficien- vitamin B12 deficiency.
cy.
Myasthenia Gravis Antibodies against acetyl- Muscle weakness due to Neuromuscular
choline receptors, genetic antibody interference with junction
predisposition, and thymus nerve signals.
abnormalities.
Sjögren’s Syndrome Genetic predisposition, Dry eyes and mouth due to Salivary and tear
hormonal factors (more gland damage. glands
common in women), and
infections.
Scleroderma Genetic factors, environ- Thickening and hardening Skin and connective
mental triggers (silica dust, of the skin and other tis- tissues
organic solvents), and vas- sues.
cular abnormalities.

247
Vitiligo Genetic predisposition, oxi- Loss of pigment in patches Skin
dative stress, and triggers due to immune destruction PMF IAS – Science – Biology

like skin trauma or infec- of melanocytes.

tions.
Autoimmune Hepati- Genetic predisposition Chronic inflammation of the Liver
tis (HLA-DR3 and DR4), infec- liver, leading to potential
tions, and medications. liver damage.
Ankylosing Spondyli- Genetic factors (HLA-B27), Chronic inflammation of the Spine and sacroiliac
tis infections, and environmen- spine causing stiffness and joints
 tal factors. fusion of vertebrae.
Idiopathic Thrombo- Autoantibodies against Low platelet count due to Blood (platelets)
cytopenic Purpura platelets, viral infections, immune destruction, lead-
(ITP) and genetic predisposition. ing to easy bruis-
ing/bleeding.
Guillain-Barré Syn- Triggered by infections (e.g., Acute nerve inflammation Peripheral nervous
drome (GBS) Campylobacter jejuni, Zika causing muscle weakness system
virus), vaccinations (rarely) and paralysis

13.9. Non-Communicable Degenerative Diseases

Disease Description Key Risk Factors Affected Area

Alzheimer’s Dis- Progressive loss of memory and cogni- Aging, genetics, life- Brain (neurons)
ease tion due to brain cell degeneration style
Parkinson’s Dis- A movement disorder caused by loss of Aging, genetics, envi- Brain (motor
ease dopamine-producing neurons ronmental toxins control centres)
Multiple Sclerosis Immune system attacks nerve coverings, Genetics, infections, Nervous system
(MS) causing neurological damage environment (nerves)
Atherosclerosis Hardening/narrowing of arteries due to Poor diet, smoking, Arteries, heart
plaque buildup. lack of exercise.
Osteoarthritis Joint pain and stiffness due to cartilage Aging, obesity, joint Joints (knees,
wear injuries. hips, etc.)
Osteoporosis Loss of bone density, making bones frag- Aging, low calcium in- Bones
ile take, inactivity
Cataracts Clouding of the eye lens, leading to vi- Aging, UV exposure, Eyes (lens)
sion impairment diabetes
Cirrhosis Scarring of liver tissue due to chronic Alcohol use, hepatitis, Liver
damage toxins

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13.10. Description of Some Important Diseases

Polio (Poliomyelitis)
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Polio is a highly contagious disease caused by poliovirus (an RNA virus of the Picornaviridae family).
It affects the nervous system and can cause paralysis (especially of the legs), breathing difficulties,
and death (when breathing muscles become immobilised due to paralysis).
• Transmission: Polio spreads from person to person through:
1. Faecal-oral route (e.g., contaminated food, water, hands, surface, and objects)
2. Droplets from a sneeze or cough of an infected person (less common)
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 249
• Risk group: Though polio primarily affects children under 5 years of age, it can infect any non-
vaccinated person.
• Symptoms: In mild cases, polio may be asymptomatic or have mild flu-like symptoms. In severe cases,
it may cause permanent paralysis, respiratory failure, and deformities.
• Prevention and Treatment: Polio is incurable, and the most effective way to prevent polio is through
vaccination. There are two types of polio vaccines:
1. Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine (IPV): Killed poliovirus injected intramuscularly and intradermally.
2. Oral Poliovirus Vaccine (OPV): Live, attenuated virus administered orally.
• Types of Polio:
1. Abortive poliomyelitis: It causes flu-like and intestinal symptoms that last a few days and have no
long-term effects.
2. Non-paralytic poliomyelitis: It may cause aseptic meningitis (inflammation of brain meninges)
3. Paralytic poliomyelitis: It occurs when the poliovirus attacks the brain and spinal cord, potentially
paralysing muscles for breathing, speaking, swallowing, and movement.
4. Polioencephalitis: It primarily affects infants, and causes brain swelling.
5. Post-polio syndrome: This condition occurs when polio symptoms return years after an infection. It
is characterised by muscle weakness and atrophy.
• Variants of Poliovirus and their Current Status: There are three variations of poliovirus. They are:
1. Wild poliovirus Type 1 (WPV1): Endemic (remains in two countries, Afghanistan and Pakistan)
2. Wild poliovirus Type 2 (WPV2): Eradicated
3. Wild poliovirus Type 3 (WPV3): Eradicated
 India was declared polio-free in 2014 by WHO.
 Pulse Polio Immunisation Programme was launched in India in 1995 to provide mass immunisation
to children under 5 years of age.
 Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) was launched in 1988 by the WHO, UNICEF, Rotary Interna-
tional, and the U.S. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

• AIDS is a chronic, potentially life-threatening condition caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Vi- 250
rus (HIV), a retrovirus. HIV weakens the immune system by destroying T-cells and makes the body
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

unable to fight even minor illnesses. HIV can lead to AIDS when it severely weakens the immune system.
 A retrovirus has RNA as its genetic material. While human cells use DNA to make RNA and proteins, ret-
roviruses use RNA as their instructions. When retroviruses invade a cell, they convert their RNA into DNA,
insert it into the cell's DNA, and trick the cell into following their instructions.
 T cells are a type of white blood cell that helps the body's immune system fight infection and disease.
• Transmission:
 1. Unprotected sexual contact: The most common mode of transmission.
2. Blood-to-blood contact: Using contaminated needles or medical instruments and receiving infect-
ed blood or blood products.
3. Mother-to-child transmission: During pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
 HIV is not transmitted through casual contact, hugging, kissing, sharing utensils, or bug bites.
• Symptoms: Persistent fever, weight loss, chronic diarrhoea, night sweats, recurrent infections (e.g., fun-
gal infections, pneumonia), swollen lymph nodes, and skin rashes or lesions.
• Complications: Opportunistic infections (e.g., tuberculosis, herpes, encephalitis, and recurrent pneu-
monia) and cancers (e.g., Kaposi’s sarcoma, lymphomas, and cervical cancer).
• Treatment: HIV is incurable, but treatment helps manage the condition. Currently, patients are given
antiretroviral therapy (ART), which stops the virus from replicating in the body. Thus, ART strengthens
the patient’s immune systems and helps them fight other infections.
Diagnosis:
1. Antibody Tests: These tests look for HIV antibodies in blood, urine, or saliva. Common methods are
ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) and Rapid HIV tests.
2. Antigen/Antibody Tests: These tests look for both HIV antibodies and HIV antigens in the blood.
3. Nucleic Acid Tests (NATs): These tests look for HIV in the blood. NATs are also known as "viral load
tests" because they determine the quantity of HIV in the blood.
• Stages of HIV Infection:
1. Acute HIV: Flu-like symptoms appear 2 to 4 weeks after infection. The virus multiplies rapidly, and
the body produces antibodies to fight it. This phase lasts for a few weeks, and the virus is highly
transmissible during it.
2. Chronic HIV: HIV remains active but reproduces slowly. Symptoms may not be visible, but the vi-
rus is still transmissible. This stage can last over 10 years without treatment, but timely treatment
may prevent progression to stage 3, i.e., AIDS.
3. AIDS: This is the most advanced stage of HIV. The body can no longer fight off infection, and in-
dividuals are highly susceptible to opportunistic infections and cancers. The survival is around 1
to 3 years without treatment.

[UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements: 251

1. Adenoviruses have single-stranded DNA genomes whereas retroviruses have double-stranded DNA
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

genomes.
2. Common cold is sometimes caused by an adenovirus whereas AIDS is caused by a retrovirus.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
 d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation
• Adenoviruses have double-stranded DNA genomes, not single-stranded. They are a group of viruses
known for causing various infections, including respiratory illnesses like the common cold, conjuncti-
vitis (pink eye), and gastroenteritis.
• Retroviruses, such as HIV (that causes AIDS), have single-stranded RNA genomes, not double-
stranded DNA. Retroviruses use a special enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert their RNA in-
to DNA, which then integrates into the host cell's DNA, allowing the virus to replicate within the host.

Answer: (b) 2 only

[UPSC 2014] Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from one person to
another through tattooing?
1. Chikungunya
2. Hepatitis B
3. HIV-AIDS

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation
• Chikungunya is a mosquito-borne viral disease and cannot be transmitted through tattooing.
• Hepatitis B and HIV-AIDS are blood-borne infections that can be transmitted through contaminated
needles or tattoo equipment if not properly sanitised.

Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Japanese Encephalitis
• Japanese encephalitis is a severe viral zoonotic disease caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus 252
(JEV), which can cause brain inflammation. JEV is a flavivirus (a vector-borne RNA virus) related to
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

dengue, yellow fever and West Nile viruses.

• Transmission: JEV is transmitted to humans through infected Culex species mosquitoes.
• Natural Reservoirs/Host: Pigs and aquatic birds are natural reservoirs of JEV.
• Symptoms: Mild cases are characterised by fever and headache, while severe cases by high fever, head-
ache, neck stiffness, disorientation, coma, seizures, and spastic paralysis.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 253
• Complications: Survived patients may suffer permanent cognitive, behavioural or neurological se-
quelae (such as seizures, speech, memory, and communication problems or weakness of the limbs).
• Treatment: No antiviral treatment for JEV is present; patients can receive only supportive care.
• Prevention: JEV can be prevented through vaccination. The vaccine types include inactivated, live at-
tenuated, and live recombinant.
 Live recombinant vaccine: It uses a live, attenuated (weakened) virus or bacteria that has been genet-
ically modified to express an antigen from a different pathogen.
 Live attenuated vaccine: It uses a weakened (attenuated) form of the actual pathogen to stimulate an
immune response.

Ebola Virus Disease (EVD)

• Ebola Virus Disease (formerly known as Ebola hemorrhagic fever) is an often fatal zoonotic disease
that primarily affects humans and non-human primates (e.g., monkeys, gorillas, and chimpanzees).
EVD is caused by the Ebola virus, which belongs to the Filoviridae family.
• Ebola is found primarily in sub-Saharan Africa. It first appeared in South Sudan and the Democratic
Republic of the Congo in 1976.
• Natural Reservoir/Host: Fruit bats of the Pteropodidae family are natural hosts of the Ebola virus.
• Transmission:
1. Human-to-human transmission: Ebola virus is transmitted through direct contact with the blood
or other bodily fluids of infected individuals and indirect contact through contaminated objects.
2. Animal-to-human transmission: Contact with infected animals like bats, monkeys, or apes (e.g.,
hunting, butchering, and processing of bushmeat).
• Symptoms: EVD is characterised by fever, severe headache, muscle pain, abdominal pain, diarrhoea,
and vomiting. In severe cases, there can be bleeding, organ failure, and even death.
• Treatment: Though Ebola is hard to treat, two monoclonal antibody treatments, Inmazeb and
Ebanga, are currently available. Supportive care includes rehydration and treating of specific symptoms.

254
 Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are artificially produced antibodies that act like natural antibodies to
stop the virus from replicating in a person's body.
Prevention: There are two licensed Ebola vaccines at present.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology
•

Hepatitis
• Hepatitis refers to the inflammation of the liver. It occurs due to various causes like viral infections,
toxins, autoimmune diseases, or excessive alcohol use. If left untreated, hepatitis may lead to severe
complications like liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, or liver cancer.
• Symptoms: Upper abdominal pain or soreness, nausea, loss of appetite, fatigue, fever, itchy skin, disori-
entation, jaundice, dark-coloured urine and light-coloured stool.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 255
Types of Hepatitis: Viral and Non-Viral
Viral Hepatitis
• Viral hepatitis is caused by specific viruses, such as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E, and is contagious.
Type Transmission Acute/Chronic Antiviral Vaccine Key Facts
Treatment Available
Available
Hepatitis A Faecal-oral route Acute No Yes Occasionally severe
(contaminated food
or water)
Hepatitis B Blood, sexual con- Acute & Yes Yes A small percentage
tact, mother-to-child Chronic develops into
chronic
Hepatitis C Blood (e.g., needles, Acute & Yes No The majority of in-
transfusions) Chronic fected develop
chronic infection
Hepatitis D Occurs only in Chronic Yes No Severe co-infection
(Delta Vi- Hepatitis B infect- with Hepatitis B
rus) ed people
Hepatitis E Faecal-oral (contam- Acute No Yes (for Most prevalent in
inated water or some are- Asia
food) as)
 Hepatitis B and C are responsible for 96% of overall hepatitis mortality.

Non-Viral Hepatitis
• Non-viral hepatitis is not contagious. Its different types are:
1. Alcohol-induced Hepatitis: Acute hepatitis may occur after a short drinking binge, and chronic
hepatitis from chronic, heavy alcohol consumption.

256
2. Toxic Hepatitis: It is caused by drugs and industrial chemicals. Depending on the severity and dura-
tion of exposure, it may be acute or chronic.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

3. Autoimmune Hepatitis: It occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the liver cells.
4. Other causes: Hepatitis may occur due to cholestasis (reduced or stalled bile flow from the liver),
inherited metabolic disorders, and ischemia (restricted blood flow to part of the body).

Which one of the following statements is not correct?

a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.
b) Hepatitis B unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine.
 c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses is several times more than
those infected with HIV.
d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years.

Explanation
• Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV (i.e., through blood, sexual contact and mother to child).
• Hepatitis B has a vaccine, while Hepatitis C does not have a vaccine.
• Globally, more people are infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses than HIV.
• Many people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show symptoms for many years or even at
all.

Answer: (b) Hepatitis B unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine

Zika Virus Disease

• Zika virus disease is a contagious disease caused by the Zika virus, a mosquito-borne flavivirus. Its
impact is significantly seen in pregnant women and their foetuses. It was first discovered in Uganda
(Zika Forest) in 1947.
• Transmission:
1. Mosquito bites: Zika virus is transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes, which bite mainly dur-
ing the daytime.
2. Mother-to-child transmission: From a pregnant woman to her foetus.
3. Sexual transmission: Through unprotected sexual contact with an infected person.
• Symptoms: Rash, fever, conjunctivitis, muscle and joint pain, malaise. (Most people infected with Zika
virus infection are asymptomatic).
• Complications:
1. Microcephaly (a neurological condition where a baby has a significantly smaller head than
usual for their age and sex)
2. Guillain-Barré syndrome (a rare neurological disorder that causes the body’s immune system to
attack the nerves)

257
3. Myelitis (spinal cord inflammation, which can damage the myelin sheath)
4. Peripheral neuropathy (a condition that damages the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord) PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Treatment and Prevention: There is no vaccine or specific treatment for Zika virus.

[UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements:

1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.
2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 only
 b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Explanation
• Zika virus disease is an infectious disease generally found in tropical regions.
• Zika virus is transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes, which also transmits dengue.
• Zika virus can be transmitted sexually.

Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2

Dengue
• Dengue, also known as breakbone fever, is an infectious tropical disease caused by the Dengue vi-
rus, a mosquito-borne flavivirus.
• Transmission:
1. Mosquito bites: The dengue virus is transmitted primarily by infected female Aedes mosqui-
toes, which bite mainly during the daytime. Aedes mosquito also transmits chikungunya, yellow
fever, and Zika infection.
2. Mother-to-child transmission: Dengue virus can be transmitted during pregnancy and childbirth.
• Symptoms: Fever, pains, rashes, nausea, vomiting, severe bone, joint, and muscle pain, etc.
• Complications:
1. Severe Dengue (Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever): It occurs when the dengue virus damages blood-
clotting cells (platelets) and blood vessels, causing blood leakage (or plasma leakage), which
leads to internal and external bleeding. Its symptoms are stomach pain, vomiting blood, blood
in stool, nose bleeds, bleeding gums, extreme tiredness, restlessness, and irritability.
2. Dengue Shock Syndrome: Dengue shock syndrome, a severe form of dengue haemorrhagic fever,
occurs when severe plasma leakage leads to low blood pressure and inadequate blood circulation
to vital organs. If untreated, it can lead to organ failure and even death.
3. Thrombocytopenia: This refers to a decrease in the number of platelets in the blood, which are

258
essential for blood clotting. Thrombocytopenia during dengue occurs due to:
i) Bone marrow suppression: The dengue virus affects the bone marrow (where platelets are PMF IAS – Science – Biology

produced), reducing platelet production.

ii) Immune-mediated destruction: The immune response triggered by dengue infection produces
antibodies that attack platelets.
• Treatment: There is no medicine for dengue infection. Only supportive care and medication are pro-
vided to control the symptoms.
• Prevention: There are two licenced dengue vaccines, but they are unavailable in India due to inade-
quate safety data.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 259
Nipah
• Nipah infection is a contagious zoonotic disease
caused by the Nipah virus, an RNA virus.
• Natural Reservoir/Host: Fruit bats (commonly
known as flying foxes) of the Pteropodidae family
are the natural hosts of the Nipah virus.
• Transmission:
1. Animal-to-human: Direct contact with infected
animals or their bodily fluids (esp. pigs).
2. Human-to-human: Close contact with infected
persons or their bodily fluids.
3. Foodborne transmission: Eating foods con-
taminated by an infected animal.
• Nipah virus is endemic in bats in Kerala with out-
breaks occurring in human habitations close to the
forest or within the forests because it increases
exposure to infected bats and other host animals.
• Symptoms: Acute respiratory illness, seizures, and
encephalitis (swelling of the brain).
• Fatality Rate: Death may occur in 40% and 75% of
all Nipah infection cases.
• Treatment and Prevention: No vaccine and anti-
viral treatment is available for Nipah infection.
Treatment for managing the symptoms can be pro-
vided.

Influenza

260
• Influenza, commonly known as flu, is a contagious
respiratory illness caused by influenza viruses. It PMF IAS – Science – Biology

infects the nose, throat, and sometimes the lungs.

It can range from mild to severe and may lead to
serious complications. In temperate climates, sea-
sonal influenza epidemics occur mainly during win-
ter; in tropical regions, influenza may occur
throughout the year.
• Transmission:
 1. Droplets: Spread through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.
2. Fomite: Touching contaminated surfaces and then touching one’s face, mouth, nose, or eyes.
3. Direct contact: Touching the hands or face of an infected individual.
• Symptoms: Fever, chills, body aches, cough, headache, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose (congestion),
tiredness, and diarrhoea or vomiting.
• Complications:
1. Pneumonia: Lung infection that causes the alveoli (air sacs in the lungs) to fill with fluid or pus,
making breathing difficult.
2. Bronchitis: Inflammation of the airways in the lungs.
3. Sinusitis: Inflammation of the sinuses, which causes congestion, facial pain, and fever.
4. Neurological complications: Flu can lead to neurological complications, such as encephalitis (in-
flammation of the brain), meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and
spinal cord), and Guillain-Barré Syndrome (immune system attacks the nerves).
5. Exacerbation of chronic conditions: The flu can worsen chronic conditions such as asthma, heart
disease, and diabetes.
• High-Risk Groups: Pregnant women, young children (esp. under 5 years), elderly individuals (65 years
and older), people with chronic illnesses (e.g., asthma, diabetes, heart disease), and immunocompro-
mised individuals (e.g., cancer patients, HIV-positive individuals)
• Treatment and Prevention: Antiviral medications and annual vaccination. Annual vaccination is re-
quired because influenza viruses have a high mutation rate.

Types of Influenza Viruses

Influenza A (IAV)
• Influenza A is the most severe influenza type. It is the most common cause of influenza outbreaks and
the only influenza virus known to cause global pandemics.
• Wild aquatic birds are the primary natural reservoir of influenza A viruses.
• Influenza A infects humans, birds, pigs, etc., allowing cross-species transmission.

261
• Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on two surface proteins:
1. Hemagglutinin (H): 18 subtypes (H1-H18)
2. Neuraminidase (N): 11 subtypes (N1-N11)
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Examples of influenza A viruses are H1N1 (Swine Flu) and H5N1 (Avian Flu).

Influenza B (IBV)
• Influenza B primarily infects only humans. It is less severe compared to Influenza A.
• Influenza B has no subtypes; instead, classified into two lineages: B/Yamagata and B/Victoria.
• Influenza B viruses mutate slower than influenza A, making them less likely to cause pandemics. But it
can still cause significant seasonal outbreaks.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 262
 Most of the epidemics and outbreaks of flu are caused by Influenza A and B.

Influenza C (ICV)
• Influenza C infects humans and some animals, such as pigs. It is less common and less severe com-
pared to A and B. It does not cause epidemics or pandemics.
• Influenza C causes mild respiratory illnesses, often resembling a common cold.

Influenza D (IDV)
• Influenza D primarily affects cattle. It is not known to infect humans.
• Influenza D has been recently identified and is under study.

[UPSC 2015] H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with reference to
which one of the following diseases?
a) AIDS
b) Bird flu
c) Dengue
d) Swine flu

Explanation
• Swine flu (H1N1) is a respiratory infection caused by the influenza A virus. It infects both humans
and pigs.

Answer: (d) Swine flu

Monkeypox (Mpox)
• Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by the Monkeypox virus, an orthopoxvirus (a genus of vi-
ruses to which the smallpox virus also belongs).
• While monkeypox is generally less severe than smallpox, it remains a public health concern, particu-
larly in regions of Africa where it is endemic.
• The two subtypes or variants of monkeypox are Clade I and Clade II.

263
• The natural reservoir of monkeypox virus is unknown, but certain rodents (like rope squirrels, tree
squirrels, and Gambian pouched rats) and non-human primates are naturally susceptible to infection.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Transmission
1. Animal-to-human: Contact with infected animals (e.g., bites, scratches, handling bush meat).
2. Human-to-human: Close physical contact (skin lesions and body fluids), respiratory droplets
during face-to-face contact, sexual contact, and contaminated objects (e.g. clothing).
• Symptoms: Fever, muscle ache, rash, swollen lymph nodes, pus-filled skin lesions, chills and exhaustion.
• Complications: Severe bacterial infection from skin lesions, Mpox affecting the brain (encephalitis),
heart (myocarditis) or lungs (pneumonia), and eye problems.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 264
• High-Risk Groups: Pregnant ladies, children and low immunity persons.
• Fatality Rate: 0.1 to 10% of infected individuals.
• Treatment: There is no specific treatment for monkeypox at present.
• Preventions: Vaccines are available for monkeypox. Moreover, smallpox vaccines are also effective
against monkeypox.

Marburg Virus Disease (MVD)

• Marburg Virus Disease is a rare but severe haemorrhagic fever caused by the Marburg virus, a mem-
ber of the Filoviridae family (to which the Ebola virus also belongs). It is highly virulent and so has a
high fatality rate (88%).
• Natural Host: Rousettus aegyptiacus (Egyptian fruit bats) are the natural hosts of the Marburg virus.
• Transmission:
1. Animal-to-human: Primary infection occurs through exposure to infected Egyptian fruit bats. The
virus is found in their saliva, urine, and faeces.
2. Human-to-human: Direct contact with blood, bodily fluids (saliva, sweat, urine, faeces, vomit,
breast milk, semen, and pregnancy fluids), or contaminated materials (e.g. needles and bedding).
• Symptoms: Fever, chills, severe headache, cough, muscle or joint pain, sore throat, and rash.
• Complications: Haemorrhagic fever (nosebleeds, blood vomit, coughing up blood, and bleeding from
the gums), jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), organ failure (e.g., liver and kidney), encephalitis
and delirium.
• Treatment and prevention: Currently, no antiviral treatment or vaccine for MVD exists.

Covid-19
• COVID-19 is a highly contagious infectious zoonotic disease caused by the severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It was first identified in 2019 in Wuhan, China, then rapidly
spread worldwide, causing a global pandemic.

Coronaviruses

265
• Coronaviruses are a family of RNA viruses that can cause respiratory illness in humans. They are
called “corona” because of crown-like spikes on the virus's surface. PMF IAS – Science – Biology

• Examples of coronaviruses are severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory
syndrome (MERS) and the common cold.
• Several variants of SAR-CoV-2 have emerged, including Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron. Each variant
differed in transmissibility, severity, and immune escape potential.
• Natural Host: The origin of SARS-CoV-2 is not clear. But bats, pangolins, felines, minks, ferrets, and
rabbits are considered potential hosts due to their susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2.
• Transmission:
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 266
 1. Respiratory droplets: Droplets expelled when an infected person coughs, sneezes, talks, or
breathes can transmit the virus to nearby individuals.
2. Direct contact: Touching an infected person, like through handshakes, can transfer the virus.
3. Fomites: Touching contaminated surfaces or objects (e.g., door handles, phones).
• Symptoms: Fever, cough, fatigue, loss of taste or smell, sore throat, and shortness of breath.
• Complications: Pneumonia, Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), hypoxemia (low blood oxy-
gen levels), blood clots, acute kidney injury, secondary infections like black fungus, and long COVID.
• Treatment: Antivirals (like Remdesivir), immunomodulators (dexamethasone for inflammation), and
monoclonal antibodies (for early-stage infection in high-risk patients).
• Prevention:
1. Vaccination: Multiple vaccines such as mRNA-based vaccines (Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna)
and viral vector vaccines (AstraZeneca and Johnson & Johnson) were developed for COVID-19.
2. Other measures: Wearing masks, social distancing, regular hand hygiene, ventilation of indoor
spaces, and isolation and quarantine of infected individuals.

Long COVID
• Long COVID is defined as the continuation or development of new symptoms 3 months after the ini-
tial SARS-CoV-2 infection, which lasts for at least 2 months without any other explanation. The
common symptoms of long COVID include fatigue, shortness of breath and cognitive dysfunction.

Mucormycosis or Black Fungus

• Mucormycosis (or black fungus) is a rare but serious fungal infection caused by a group of molds
called mucormycetes. These fungi are found in the environment, particularly in soil, decaying organic
matter, compost, animal dung and air.
• Black fungus can be life-threatening in individuals with weak immune systems or underlying conditions.
• COVID-19 induced immunosuppression increases susceptibility to mucormycosis infection. It is ob-
served as a complication in individuals recovering from severe COVID-19, particularly those treated
with high doses of steroids and those who have underlying health conditions like diabetes.

Monoclonal Antibodies 267

Monoclonal antibodies (also called moAbs or mAbs) are proteins made in laboratories that act like
PMF IAS – Science – Biology
•
antibodies in our bodies. Antibodies are parts of our immune system. They seek out the antigens
(foreign materials) and stick to them to destroy them.
• The word “monoclonal” refers to:
1. The antibodies created in the laboratory are clones.
2. They are exact copies of one antibody.
• mAbs can be used for the treatment of cancer and autoimmune diseases and for the diagnosis and
 prevention of diseases.

Vaccine Types
• mRNA-based vaccines use genetically engineered messenger RNA (mRNA) to instruct cells to pro-
duce a protein that triggers an immune response.
• Viral vector-based vaccines use a harmless virus to carry the instructions for making antigens
from the disease-causing virus into cells, triggering protective immunity against it.

[UPSC 2022] In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandem-

ic, consider the following statements:
1. The Serum Institute of India produced a COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using an mRNA plat-
form.
2. Sputnik. V vaccine is manufactured using a vector-based platform.
3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen-based vaccine.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation
• Covishield is a vector-based vaccine developed by Oxford-AstraZeneca and manufactured in India
by the Serum Institute of India (SII). It is based on a replication-deficient viral vector platform. The
vaccine has been developed using a weakened version of the chimpanzee adenovirus as a vector.
The vector is genetically engineered to carry the gene for the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. When ad-
ministered, the adenovirus vectors deliver the genetic material into the body's cells. The cells then use
this genetic material to produce the spike protein of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The presence of the spike
protein triggers the body's immune system to produce antibodies against it.

268
• Sputnik V is a vector-based vaccine developed by Moscow’s Gamaleya Institute. It uses a viral vector
platform to induce an immune response against the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Sputnik V utilises two different
PMF IAS – Science – Biology

human adenoviruses (modified versions of viruses that cause the common cold) as vectors. These ad-
enoviruses are genetically modified to carry the gene for the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. When admin-
istered, the adenovirus delivers this genetic material into the body's cells. These cells then produce the
spike protein, which triggers the immune system to produce antibodies against it.
• Covaxin is an inactivated virus vaccine developed by Bharat Biotech in collaboration with the Indian
Council of Medical Research (ICMR) and the National Institute of Virology (NIV). It is India's first indig-
enous COVID-19 vaccine. Covaxin contains inactivated (killed) SARS-CoV-2 viruses. These inactivat-
 ed viruses cannot cause COVID-19 infection. However, they still contain viral proteins that trigger an
immune response in the body. This immune response produces antibodies that can recognise and neu-
tralise the virus if the person is later exposed.

Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Malaria
• Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. It is caused by
single-celled microorganisms of the Plasmodium group of protozoans (microscopic heterotrophs that
live as predators or parasites).

269
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PMF IAS – Science – Biology 270
• Five Plasmodium species cause malaria in humans. They are:
1. Plasmodium falciparum: It is the most severe form of malaria. It is commonly found in Africa,
and it can relapse. Recently, drug-resistant mutations have been seen in Plasmodium Falciparum.
2. Plasmodium vivax: This severe form of malaria is common in Asia and Latin America and can
cause relapses.
3. Plasmodium ovale: It is less severe, and it relapses less frequently.
4. Plasmodium malariae: It causes milder malaria.
5. Plasmodium knowlesi: It is a zoonotic malaria found in macaques, an old-world monkey of
Southeast Asia.
 Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax pose the greatest threat.
• Distribution: It is mostly found in tropical and subtropical areas of Africa, Asia, and South America.
• Transmission: Infected female Anopheles mosquitoes transmit Plasmodium parasites through bites.
The parasites multiply in the liver and destroy red blood cells (RBCs).
• Symptoms: Fever, chills, yellow skin, seizures etc.
• Treatment: Malaria is curable through antimalarial drugs. Some examples are:
1. Artemisinin-Based Combination Therapies (ACTs): These are the first-line treatment for uncom-
plicated malaria caused by P. falciparum.
2. Chloroquine: It is used for infections caused by P. vivax, P. ovale, and P. malariae. However, it is inef-
fective against chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum.
3. Quinine: It is used in severe malaria cases.
• Prevention: WHO recommends two vaccines to prevent malaria in children: RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix),
and R21/MatrixM. However, neither vaccine is currently available in India.

Tuberculosis (TB)
• Tuberculosis is a highly infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis of
Mycobacteriaceae family. Leprosy causing bacteria Mycobacterium Leprae also belongs to same family.
• Affected Areas: Tuberculosis primarily affects the lungs (pulmonary TB). It can also affect other or-
gans (extra-pulmonary TB), such as the kidneys, bones, lymph nodes, spine, and brain.
• Types of Tuberculosis: 271
1. Latent TB: The person is infected but does not show symptoms and cannot spread the disease.
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It can become active if it is not treated.

2. Active TB: The bacteria are multiplying and causing symptoms in the infected person. The per-
son with active TB can transmit the disease to others.
• Transmission: It spread from person to person through the air (through the cough, sneeze or spit of
an infected person).
• Symptoms: Persistent cough, coughing up blood, chest pain, fatigue, weight loss, night sweats, fever
and chills.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 272
• Complications:
1. Multidrug-Resistant TB (MDR-TB): MDR-TB is caused by TB bacteria that is resistant to two
most powerful first-line anti-TB drugs, isoniazid and rifampicin. MDR-TB is caused due to mis-
management of treatment and person-to-person transmission.
2. Extensively Drug-Resistant TB (XDR-TB): XDR-TB is a rare form of MDR-TB caused by TB bacte-
ria that are resistant to several of the most effective anti-TB drugs. It is resistant to isoniazid and
rifampicin, plus any fluoroquinolone and at least one of three injectable second-line drugs (amika-
cin, kanamycin, or capreomycin).
• Treatment:
 TB can be treated with a combination of antibiotics over a period of 6 to 9 months. The antibiot-
ics typically includes isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide.
 MDR-TB and XDR-TB do not respond to standard treatment and require special treatment regimens.
• Prevention: BCG vaccine (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) is given to infants and children in many coun-
tries (including India) to protect them from TB.

Diabetes
• Diabetes, also called diabetes mellitus, is a chronic, progressive non-communicable disease character-
ised by high levels of blood sugar (blood glucose) in the body.
• It occurs when:
1. The pancreas does not produce enough insulin hormone that regulates blood sugar.
2. The body cannot effectively use the insulin it produces.
• Hyperglycaemia (raised blood glucose) is a common effect of uncontrolled diabetes and over time
leads to serious damage to the body’s systems, especially the nerves and blood vessels.

Types of Diabetes
Type 1 Diabetes
• Cause: In Type 1 diabetes, the body's immune system attacks and destroys the insulin-producing
cells in the pancreas. Approximately 5-10% of the people who have diabetes have Type 1 diabetes.
• Age of onset: Type 1 diabetes typically occurs in childhood or adolescence. 273
• Management: It requires insulin injections for life, as the body cannot produce insulin.
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• Symptoms: Increased thirst, frequent urination, extreme fatigue, weight loss, and blurred vision.

Type 2 Diabetes
• Cause: In Type 2 diabetes, the body either becomes resistant to insulin or does not produce enough
insulin to maintain normal blood sugar levels. About 90-95% of people with diabetes have Type 2.
• Age of onset: Type 2 diabetes commonly develops in adults.
PMF IAS – Science – Biology 274
• Management: It can be managed with lifestyle changes (diet, exercise), oral medications, and some-
times insulin injections.
• Symptoms: Similar to Type 1, but may develop more slowly.

Type 1.5 Diabetes (LADA)

• Type 1.5 diabetes, also known as latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA), is a type of diabetes
that has features of both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.
• Cause: LADA is an autoimmune condition where the immune system mistakenly attacks the insu-
lin-producing cells (beta cells) in the pancreas.
• Age of onset: LADA usually occurs in adults, often after the age of 30. It develops more slowly than
Type 1 diabetes, which is why it can sometimes be misdiagnosed as Type 2 diabetes.
• Management: LADA may be treated with oral medications, but as the disease progresses and insulin
production decreases, insulin therapy is eventually required.
• Symptoms: Similar to those of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.

Gestational Diabetes
• Cause: Gestational diabetes occurs during pregnancy when the body cannot produce enough insu-
lin to meet the increased needs, leading to high blood sugar.
• Age of onset: It typically develops around the second or third trimester.
• Management: It can be often controlled through diet and exercise, and sometimes insulin.
• Symptoms: Similar to Type 2 diabetes but may not show noticeable symptoms.

Complications of Diabetes
• Heart disease and stroke, kidney damage (diabetic nephropathy), nerve damage (neuropathy), eye
damage (retinopathy), poor wound healing and increased risk of infection.

Prevention and Management

• Lifestyle changes: Regular physical activity, healthy diet, and maintaining a healthy weight.
• Monitoring blood sugar levels: Regular monitoring.

275
• Medications: Oral medications or insulin therapy may be needed to control blood sugar levels.

West Nile Virus (WNV)

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• West Nile Virus infection is an infectious mosquito-borne disease caused by West Nile Virus (an RNA
virus). It infects humans, birds, and animals. West Nile Virus belongs to the Flavivirus genus, which also
includes viruses like dengue, Zika, and yellow fever.
• Reservoir Hosts: Birds are the reservoir hosts of West Nile Virus.
• Transmission:
1. WNV is mainly transmitted to humans by the infected mosquitoes of the Culex species.
 2. It rarely spread through blood transfusions, organ transplants, or from mother to child during
pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
• Symptoms: WNV infections are mostly asymptomatic (80%). Mild symptoms include fever, headache,
fatigue, skin rash and body aches. Severe symptoms include neurological issues such as encephalitis or
meningitis, high fever, stiff neck, muscle weakness, seizures or paralysis, and coma.
• Treatment and Prevention: There is no specific antiviral treatment or vaccine is available for hu-
mans for WNV. Only supportive care can be provided.

Elephantiasis (Lymphatic Filariasis)

• Elephantiasis is a neglected tropical disease. It is caused by parasitic worms: Wuchereria bancrofti
(most common), Brugia malayi, and Brugia timori.
• Transmission: Elephantiasis is transmitted through bites of infected mosquitoes (mainly Culex,
Anopheles, and Aedes species).
• Affected Areas: It affects the lymphatic system, particularly in the legs, arms, breasts, and genitals.
• Symptoms: Swelling of limbs (lymphedema), thickening of skin and underlying tissues (elephantiasis),
genital swelling, pain, and fever.
• Treatment: Though elephantiasis is not curable it can be managed by antiparasitic medications.
• Prevention: It can be prevented through mosquito control and mass drug administration (MDA)
with antiparasitic medications.
 India aims to end lymphatic filariasis by 2027, three years ahead of the global target.

13.11. Immunity

• Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist a particular disease or infection. It's the body's de-
fence system against harmful invaders like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
• Immunity can be categorised into two main types: innate immunity and acquired immunity.

Innate Immunity
Innate immunity is present from birth. It is the first line of defence, providing immediate but gen-
276
•
eral protection against pathogens.
• Characteristics of innate immunity are:
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1. Non-specific: Innate immunity targets a wide range of pathogens.

2. Fast acting: It provides immediate defence.
3. No memory: It does not "remember" previous infections.
• Components of innate immunity:
1. Physical barriers: Epithelial layers, which include the skin and mucous membranes, block the en-
try of pathogens.
 2. Physiological barriers: These include acid in the stomach, saliva, and tears.
3. Cellular barriers: White blood cells (WBCs) such as neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer
(NK) cells that recognise and destroy invaders.
4. Cytokine barriers: Virus-infected cells release proteins called interferons, which protect healthy
cells from viral infections.
• White blood cells involved in innate immunity are:
1. Phagocytes: They circulate through the body, engulfing and destroying foreign substances to de-
fend against pathogens.
2. Macrophages: They move through blood vessel walls and release signals (cytokines) to attract
other immune cells to infection sites.
3. Mast cells: They help in wound healing and infection defence.
4. Neutrophils: They perform phagocytosis and contain antimicrobial substances that help them kill
and digest the engulfed pathogens.
5. Eosinophils: They have toxic proteins that destroy bacteria and parasites.
6. Basophils: They release histamine to improve blood flow to damaged tissue and heparin to pre-
vent unwanted blood clots. They also help fight against allergens and parasites.
7. Natural Killer (NK) cells: They prevent the spreading of infection by killing infected host cells.
8. Dendritic cells: These immune cells, found in tissues, detect infection and alert the immune sys-
tem by presenting antigens.

Acquired Immunity or Adaptive Immunity

• Acquired immunity, also known as adaptive immunity, is the specific defence system the body devel-
ops after encountering a foreign substance, such as a pathogen (bacteria, virus, etc.).
• Characteristics of acquired immunity are:
1. Specific: Acquired immunity targets specific pathogens or antigens.
2. Slow acting: It develops over time after the first exposure.
3. Memory: It remembers past infections, leading to faster responses on subsequent exposures.

White Blood Cells Involved in Acquired Immunity

277
B Cells (B Lymphocytes)
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• B-cells are WBCs that develop in the bone marrow.

• B-cells activate when they encounter foreign particles (antigens). Upon activation, B-cells become
plasma cells, which make specific antibodies for the antigen. The antibodies then attach to the an-
tigen’s surface, making it easier for the immune cells to destroy the antigen.
• This type of immunity provided by B-cells by producing antibodies to fight against pathogens is called
humoral immunity. It is called humoral immunity because it involves substances found in the body's
fluids or humors.
T Cells (T Lymphocytes)
• T-cells are WBCs formed in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus.
• Types of T-cells and their functions:
1. Helper T cells: They activate other immune cells, including cytotoxic T cells and B cells. They al-
so release cytokines, signalling molecules that help coordinate the immune response.
2. Cytotoxic T cells: These are the "killer cells" of the immune system. They destroy infected cells
directly by releasing toxic substances and inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death).
3. Regulatory T Cells: They control and regulate immune responses to prevent overreaction.
• The type of immunity provided by T-cells is called cell-mediated immunity. Cell-mediated immunity is
an immune response that does not involve antibodies. Instead, it relies on activating phagocytes
(e.g., macrophages), antigen-specific cytotoxic T-cells, and releasing various cytokines in response
to an antigen.

Types of Acquired Immunity

• Acquired immunity can be classified into two main types based on how immunity is obtained: active
immunity and passive immunity.

Active Immunity
• In active immunity, the body produces its own antibodies and immune cells in response to an anti-
gen. It is further classified into:
1. Natural Active Immunity: It occurs when the body is exposed to pathogens through natural in-
fection. E.g., immunity developed after recovering from chickenpox.
2. Artificial Active Immunity: It is induced by vaccines containing weakened, killed, or parts of path-
ogens. E.g., immunity after receiving a measles vaccine.
• Active immunity provides long-term protection (sometimes lifelong) because it develops memory
cells, which helps to fight future infections.

Passive Immunity

278
• In passive immunity, immunity is transferred from an external source, rather than being produced by
the body. It is further classified into:
1. Natural Passive Immunity: It involves the transfer of antibodies from mother to child via pla-
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centa or breast milk.

2. Artificial Passive Immunity: It involves the transfer of pre-formed antibodies or immune cells.
E.g., antivenom for snake bites and rabies immunoglobulin.
• Passive immunity provides immediate but short-lived protection because it doesn't produce memory
cells to fight future infections.
[UPSC 2022] Which one of the following statements best describes the role of B cells

279
and T cells in the human body?
a) They protect the body from environmental allergens.
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b) They alleviate the body’s pain and inflammation.

c) They act as immunosuppressants in the body.
d) They protect the body from the diseases caused by pathogens.

Explanation
• The human body's primary and secondary immune responses involve two specific types of lymphocytes
found in the blood: B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells).
• Both B-cells and T-cells contribute to acquired immunity.
• B-cells play a key role in the antibody-mediated immune response. They produce antibodies that cir-
culate in the bloodstream and target pathogens.
• On the other hand, T-cells are responsible for the cell-mediated immune response. Unlike B-cells, T-
cells do not secrete antibodies themselves, but they assist B-cells in producing antibodies.

Answer: (d) They protect the body from the diseases caused by pathogens

13.12. Antibodies

• Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins (Ig), are specialised proteins produced by B cells of
the immune system in response to foreign molecules (antigens) such as bacteria, viruses, and tox-
ins. They are critical in identifying and neutralising harmful pathogens or foreign substances.

Types of Antibodies
IgA
• IgAis found in mucosal secretions (e.g., tears, saliva, and breast milk).
• IgA, the second most abundant antibody, protects mucosal surfaces, such as the respiratory and gas-
trointestinal tract, from the attack of pathogens.

IgD
• IgD is found on the surface of the B cells.
• Though IgD’s exact function is unclear, it is held that IgD supports B cell maturation and activation.

IgE
• IgE is found mainly in the skin, lungs and mucus membranes.
• IgE plays a crucial role in allergic reactions. It is produced by the immune system in response to al-
lergens (such as pollen, pet dander, or certain foods). When IgE binds to allergens, it triggers the re-
lease of histamine and other chemicals from mast cells and basophils, leading to symptoms like itch-

280
ing, swelling, and inflammation. IgE-mediated food allergies are a leading cause of anaphylaxis, a se-
vere and potentially fatal allergic reaction.
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• IgE is also involved in the body's defence against parasitic infections.

• Normally IgE are found in small amounts in the blood. So, elevated levels of IgE can indicate an allergic
condition or a parasitic infection.

IgG
• IgG is the most common antibody (approximately 70% to 75% of all immunoglobulins in the body).
• IgG is found mainly in blood and extracellular fluids.
• IgG provides long-term immunity after exposure to pathogens (either through infection or vaccina-
tion). It crosses the placenta to provide passive immunity to the fetus.

IgM
• IgM is found in the blood and lymph system.
• IgM is the first antibody produced in response to infection. It plays a key role in the initial immune
system defence to protect the body.

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 PMF IAS

Physics
 1. Units and Measurements

1.1. Physical Quantities

• A physical quantity is a property of a material or system that can be measured or calculated and ex-
pressed in terms of a numerical value and a unit.

Types of Physical Quantities

• Based on units, physical quantities are classified into two main types. They are:
1. Fundamental Quantities: These are physical quantities that are not derived from other quanti-
ties. They are independent of each other, and their measurements do not rely on any other phys-
ical quantities. They are also known as base quantities. E.g., length, mass, time, electric current,
temperature, amount of substance, and luminous intensity.
2. Derived Quantities: These are quantities derived from the fundamental quantities using math-
ematical relationships. E.g., velocity, acceleration, force and energy.
 In the revised SI system, plane angles (radian) and solid angles (steradian) are now considered dimen-
sionless derived quantities rather than a separate category.
• Based on direction and magnitude, physical quantities are classified into two main types. They are:
1. Scalar Quantities: These quantities have only magnitude and no direction. E.g., mass, time, speed,
temperature and energy.
2. Vector Quantities: These quantities have both magnitude and direction. E.g., displacement, ve-
locity, force, acceleration and electric field.

1.2. Units

• The measurement of any physical quantity involves comparing it with a standard reference called a
unit. The result of a measurement is expressed as a number followed by a unit.
• Characteristics of a standard unit are:
1. Well-defined: Its definition should be clear, unambiguous, and easily understood by everyone. 1
2. Invariable: It should not change with time, place, or physical conditions.
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3. Reproducible: The unit should be accurately and consistently reproducible in different laboratories
worldwide.
4. Accessible: The unit should be easily available to anyone who needs to use it.
5. Convenient Size: The unit’s size should be convenient for practical use.
6. Universally Accepted: The unit should be accepted and used internationally.

Types of Units
1. Fundamental Units: These units are not derived from other units. They are used for fundamental
quantities. E.g., metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, mole and candela.
2. Derived Units: These units are formed by combining fundamental units using mathematical relation-
ships. They are used for derived quantities. E.g., speed, force, energy and pressure.

1.3. System of Units

• A complete set of units that includes both base units and derived units is known as a system of
units. The system's name is based on the fundamental units it is built around.
• The most common systems of units are the CGS system, MKS FPS system, FPS system, and SI system.

CGS System
• The CGS system uses centimetre (cm) for length, gram (g) for mass, and second (s) for time as its base
units. It is also known as the Gaussian system and is primarily used in academic physics.

MKS System
• The MKS system uses meter (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, and second (s) for time as its base
units. This system forms the basis of the SI system. The MKS system is primarily used in engineering.

FPS System
• The FPS system uses foot (ft) for length, pound (lb) for mass, and second (s) for time as its base units.
This system is also known as the British system. It is primarily used in the United States and for certain
engineering applications.

SI System (International System of Units)

• The SI system is the modern, globally accepted system for measuring physical quantities. It is based
on seven fundamental (base) units and includes derived units for other quantities.

Fundamental (Base) Units of SI System

Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol Defining Constant
Length Meter m Speed of light in a vacuum 2

Mass Kilogram kg Planck constant

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Time Second s Hyperfine transition frequency of cesium-133 atoms

Electric Current Ampere A Elementary charge
Thermodynamic Temperature Kelvin K Boltzmann constant
Amount of Substance Mole mol Avogadro constant
Luminous Intensity Candela cd The luminous efficacy of monochromatic radiation
 of frequency 540THz

Derived Units of SI System

Derived Quantity SI Unit Symbol Formula
Area Square meter m2 Length x Width
Volume Cubic meter m3 Length x Width x Height
Speed, Velocity Meter/second m/s Distance / Time
Acceleration Meter/second² m/s2 Change in velocity / Time
Force Newton N (kg.m/s²) Mass x Acceleration
Energy, Work Joule J (kg.m²/s²) Force x Distance
Power Watt W (kg.m²/s³) Work / Time
Pressure Pascal Pa (kg.m⁻¹.s⁻²) Force / Area
Electric Charge Coulomb C (A.s) Current x Time
Electric Potential Volt V (kg.m2.s-3.A-1) Work done/ Electric charge
Resistance Ohm Ω (kg.m2.s-3.A-2) Voltage / Electric current
Capacitance Farad F (kg .m .s .A )
-1 -2 4 2
Charge / Voltage
Frequency Hertz Hz (s⁻¹) Cycles / Time

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 2. Motion

• Motion is the change in the position of an object with respect to a reference point and time. An ob-
ject is said to be in motion if it changes its position relative to its surroundings.
• Rest refers to the state of an object when its position does not change with respect to a reference
point over time. An object is said to be at rest if it remains stationary relative to its surroundings.

2.1. Types of Motion

Based on the Nature of the Movement

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1. Translational Motion: Translational motion occurs when all parts of an object move in the same di-
rection and by the same distance simultaneously. Essentially, the object moves from one point to
another without any change in its orientation. This motion can occur along a straight line or curved
path. E.g., a car moving on a straight road.
2. Rotational Motion: Rotational motion refers to the movement of an object around a fixed axis or
point such that every point in the object moves in a circular path. E.g., a ceiling fan rotating.
3. Periodic Motion: Periodic motion refers to any motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time.
4. Oscillatory Motion: Oscillatory motion is a type of periodic motion in which an object moves back
and forth about a fixed equilibrium position. E.g., motions of a pendulum and swing.
 Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a type of periodic motion in which an object oscillates about
an equilibrium position, and the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement from
the equilibrium and acts towards the equilibrium.
5. Vibratory Motion: This is a type of oscillatory motion where an object moves back and forth, up and
down, or pulsates around a fixed point. E.g., plucking a guitar string.
6. Random Motion: Random motion refers to an object's irregular and unpredictable movement. The
direction and speed of motion change without any specific pattern. E.g., dust moving in the air.

5
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Based on the Path an Object Follows

1. Rectilinear (Linear) Motion: Rectilinear motion refers to the motion of an object along a straight line.
In this type, the motion’s direction does not change. E.g., a car moving on a straight road.
2. Curvilinear Motion: Curvilinear motion refers to the motion of an object along a curved path. In this
type, the motion’s direction continuously changes. E.g., a car going around a curve.
3. Circular Motion: Circular motion refers to the motion of an object along a circular path. The object
moves at a constant distance (radius) from a fixed central point. The motion’s direction continuously
changes. E.g., a satellite orbiting the Earth.

Based on Speed
1. Uniform Motion: Motion in which an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time is
called uniform motion. The object moves at a constant velocity throughout the motion. E.g., a car
moving at a constant speed of 60 km/h.
2. Non-Uniform Motion: Motion in which an object covers unequal distances in equal intervals of
time is called non-uniform motion. The object moves at a variable speed throughout the motion. E.g.,
a car slowing down or speeding up in traffic.

Based on Dimensions
1. One-Dimensional Motion: This motion occurs along a straight line in a single direction. Only one
coordinate (x) changes with time. E.g., a car moving along a straight road.
2. Two-Dimensional Motion: This motion occurs in a plane in two directions. Two coordinates (x and y)
change with time. E.g., a ball thrown in the air following a parabolic trajectory.
3. Three-Dimensional Motion: This motion occurs in space involving three directions. Three coordi-
nates (x, y, and z) change with time. E.g., flight of a bird.

6
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2.2. Distance and Displacement

Distance
• Distance is the total path length an object travels, irrespective of its direction. It is a scalar quantity
(has only magnitude, no direction). Distance is always positive or zero.
• E.g., if a person walks 3 km east and then 4 km west, the distance travelled is 3 km + 4 km=7 km.

Displacement
• Displacement is the change in position of an object from its initial point to its final point. It basically
gives the net change in position. It is the shortest straight-line distance between an object's initial
and final positions, along with its direction.
• It is a vector quantity (has both magnitude and direction). It can be positive, negative, or zero. It is
independent of the path taken because it only considers the initial and final positions.
• Formula for displacement is: Displacement = Final position − Initial position.
• E.g., if a person walks 3 km east and 4 km west, the displacement is -1 km west.

Distance vs Displacement
Feature Distance Displacement
Type Scalar Vector
Direction Not considered Considered
Value Always positive or zero Can be positive, negative, or zero
7
Path Depends on the actual path Depends only on the initial and final positions
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Example Total steps walked in a journey Straight-line distance from start to end

2.3. Speed

• Speed is the rate at which an object covers distance over time, irrespective of direction. It is a scalar
quantity that describes how fast an object is moving.
• The formula for speed is: Speed = Distance / Time. The common units for speed include meters per
second (m/s), kilometres per hour (km/h), and miles per hour (mph). Speed cannot be negative.
• E.g., a car travelling at 60 km/h.

Types of Speed
1. Uniform Speed: When an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is called uni-
form speed. E.g., a car moving at a constant speed of 60 km/h.
2. Non-Uniform Speed: When an object covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time, it is called
non-uniform speed. E.g., a car in city traffic.
3. Average Speed: The total distance travelled divided by the total time taken is called average speed
(Average Speed = Total Distance / Total Time). E.g., if a car travels 100 km in 2 hours, its average
speed is 50 km/h.
4. Instantaneous Speed: The speed of an object at a specific moment in time is called instantaneous
speed. E.g., the speed shown on a car's speedometer at any given instant.

2.4. Velocity

• Velocity is the rate at which an object changes its position, considering both magnitude and direc-
tion. It is a vector quantity (has both magnitude and direction).
• The formula for velocity is: Velocity = Displacement / Time. The common units for velocity include
meters per second (m/s), kilometres per hour (km/h), and miles per hour (mph).
• E.g., a car travelling at 60 km/h northward.

Types of Velocity
1. Uniform Velocity: When an object covers equal displacements in equal intervals of time, it is called
uniform velocity. E.g., a car traveling at a constant speed of 60 km/h on a straight road.
2. Non-Uniform Velocity: When an object covers unequal displacements in equal intervals of time, it
is called non-uniform velocity. E.g., a car accelerating from a stoplight.
3. Average Velocity: The total displacement divided by the total time taken is called average velocity (Av-
erage Velocity = Total Displacement / Total Time). E.g., if a person walks 5 km north, then 3 km
south in 2 hours, then the total displacement will be 5 km – 3 km = 2 km (north), and the average ve-
locity will be 2 km / 2h = 1km/h (north). 8
4. Instantaneous Velocity: The velocity of an object at a specific point in time or at a particular instant.
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Feature Speed Velocity

Type Scalar quantity Vector quantity
Depends on Distance Displacement
Direction Not considered Direction is essential
Formula Speed = Distance / Time Velocity = Displacement / Time
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2.5. Relative Velocity

• Relative velocity is the velocity of an object in relation to another object. It measures how fast two
objects are moving with respect to each other. It helps to understand how objects move and interact
with one another.
• If objects move in the same direction: Relative Velocity = Difference in Magnitudes. E.g., if objects A
and B move at velocities of 50km/h east and 30km/h east, then the relative velocity is 20 km/h east.
• If objects move in opposite directions: Relative Velocity = Sum of Magnitudes. E.g., if objects A and B
move at velocities of 50km/h east and 30km/h west, then the relative velocity is 80 km/h east.

2.6. Acceleration

• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time. It measures how
quickly an object's velocity changes. It is a vector quantity (has both magnitude and direction).
• The formula for acceleration is: Acceleration = (Final velocity – Initial velocity) / Time interval.
• The S.I. unit for acceleration is m/s2.

Types of Acceleration
1. Uniform Acceleration: The acceleration remains constant over time in uniform acceleration. It occurs
when the object’s velocity changes by the same amount in equal intervals of time (i.e., constant rate
of change of velocity). E.g., free fall under gravity (ignoring air resistance).
2. Non-Uniform Acceleration: The acceleration varies over time in non-uniform acceleration. It occurs
when the object’s velocity changes by different amounts in equal intervals of time (i.e., the rate of
change of velocity is not constant). E.g., a car accelerating in traffic with varying speeds.
3. Positive Acceleration: It occurs when an object’s velocity increases over time. E.g., a car speeding up.
4. Negative Acceleration (Deceleration): It occurs when an object’s velocity decreases over time. E.g., a
car slowing down.
5. Zero Acceleration: It occurs when an object’s velocity remains constant (i.e., there is no change in
speed or direction). E.g., a car moving at a constant speed on a straight road.
6. Average Acceleration: It is defined as the total change in velocity of an object divided by the total time
taken for that change (Average acceleration = Total change in velocity / Total time taken).
7. Instantaneous Acceleration: It is the rate of change of velocity at a specific instant or point in time.

2.7. Graphical Representation of Motion

10
• The graphical representation of motion is an effective way to analyse and understand the relationship
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between physical quantities like displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time.

Distance-Time Graph
• A distance-time graph shows how the distance an object covers changes over time. In the distance-time
graph, the X-axis represents time, the Y-axis represents distance, and the slope of the line represents
speed. Key features of this graph are:
1. A straight, diagonal line indicates that the object is moving at a constant speed.
 2. A flat, horizontal line indicates that the object is stationary (no change in distance over time).
3. A curved line indicates changing speed. Upward curving indicates increasing speed (positive ac-
celeration), and downward curving indicates decreasing speed (negative acceleration or decelera-
tion).
4. A steeper line indicates a higher speed.

Velocity-Time Graph

11
• A velocity-time graph represents how the velocity of an object changes with respect to time. In the ve-
locity-time graph, the X-axis represents time, the Y-axis represents velocity, and the slope of the line
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represents acceleration. Key features of this graph are:

1. A horizontal line shows constant velocity (zero acceleration).
2. A straight line with a positive slope indicates uniform acceleration.
3. A straight line with a negative slope indicates uniform deceleration.
4. The area under the curve represents the displacement.
5. A curved line indicates non-uniform acceleration.
6. A steeper line indicates a higher acceleration.
 7. When the line touches the X-axis, velocity is zero. If the line goes below the X-axis, it indicates mo-
tion in the opposite direction.

Acceleration-Time Graph
• An acceleration-time graph represents how an object's acceleration changes over time. In the accelera-
tion-time graph, the X-axis represents time, and the Y-axis represents acceleration. Key features of
this graph are:

12
1. A straight horizontal line indicates uniform acceleration.
2. A changing line (not horizontal) indicates non-uniform acceleration.
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3. A horizontal line along the X-axis indicates zero acceleration (constant velocity).
4. When the line is above the X-axis, it indicates positive acceleration.
5. When the line is below the X-axis, it indicates negative acceleration (deceleration).
6. The area under the acceleration-time graph represents the change in velocity.

Displacement-Time Graph
• A displacement-time graph represents how an object's displacement changes over time. In the accelera-
tion-time graph, the X-axis represents time, the Y-axis represents displacement, and the slope of the
line represents velocity. Key features of this graph are:
1. A straight, diagonal line indicates constant velocity.
2. A curved line indicates changing velocity. Upward curving indicates positive acceleration, and
downward curving indicates negative acceleration (deceleration).
3. A flat, horizontal line indicates the object is stationary (displacement remains constant).
4. A downward-sloping line indicates motion in the negative direction.

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2.8. Equations of Motion

• The equations of motion describe the relationship between displacement, velocity, acceleration, and
time for objects moving with uniform acceleration.

First Equation of Motion

• 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
• Where, 𝑣𝑣 = final velocity, 𝑢𝑢 = initial velocity, 𝑎𝑎 = acceleration, and 𝑡𝑡 = time taken.
• This equation relates the change in velocity of an object to its acceleration over time.

Second Equation of Motion

1
• 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 2
2
• Where, 𝑠𝑠 = displacement, 𝑣𝑣 = final velocity, 𝑢𝑢 = initial velocity, 𝑎𝑎 = acceleration, and 𝑡𝑡 = time taken.
• This equation provides the displacement of an object in terms of its initial velocity, acceleration, and
time.

Third Equation of Motion

• 𝑣𝑣 2 = 𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
• Where, 𝑣𝑣 = final velocity, 𝑢𝑢 = initial velocity, 𝑎𝑎 = acceleration, and 𝑠𝑠 = displacement.
• This equation relates the velocities (initial and final), displacement, and acceleration of an object, inde-
pendent of time.

2.9. Motion Under Gravity

• Motion under gravity refers to the motion of objects under the influence of the gravitational force of
the Earth (in the absence of any other forces like air resistance). In such cases, the only force acting on
the object is the gravitational pull, which gives it a constant acceleration directed toward the Earth's
centre. The acceleration due to gravity (𝑔𝑔) is approximately 9.8 m/s2 near the Earth's surface. 𝑔𝑔 is con-
sidered positive when the object moves downward (free fall) and negative when the object moves up-
ward (against gravity).

Equations of Motion Under Gravity

• The equations of motion can be modified to include 𝑔𝑔 as the acceleration term:
 𝑎𝑎 = −𝑔𝑔: When the object moves upward (against gravity).
 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑔𝑔: When the object moves downward (with gravity).
• Let, 𝑣𝑣 = final velocity, 𝑢𝑢 = initial velocity, ℎ = height or displacement, 𝑡𝑡 = time taken, and 𝑔𝑔 = accelera-

14
tion due to gravity, the equations of motion under gravity will be:
1. First equation: 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑢𝑢 ± 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
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2. Second equation: ℎ = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 ± 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 2

1
2

3. Third equation: 𝑣𝑣 2 = 𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝑔𝑔ℎ

Free Fall
• Free fall refers to the motion of an object when it is dropped from a height, and the only force acting
on it is gravity. In such cases, initial velocity (𝒖𝒖) = 0, and the object experiences constant accelera-
tion due to gravity (𝒈𝒈= 9.8 m/s2).
 Simplified equations of motion for free fall are: 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, ℎ = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 2 , and 𝑣𝑣 2 = 2𝑔𝑔ℎ.
1
•
2

Objects Thrown Upwards

• When an object is thrown upward, it moves against the force of gravity. Its velocity decreases because
of the acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2). It eventually reaches a point where the velocity be-
comes zero (at the highest point). After this, the object starts descending under the influence of
gravity.

2.10. Projectile Motion

• Projectile motion refers to the motion of an object that is projected into the air and moves under the
influence of gravity. This motion combines horizontal motion with constant velocity and vertical
motion with constant acceleration due to gravity (𝑔𝑔= 9.8 m/s2).

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• Key characteristics of projectile motion are:

1. Two-dimensional motion: Projectile motion is a two-dimensional motion with both horizontal and
vertical components.
2. Parabolic trajectory: The object follows a parabolic trajectory due to the simultaneous horizontal
motion and the vertical influence of gravity.
 3. Independent components: The horizontal and vertical components of motion are independent of
each other.

2.11. Circular Motion

• Circular motion refers to the motion of an object along a circular path. The motion can be uniform
(constant speed) or non-uniform (varying speed).
• Key characteristics of circular motion are:
1. Constant radius: The distance between the object and the circle's centre remains constant.
2. Continuous change in direction: Even if the object moves at a constant speed, its velocity is con-
stantly changing because its direction is constantly changing.
3. Centripetal acceleration: Due to the constant change in direction, an object in circular motion
experiences an acceleration directed towards the circle's centre (centripetal acceleration).
4. Tangential velocity: The object’s velocity is always tangential to the circular path.
5. Angular velocity: It is the rate of change of angular displacement. Angular displacement
measures the angle through which an object moves on a circular path about a fixed point (or axis). It
is a vector quantity that represents the change in the object's angular position.

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---------- End of Chapter ----------

 3. Force and Laws of Motion

3.1. Force

• Force is an external agent that can change an object's state of motion or rest. It is a vector quantity,
meaning it has both magnitude and direction.
• Force refers to the push or pull exerted on a body of any mass due to its encounter with another
body. It can cause an object to accelerate, decelerate, change direction, or deform.
• The S.I. unit of force is Newton (N).

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3.2. Basic or Fundamental Forces in Nature

• Four fundamental forces in nature govern all known interactions between particles in the universe.
These forces are responsible for the behaviour of matter and energy at all scales. These forces are:
1. Gravitational Force
2. Electromagnetic Force
 3. Strong Nuclear Force
4. Weak Nuclear Force

Gravitational Force
• Gravitational force is an attractive force that acts between two masses. According to Einstein's Gen-
eral Theory of Relativity, gravity rises from the curvature of space-time caused by mass and energy.
• Gravitational force is the weakest of the four forces but acts over infinite distances. Though infinite,
gravity diminishes with distance (it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance).
• It is responsible for the structure and motion of celestial bodies like stars, planets, and galaxies. It
keeps objects grounded on Earth.
• E.g., Earth's gravitational pull keeps the Moon in orbit and makes objects fall toward the ground.

Electromagnetic Force
• Electromagnetic force (or Lorentz force) acts between charged particles. It can be attractive or re-
pulsive, depending on the charges (like charges repel, opposite charges attract).
• It is much stronger than gravitational force. It acts over an infinite range but weakens with distance.
• Electromagnetic force is mediated by photons (particles of light and electromagnetic radiation). This
force is governed by the Coulomb's Law.
• It governs the behaviour of charged particles and is responsible for electricity, magnetism, and light.
It dominates all phenomena on atomic and molecular scales.
• E.g., Force between two magnets and electrostatic force between a comb and hair.

Strong Nuclear Force

• Strong nuclear force is the strongest of all fundamental forces. It acts between protons and neutrons
in an atomic nucleus to bind them together. It overcomes the repulsive electromagnetic force between
positively charged protons.
• Strong nuclear force is mediated by particles called gluons. Its range is very short (it acts generally
within the nucleus), but its force increases with distance (only within a very short range).

18
• It is responsible for the stability of atomic nuclei. It governs nuclear reactions like fusion and fission.
• E.g., the binding of the helium nucleus together and the release of energy in the Sun’s fusion process.
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Weak Nuclear Force

• Weak nuclear force is responsible for the radioactive decay of atoms because it causes beta decay.
• It is weaker than the strong nuclear force and electromagnetic force but stronger than gravity.
• Its range is extremely short (it acts only at subatomic distances).
• Weak nuclear force plays a key role in nuclear reactions in stars. It helps in processes that produce
neutrinos and other subatomic particles.
• E.g., Beta minus decay of a neutron into a proton, electron, and antineutrino and the process powering
the Sun's energy output.

Comparison Between Four Fundamental Forces of Nature

Force Relative Strength Range Acts On Mediating Particle
Gravitational Force Weakest Infinite All masses Gravitons (hypothetical)
Electromagnetic Force 2nd Strongest Infinite Charged particles Photons
Strong Nuclear Force Strongest Very short Nucleons (protons Gluons
& neutrons), quarks
Weak Nuclear Force 3rd Strongest Very short Subatomic particles W and Z bosons

3.3. Types of Forces

Contact Forces
• These forces arise when two objects are in physical contact. These forces include:
1. Frictional Force: This force opposes the relative motion between two surfaces in contact. E.g., a
ball rolling on the ground eventually stops due to friction.
2. Tension Force: The pulling force transmitted through a string, rope, or cable when stretched. E.g., a
rope pulling a bucket from a well.
3. Normal Force: Normal force is the perpendicular force a surface exerts on an object resting on it.
This force acts vertically upward (opposing the force of gravity), ensuring that the object remains
in an equilibrium state (neither sinking into the surface nor accelerating upward).
4. Air Resistance Force: It is the force that opposes the motion of an object moving through the air.
Also known as drag, it is the frictional force of air. E.g., the resistance felt by a skydiver.
5. Fluid Resistance Force: It is the force that a fluid exerts on an object moving through it in the op-
posite direction of the object's motion. Also known as drag, it is the frictional force of water. E.g.,
the resistance felt by a swimmer.
6. Buoyant Force: The upward force exerted by a fluid on an object submerged in it. E.g., a boat

19
floating on water. According to Archimedes' principle, "The upward buoyant force that is exerted on
a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid
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that the body displaces".

7. Applied Force: The force exerted on an object by another object or person (manually or mechan-
ically). E.g., pushing a car to move it.
8. Spring Force: This is the restoring force exerted by a stretched or compressed spring. E.g., a
stretched rubber band pulling back to its original shape.

Non-Contact Forces
• These forces act over a distance without physical contact between objects. These include the four
fundamental forces of nature (discussed above separately).

Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

1. Balanced Forces: Balanced forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, so they cancel
each other out, and there is no change in the state of motion. E.g., resting against a wall.
2. Unbalanced Forces: Unbalanced forces act on an object with different magnitudes so they do not
cancel each other out. This results in a change in the object's motion. E.g., a soccer ball being kicked.

Internal and External Forces

1. Internal Forces: Forces that act within a system or object. E.g., tension within a stretched rubber band.
2. External Forces: Forces that act on a system from outside. E.g., wind pushing against a car.

Conservative and Non-Conservative Forces

1. Conservative Forces: Work done by conservative forces is path-independent and depends only on
the initial and final positions. E.g., gravitational force and electrostatic force.
2. Non-Conservative Forces: Work done by non-conservative forces depends on the path taken. E.g.,
friction and air resistance.

Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

1. Centripetal Force: It acts towards the centre of a circular path, keeping an object in a circular mo-
tion. E.g., the tension in a string while swinging a ball.
2. Centrifugal Force: It is an apparent force that acts outward, away from the centre, in a rotating
frame of reference. E.g., the sensation of being pushed outward while taking a sharp turn in a car.

Real and Apparent Forces

1. Real Force: Real force arises from physical interactions between objects or fields and has a meas-
urable origin (such as gravity, friction, tension, or electromagnetic effects). It obeys Newton's laws of
motion and is responsible for causing changes in motion, shape, or energy transfer in an object. E.g.,
four fundamental forces of nature and contact forces. 20
2. Apparent or Pseudo Force: An apparent force (or fictitious force) is a force that arises when an object
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is observed from a non-inertial (accelerating) reference frame. Any physical interaction does not
cause it but appears due to the acceleration of the reference frame itself. E.g., centrifugal force
(experienced in a rotating frame of reference) and Coriolis force (experienced on a rotating Earth).

Cohesive and Adhesive Forces

1. Cohesive Force: The attraction between similar molecules is called cohesive force. E.g., water mole-
cules sticking together.
2. Adhesive Force: The attraction between different types of molecules is called adhesive force. E.g.,
water molecules sticking to a glass surface.

3.4. Inertia

• Inertia is the property of an object that resists any change in its state of motion or rest. Inertia is
directly proportional to the mass of an object (i.e., the greater the mass, the greater the inertia).

Types of Inertia
1. Inertia of Rest: The tendency of an object to remain in its state of rest. E.g., dust particles on a carpet
fly up when the carpet is shaken, as they resist motion.
2. Inertia of Motion: The tendency of an object to continue in its state of uniform motion. E.g., a moving
car comes to a stop, but passengers lurch forward due to the inertia of motion.
3. Inertia of Direction: The tendency of an object to resist changes to its direction of motion. E.g., when a
vehicle turns, objects inside slide to the side due to resistance to directional change.

Moment of Inertia
• The moment of inertia is a measure of an object's resistance to rotational motion about a given ax-
is.
• Just like mass determines how much resistance an object has to linear acceleration, moment of inertia
determines how much resistance an object has to angular acceleration in rotational motion.

3.5. Momentum

• Momentum is a measure of the quantity of motion an object has. It is a vector quantity (has both
magnitude and direction). The momentum of an object is directly proportional to its mass and veloci-
ty.
• The formula for momentum is: Momentum = Mass × Velocity.
• The S.I. unit for momentum is kg.m/s.

21
Law of Conservation of Momentum
• The law of conservation of momentum states, "The total momentum of a closed or isolated system
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remains constant if no external forces act on it." This means that the total momentum of all the ob-
jects in a system before an interaction is equal to the total momentum after their interaction if no ex-
ternal force is applied (Total initial momentum = Total final momentum).
• Thus, momentum can neither be created nor destroyed within an isolated system.
• E.g., collisions, explosions and rocket propulsions.
 Internal forces (like collisions or explosions) may change the momentum of individual objects, but the
 total system momentum remains unchanged.

Impulse
• Impulse is the change in momentum of an object when a force is applied over a time interval.
• Impulse is a vector quantity that acts in the applied force's direction.
• The formula for impulse is: Impulse = Force applied x Time duration.
• The SI unit of impulse is Newton-second (N.s) or kg.m/s.
• E.g., hitting a cricket ball and airbags in cars.

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3.6. Newton’s Laws of Motion

• Newton's laws of motion are three fundamental principles in physics that describe the relationship
between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it.

Newton's First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)

• "An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion at a constant speed in a straight line stays in
motion unless acted upon by an external force."
• Key concepts of this law are:
1. Inertia: This law embodies the concept of inertia, which is the tendency of an object to resist
changes in its state of motion.
2. Unbalanced external force: A body remains in its current state (either at rest or in uniform motion)
unless an unbalanced external force acts on it. In the absence of a net external force, there will be
no change in the state of motion.
• E.g., a book on a table and a ball rolling on a smooth surface.

Newton's Second Law of Motion

• "The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it and inversely propor-
tional to its mass."
• Mathematically: Force (F) = Mass (m) × Acceleration (a)
• Key concepts of this law are:
1. Direct proportionality: A larger net force acting on an object will result in a greater acceleration.
E.g., the harder a cart is pushed (greater force), the faster it accelerates.
2. Inverse proportionality: For a given force, a larger mass will result in a smaller acceleration. E.g.,
more force is required to accelerate a heavy box than a lighter box.

Newton's Third Law of Motion

• "For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction."
• Newton’s third law of motion simply states that if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B sim-
ultaneously exerts an equal and opposite force on object A.
• Key concepts of this law are:
1. Forces always occur in pairs: The action force and the reaction force always exist as pairs of in-
teracting forces.
2. Equal magnitude, opposite direction: The magnitude of the action force is equal to the magni-

23
tude of the reaction force, but their directions are opposite.
3. Simultaneous forces: Action and reaction forces act simultaneously.
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• E.g., during walking, when you push the ground backwards with your feet (action), the ground pushes
you forward (reaction).

3.7. Friction

• Friction is a resistive force that opposes the relative motion between two surfaces in contact. It acts
parallel to the surfaces and in the direction opposite to the applied force or movement.
Types of Friction
Static Friction
• Static friction acts between two surfaces that are not moving relative to each other.
• Static friction resists the initiation of motion between two objects in contact when an external force is
applied. It prevents an object from moving until the applied force exceeds a threshold (limiting friction).
• E.g., a car on a hill, a ladder against a wall, and a book on a table.
• Key characteristics of static friction are:
1. Prevents motion: Static friction keeps an object at rest by opposing the force trying to move it.
2. Maximum static friction: The maximum value of static friction is reached just before the object
starts moving. Once the applied force exceeds this threshold, motion occurs, and kinetic friction
takes over.
3. Variable force (self-adjusting force): Static friction increases as the applied force increases until
it reaches limiting friction. The static friction force is equal to the applied force till this limit is
reached.
4. Coefficient of static friction: The coefficient of static friction depends on the nature of the materi-
als in contact. Rougher surfaces generally have a higher coefficient, meaning more friction is re-
quired to move an object.
 Limiting friction is the maximum amount of static friction that can act between two surfaces be-
fore they start moving relative to each other.

Kinetic Friction
• Kinetic friction (or dynamic friction) acts between two surfaces in contact when one or both of them
are in motion relative to each other.
• Kinetic friction is the frictional force that opposes the motion of an object once it has started moving.
• E.g., sliding a book across a table, braking on a bicycle, and skiing on snow.
• Key characteristics of static friction are:
1. Oppose motion: Kinetic friction resists the relative motion between two surfaces in contact.

24
2. Constant force: The force of kinetic friction is relatively constant and depends on the nature of
the surfaces in contact and the normal force. It is independent of the velocity of the moving ob-
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ject.
3. Coefficient of kinetic friction: The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically smaller than that of
static friction. It is influenced by the materials in contact (e.g., rubber on asphalt has a higher co-
efficient than metal on metal).

Types of Kinetic Friction

1. Sliding Friction: The resistance experienced by an object as it slides over the surface of another object.
E.g., applying brakes to a car where the tires slide on the road.
2. Rolling Friction: The resistance experienced by a rolling object as it moves over a surface. Rolling fric-
tion is generally much smaller than sliding friction. E.g., a ball rolling on the ground.
3. Fluid Friction (or Drag): The resistance experienced by an object moving through a fluid (liquid or
gas). E.g., a swimmer moving through water. Unlike sliding or rolling friction, fluid friction depends on
the velocity of the object and the properties of the fluid. As the velocity of an object moving through
a fluid increase, the fluid resistance it encounters also increases. Similarly, the density and viscosity of
the fluid also significantly influence fluid friction. Denser fluids (like water) generally exert greater fluid
friction than less dense fluids (like air).

Static Friction vs Kinetic Friction

Property Static Friction Kinetic Friction
State of Motion Object is at rest Object is in motion
Function Resists motion initiation Resists ongoing motion
Dependency on Velocity No dependence on velocity Mostly constant (except in some cases)
Comparison Larger than kinetic friction Smaller than static friction

Advantages of Friction
1. Enables motion control: Friction provides the grip necessary to start, stop, or change motion. E.g.,
walking is possible because of the friction between our shoes and the ground; cars can accelerate, de-
celerate, and turn safely due to friction between tyres and the road.
2. Provides stability: Friction prevents objects from sliding or slipping on surfaces. E.g., furniture stays in
place due to friction with the floor; climbers rely on friction between their shoes and the surface of
rocks.
3. Facilitates gripping and holding: Friction allows objects to be held securely without slipping. E.g., writ-
ing friction between the writing instrument and paper; friction helps to grip tools, utensils, etc.
4. Generates heat: Friction produces heat, which is useful in several applications. E.g., a matchstick lights

25
up due to heat generated by friction; rubbing hands together on a cold day warms them due to friction.
5. Helps in braking: Friction is essential for reducing speed or stopping motion in vehicles and machin-
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ery. E.g., brakes in cars and bicycles use friction to stop the wheels; conveyor belts stop moving objects
due to frictional resistance.
6. Aids in wear and tear: Wear and tear due to friction can be useful in specific situations. E.g., sharpen-
ing tools and pencils; sanding and polishing of surfaces.
7. Supports construction and design: Friction ensures the stability of structures and equipment. E.g.,
nails and screws stay in place due to friction with the material; friction holds bricks together until ce-
ment sets.
Disadvantages of Friction
1. Causes wear and tear: Friction results in the gradual deterioration of surfaces in contact. E.g., shoes
and tires wear out due to constant friction; machine parts degrade over time.
2. Generates unwanted heat: Friction produces heat, which can lead to energy loss or overheating. E.g.,
excessive heat in mechanical parts (like car engines) can lead to inefficiency and potential failure.
3. Reduces efficiency: Friction increases the energy required to perform tasks, reducing systems' overall
efficiency. E.g., extra fuel is consumed in vehicles due to friction in engines and tyres.
4. Opposes motion: Friction resists movement, making it harder to start or maintain motion. E.g., moving
heavy furniture across the floor requires more effort due to friction.
5. Noise production: Friction between surfaces can create noise, which may be undesirable in many con-
texts. E.g., machinery with poorly lubricated parts can produce loud, distracting sounds.
6. Leads to material deformation: Friction can cause materials to change shape or lose structural integri-
ty over time. E.g., conveyor belts and gears may deform due to prolonged frictional forces.
7. Limits speed: Frictional resistance prevents objects from reaching their maximum possible speeds. E.g.,
air and water resistance reduce the speed of vehicles and airplanes.
8. Requires maintenance and lubrication: Overcoming friction in machinery requires constant care, lu-
brication, and adjustments.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

26
PMF IAS – Science – Physics
 4. Work, Energy and Heat

4.1. Work

• In physics, work is done when a force is applied to an object, and the object moves in the direction
of the applied force. Work is a scalar quantity defined as the product of force, displacement, and the
cosine of the angle between force and displacement (Work = Force x Displacement x cos θ).
• The S.I. unit for work is Joules (J).
1. When θ = 0° (force is parallel to displacement): Maximum work is done
2. When θ = 90° (force is perpendicular to displacement): No work is done
3. When θ > 90° (force opposes displacement): Work is negative

Types of Work
1. Positive Work: It occurs when the force applied on an object and its displacement are in the same di-
rection. E.g., lifting a box and pushing a box along the floor.
2. Negative Work: It occurs when the force applied on an object and its displacement are in opposite
directions. E.g., friction slowing down a moving object.
3. Zero Work: It occurs when the force applied to an object is perpendicular to its displacement. E.g.,
i) A coolie with luggage on his head moving on a horizontal platform does not work because the di-
rection of force is vertically upward and displacement horizontal (i.e., θ = 90°).
ii) A body that completed a circular movement does no work because there is zero displacement.

4.2. Power

• Power is defined as the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. It is a scalar quantity
that measures how quickly work is done or energy is transferred.
• The formulas for power are:
1. Power = Work / Time
2. Power = Force × Velocity
• The S.I. unit for power is the watt (W), which is equal to one joule per second (J/s). Other units include 27
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

horsepower (hp).

4.3. Energy

• Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. It is a scalar quantity that describes an object or sys-
tem's ability to perform actions or cause changes.
• The S.I. unit for energy is joules (J). Other units for energy are calorie (cal), kilowatt-hour (kWh; com-
monly used in electricity bills), and electron volt (eV; used in atomic and nuclear physics).
4.4. Mechanical Energy

• Mechanical energy is the energy an object possesses due to its motion or position. It is the sum of
kinetic energy (energy of motion) and potential energy (energy of position) of the object.

Kinetic Energy
• Kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses due to its motion.
The formula for kinetic energy is: 𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 =
𝟏𝟏
• × 𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 × 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐

• Characteristics of kinetic energy are:

1. Depends on mass and velocity: Kinetic energy increases with the object's mass and velocity. An
object with a larger mass moving at the same speed will have more kinetic energy than a lighter ob-
ject. Similarly, an object moving at a higher speed will have more kinetic energy than a slower object
with the same mass.
2. Cannot be negative: Kinetic energy can only be zero or positive but cannot be negative. This is
because kinetic energy depends on mass and velocity squared. Mass cannot be negative because it
is a measure of matter, and velocity is always positive because it is squared. Kinetic energy is zero
when velocity is zero (i.e., there is no motion),
• E.g., a moving car, a falling object, and a bullet fired from the gun.

Potential Energy
• Potential energy is the energy an object possesses due to its position or condition.
• The formula is: 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 = 𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 × 𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 × 𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇
• Characteristics of potential energy are:
1. Stored energy: Potential energy is not active energy. It is the stored energy that an object has the
potential to use.
2. Conversion to kinetic energy: Potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy. E.g., a ball at
the top of a hill gains kinetic energy as it rolls down the hill.
3. Depends on position: The higher an object is from a reference point, the greater its potential ener-

28
gy.
4. Depends on mass: Heavier objects have more potential energy at the same height.
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5. Independent of motion: An object can have potential energy, whether it is at rest or in motion.
E.g., a book on a shelf has gravitational potential energy due to its height above the ground, regard-
less of whether it is stationary or lifted upward.
• E.g., a stretched rubber band and a compressed spring.
• Gravitational Potential Energy: This energy is stored in an object due to its position above the
Earth's surface. The higher an object is lifted, the greater its gravitational potential energy. E.g., a
 book placed on a shelf and water in a hydroelectric dam.

4.5. Types of Energy

1. Thermal Energy: This is the internal energy of an object due to the motion of its molecules. This en-
ergy is associated with an object's temperature. E.g., heat from the Sun and hot coffee.
2. Chemical Energy: This energy is stored in chemical bonds of molecules and released during chemical
reactions. E.g., food provides energy to the body and combustion of fuels like coal or gasoline.
3. Electrical Energy: This energy is caused by the movement of electric charges. E.g., electricity power-
ing a light bulb and batteries storing energy.
4. Nuclear Energy: This energy is stored in the nucleus of atoms and released during nuclear reactions
like fission (splitting of atomic nuclei) or fusion (combining atomic nuclei). E.g., energy from nuclear
power plants and energy from the Sun.
5. Radiant Energy: Also known as electromagnetic radiation, it is a form of energy that travels in the
form of electromagnetic waves. E.g., sunlight, light from stars, light bulbs, microwaves, X-rays, and radio
waves.
6. Elastic Energy: This energy is stored in objects due to deformation (stretching or compression). E.g., a
stretched spring and a compressed rubber ball.
7. Sound Energy: This energy is carried by sound waves caused by the vibration of particles in a medium.
E.g., music from speakers and a clapping sound.
8. Gravitational Energy: Also known as gravitational potential energy, this energy an object possesses
due to its position in a gravitational field.

4.6. Work Energy Theorem

• The work-energy theorem states, “The net work done on an object is equal to the change in its kinetic
energy.” This principle establishes a direct relationship between work and kinetic energy.
• Mathematically, Net work done on the object = Change in kinetic energy of the object
• Where, Change in kinetic energy = Final kinetic energy – Initial kinetic energy

Work and Kinetic Energy Relationship 29

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• If the net work done is positive, the kinetic energy increases and the object speeds up.
• If the net work done is negative, the kinetic energy decreases and the object slows down.

4.7. Law of Conservation of Energy

• The law of conservation of energy states, “Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be
transformed from one form to another.”
• Explanation: The total energy of an isolated system remains constant. However, energy can change
from one type to another (e.g., from kinetic energy to potential energy or vice versa).
• E.g., when a ball is thrown into the air, its kinetic energy is converted into potential energy as it rises and
then when it falls back, the potential energy is converted back into kinetic energy.
• Transformation of energy: The conversion of one form of energy to another.
• Dissipation of energy: The transformation of energy from a useful form to a useless form.

4.8. Mass-Energy Equivalence

• The mass-energy equivalence is a concept in physics formulated by Albert Einstein, which states that
mass and energy are interchangeable. According to this concept, mass and energy are two forms of
the same thing. Mass can be converted into energy, and energy can be converted into mass. This prin-
ciple is fundamental in nuclear reactions, such as the Sun's fusion process or nuclear reactors.
• This relationship is expressed: 𝐄𝐄 = 𝐦𝐦𝐜𝐜 𝟐𝟐
• Where, E = energy (in J), m = mass (in kg) and c = speed of light in a vacuum (𝑐𝑐 = 3x108 m/s).

4.9. Collision

• A collision is an event when two or more objects come into contact with each other for a brief period
of time, exerting strong forces on each other. The collision changes the energy and momentum of
the objects involved.

Types of Collision
1. Elastic Collision: In an elastic collision, both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved. There is
no loss of total kinetic energy during the collision, and the objects bounce off each other without
deformation or generation of heat. E.g., billiard balls colliding or ideal gas molecules in a container.
2. Inelastic Collision: In an inelastic collision, momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not. Some
of the kinetic energy is converted into other forms of energy such as heat, sound, internal energy or
deformation of the objects. E.g., a car crash where the vehicles crumple but move apart. Most real-

30
world collisions are inelastic.
3. Perfectly Inelastic Collisions: A perfectly inelastic collision is a special case of inelastic collision where
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

the objects stick together after the collision and then move as one combined mass. In this case,
maximum kinetic energy is lost. E.g., a lump of clay thrown against a wall that sticks to it.

4.10. Heat

• Heat is a form of energy that transfers from one body or system to another due to a temperature
difference between them.
• Heat flows from a higher temperature system to a lower system temperature until thermal equilib-
rium is achieved.
• Basically, heat is the transfer of thermal energy between substances. It creates the sensation of
warmth.
• The S.I. unit for heat is Joule (J). Another unit for heat is calorie (where 1 cal = 4.184 J). Calorie is de-
fined as the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C.

4.11. Types of Heat

Sensible Heat
• Sensible heat is the heat that causes a change in the temperature of a substance without altering its
phase. It is related to the change in the substance's kinetic energy.
• E.g., heating water from 20°C to 80°C without it boiling.

Latent Heat
• Latent heat is the heat absorbed or released during a phase change of a substance. It does not af-
fect temperature but changes the state (e.g., solid to liquid or liquid to gas).
• Types of latent heat:
1. Latent Heat of Fusion: Heat required to change a solid into a liquid at its melting point.
2. Latent Heat of Vaporisation: Heat required to change a liquid into a gas at its boiling point.
• E.g., melting ice into water or boiling water into steam.

Specific Heat
• Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 unit mass of a substance
by 1°C or 1 K. It indicates a material's ability to store heat energy. E.g., water has a high specific heat,
meaning it requires more heat to change its temperature than metals.

4.12. Transfer of Heat

31
• Transfer of heat occurs through three modes: conduction, convection, and radiation.

Conduction
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• Heat transfer through direct contact between molecules in a solid, liquid, or gas, without the move-
ment of the substance itself is called conduction.
• Mechanism: Energy is transferred via collisions between adjacent particles (atoms or molecules).
• Characteristics of conduction are:
1. Conduction requires a medium for heat transfer.
2. It is common in solids, especially metals.
• E.g.,
1. Touching a hot stove: Heat transfers from the stove to your hand.
2. Heating a pot on the stove: Heat transfers from the burner to the pot's bottom.

Convection
• Heat transfer through the movement of fluids (liquids and gases) is called convection.
• Mechanism: Warmer, less dense fluids rise, while cooler, denser fluids sink. This creates a circulating
current that transfers heat.
• Characteristics of convection are:
1. Convection requires a fluid medium.
2. It occurs due to the bulk motion of particles.
3. Differences in temperature and density cause convection.
• E.g.,
1. Boiling water: Hot water at the bottom rises, while cooler water sinks.
2. Atmospheric convection: Warm air rises, leading to weather patterns.

32
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Radiation
• Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves (such as infrared) without a medium is called radiation.
• Mechanism: Heat waves are emitted by hot objects, which are absorbed by the colder bodies.
• Characteristics of radiation are:
1. Radiation can occur in a vacuum (e.g., space).
2. The heat transfer rate depends on the surface's emissivity and temperature.
3. It does not require direct contact.
• E.g.,
1. Heat from the Sun: The Sun emits electromagnetic radiation (including visible light, ultraviolet and
infrared radiation) that heats the Earth.
2. Feeling the warmth of a fire: You feel the heat from a fire through infrared radiation.
Comparison of Heat Transfer Modes
Feature Conduction Convection Radiation
Medium Required Yes (Direct Contact) Yes (Fluid medium) No
Mechanism Molecular collisions Fluid movement Electromagnetic waves
Speed Slow Moderate Fast
Example Heating a metal rod Boiling water Sunlight

4.13. Heat and Change in States of Matter

• Matter can exist in three primary states: solid, liquid, and gas. A change of state occurs when matter
changes from one state to another. Changes of state are physical changes in matter (i.e., chemical
properties of the matter do not change), and they are reversible changes.
• The changes in the state of matter occur when energy is added or removed, causing a transformation
between these states. Alterations in temperature and pressure drive these changes.
• The main factors behind change in states of matter are:
1. Temperature: Increasing temperature adds energy to particles, promoting transitions to higher-
energy states (solid → liquid → gas). While decreasing temperature removes energy, favouring low-
er-energy states (gas → liquid → solid). 33

2. Pressure: Increasing pressure forces particles closer together, promoting transitions to denser states
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(gas → liquid → solid). Decreasing pressure allows particles to spread out, promoting transitions to
less dense states (solid → liquid → gas).
3. Heat Transfer: Temperature changes primarily occur through heat transfer, which can occur
through conduction, convection, and radiation.
• Processes that cause changes in states of matter are melting, freezing, vaporisation, condensation,
sublimation, and deposition.
Melting (Fusion)
• Melting is the process by which a solid changes into a liquid when heat is applied.
• Characteristics of melting are:
1. Energy absorption: Heat energy is absorbed by the solid, increasing the kinetic energy of its par-
ticles. The energy breaks the bonds between particles, allowing them to move more freely. The heat
energy required to convert a solid into a liquid at its melting point without changing its tempera- 34
ture is called latent heat of fusion.
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2. Melting point: This transition occurs at a specific temperature called the melting point, where the
solid's particles gain enough energy to overcome the forces holding them in a fixed structure. For
water, the melting point is 0°C (32°F or 273 K) under standard atmospheric pressure.
• Factors affecting melting are:
1. Impurities: Presence of impurities lowers the melting point (e.g., salt lowers the melting point of
ice).
 2. Pressure: Higher pressure can raise the melting point for most substances.
• E.g., ice turning into water when heated, wax melting when exposed to a flame, and metals melting in a
furnace during industrial processes.

Freezing (Solidification)
• Freezing is the process by which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered to or be-
low its freezing point. During freezing, the particles of a liquid lose energy, slow down, and arrange
themselves into a fixed, orderly structure, forming a solid.
• Characteristics of freezing are:
1. Energy release: Heat energy is released as the liquid transitions to a solid. The amount of heat en-
ergy released per unit mass of a liquid when it solidifies at its freezing point is called the latent heat
of fusion. Despite heat loss, the temperature remains constant during freezing.
2. Freezing point: It is the specific temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to solid. For
water, the freezing point is 0°C (32°F or 273 K) under standard atmospheric pressure.
• Factors affecting freezing are:
1. Impurities: Presence of impurities lowers the freezing point (e.g., salt in water).
2. Pressure: For most substances, higher pressure can increase the freezing point for most substances.
• E.g., water turning into ice in a freezer, molten lava solidifying into rock, and freezing of liquid wax into a
solid candle.

Vaporisation
• Vaporisation is the process by which a liquid changes into a gaseous state. This occurs when the liq-
uid molecules gain enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces binding them together.
• Characteristics of vaporisation are:
1. Energy requirement: Vaporisation is an endothermic process in which the liquid absorbs heat en-
ergy. The latent heat of vaporisation is the energy required to convert a unit mass of a liquid into
gas at its boiling point. For water, the boiling point is 100°C (212°F or 373.2 K) under standard at-
mospheric pressure.

35
2. Cooling effect: During evaporation, the liquid loses high-energy molecules, causing the tempera-
ture of the remaining liquid to drop. This is why evaporation leads to cooling.
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• Factors affecting vaporisation are:

1. Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the rate of vaporisation.
2. Surface area: Larger surface areas allow more molecules to escape.
3. Airflow: Increased airflow above the liquid enhances evaporation.
4. Pressure: Lower atmospheric pressure reduces the boiling point, speeding up vaporisation.

Types of Vaporisations
• The types of vaporisations include evaporation and boiling.

Evaporation
• Evaporation occurs at the surface of a liquid at any temperature below its boiling point.
• It is a slow process where only the surface molecules escape into the gaseous state.
• E.g., drying clothes and water evaporating from a pond.

Boiling
• Boiling happens throughout the liquid when it reaches its boiling point (the temperature at which
vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure).
• It is a rapid process with visible bubble formation within the liquid.
• E.g., water boiling to steam and lava boiling during volcanic eruptions.

Condensation
• Condensation is the process by which a gas changes into a liquid. It occurs when the temperature of
the gas is lowered to its dew point or when it comes into contact with a cooler surface, causing the
gas particles to lose energy and form intermolecular bonds.
• Characteristics of condensation are:
1. Energy release: During condensation, the gas releases heat energy (latent heat of vaporisation)
as it transitions to the liquid state. The process is exothermic.
2. Dew Point: The temperature at which a gas (usually water vapour) condenses into liquid.
• Factors affecting condensation are:
1. Temperature: Lower temperatures increase condensation by bringing the gas closer to its dew
point.
2. Pressure: Higher pressure can force gas particles closer together, aiding condensation.
3. Surface: Cool surfaces provide nucleation sites for gas particles to condense.
4. Humidity: High humidity levels increase the likelihood of condensation.
• E.g., water droplets forming on the outside of a cold glass, dew forming on the grass during the early
morning, and formation of clouds as water vapour in the air cools and condenses.

Sublimation 36
Sublimation is the process in which a substance transitions directly from a solid state to a gaseous
PMF IAS – Science – Physics
•
state without passing through the liquid phase.
• Characteristics of sublimation are:
1. Endothermic process: Sublimation absorbs heat energy to overcome intermolecular forces in the
solid.
2. Temperature and pressure conditions: Sublimation typically occurs at low pressure and temper-
atures below the substance’s triple point.
• E.g., dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) sublimates directly into carbon dioxide gas, frost forms directly from
water vapour, and naphthalene balls (used for pest control) sublimate into vapour.
• The triple point of a substance is the specific temperature and pressure at which the three phases of
that substance – solid, liquid, and gas – can coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium

Deposition
• Deposition is the process in which a substance transitions directly from a gaseous state to a solid state
without passing through the liquid phase. It is the reverse of sublimation.
• Characteristics of deposition are:
1. Exothermic process: Deposition releases energy as heat during the phase transition.
2. Temperature and pressure conditions: Deposition typically occurs under low-temperature and
high-pressure conditions, where gas molecules are forced to condense directly into a solid.
• E.g., frost formation (water vapour in the air turns directly into ice on cold surfaces) and formation of
snowflakes (water vapour freezes directly in the atmosphere).

Change in the State of Plasma

• Plasma is considered as the fourth state of matter. The processes through which plasma changes its
state are:
1. Ionisation (Gas to Plasma): The process by which a gas is transformed into plasma by adding
energy to strip electrons from atoms. E.g., the formation of plasma in neon lights.
2. Deionization (Plasma to Gas): The process by which plasma loses energy and returns to a gase-
ous state. E.g., plasma in lightning dissipating into a gas.

4.14. Temperature

• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance. It determines
how hot or cold an object is; in hotter objects, the particles have higher average kinetic energy and
vice versa. Temperature governs the direction of heat transfer (from higher to lower temperature).
• Temperature is measured using a thermometer.
37
4.15. Scales of Temperature
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• Temperature is measured using various scales with specific reference points and units. The most com-
monly used temperature scales are Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin.

Celsius Scale (°C)

• On the Celsius scale, water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C at 1 atmosphere of pressure (standard
atmospheric pressure). It is the most widely used scale worldwide.
• Relationship with Kelvin: 𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓. (𝐊𝐊) = 𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓. (℃) + 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

Fahrenheit Scale (°F)

• On the Fahrenheit scale, water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F at 1 atmosphere of pressure (stand-
ard atmospheric pressure). This scale is mostly used in the United States.
Relationship with Celsius: 𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓. (℉) = �𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓. (℃) × � + 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝟗𝟗
•
𝟓𝟓

Conversion from Fahrenheit to Celsius: 𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓. (℃) = (𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓. (℉) − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑) ×

𝟓𝟓
•
𝟗𝟗

Kelvin Scale
• The Kelvin scale is the S.I. unit of temperature, widely used in scientific research and thermodynamics.
It is an absolute temperature scale, meaning 0 K (or -273.15°C) represents absolute zero, the low-
est possible temperature (a gas is supposed to have zero volume and zero pressure, and all molecular
motion stops at this point).
• On the Kelvin scale, water freezes at 273.15 K and boils at 373.15 K.
• Kelvin does not have negative values, as the lowest possible temperature, absolute zero, is 0 K.
• Relationship with Celsius: 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻. (℃) = 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻. (𝑲𝑲) − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
Comparison of Temperature Scales
Scale Freezing Point of Water Boiling Point of Water Absolute Zero
Celsius (°C) 0°C 100°C −273.15°C
Fahrenheit (°F) 32°F 212°F −459.67°F
Kelvin (K) 273.15K 373.15K 0K
Relationship Between Temperature Scales
𝐂𝐂 𝐅𝐅 − 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝐊𝐊 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
= =
𝟓𝟓 𝟗𝟗 𝟓𝟓

4.16. Heat vs Temperature

Feature Heat Temperature

Definition Heat is the total energy transferred be- Temperature is the measure of the average
tween objects due to a temperature dif- kinetic energy of the particles in a sub- 38
ference stance.
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Nature It is a form of energy It is a measure of energy

Unit Measured in joules (J) or calories (cal). Measured in degrees Celsius (°C), Kelvin (K),
or Fahrenheit (°F)
Property Heat depends on the mass, specific heat Temperature is independent of the mass of
capacity, and temperature difference the object
Measurement Measured using a calorimeter Measured using a thermometer
Transfer Heat flows from a hotter body to a colder No transfer occurs; it indicates the thermal
body state
State Change Heat is responsible for causing a change Temperature changes during phase transi-
in state (e.g., solid to liquid) tions remain constant for a pure substance
Physical Mean- Represents the total kinetic and potential Represents the average kinetic energy of
ing energy of all particles in the system particles in the system
Process In- Observed during processes like conduc- Affects the direction of heat transfer
volved tion, convection, and radiation
Examples The heat energy required to boil water or The boiling point of water is 100°C; the
melt ice freezing point is 0°C

4.17. Humidity

• Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour present in the air. It is a critical factor in weather and
climate, influencing how we perceive temperature and comfort levels.
• Types of humidity include:
1. Absolute humidity
2. Relative humidity
3. Specific humidity

Absolute Humidity
• Absolute humidity is the actual amount of water vapour in a given volume of air. It is expressed in
grams of water vapour per cubic metre of air (g/m3).
The formula is: 𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇 =
𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖𝐖 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 (𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠)
•
𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 (𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦)

Relative Humidity
• Relative humidity is the ratio of the current amount of water vapour in the air to the maximum
amount the air can hold at a given temperature, expressed as a percentage.

39
The formula is: 𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇𝐇 (%) =
𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏
• × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏

• Higher temperatures allow air to hold more water vapour, affecting relative humidity.
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Specific Humidity
• Specific humidity is the mass of water vapour per unit mass of air (including the water vapour).
• It is expressed in grams of water vapour per kilogram of air (g/kg).
• Dew point is the temperature at which air becomes fully saturated (RH = 100%) and water vapour
condenses into liquid droplets.
Factors Affecting Humidity
1. Temperature: Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air, meaning humidity levels often rise
with temperature.
2. Air Pressure: Lower air pressure (at higher altitudes) decreases the air's ability to hold water vapour.
3. Geography: Proximity to water bodies increases humidity, while arid regions typically have lower hu-
midity levels.
4. Weather Conditions: Rain and storms temporarily increase local humidity levels.

4.18. Thermal Expansion

• Thermal expansion refers to the increase in a material's size (length, area, or volume) when its tem-
perature rises. This phenomenon occurs because the kinetic energy of particles increases with tem-
perature, causing them to move apart. It occurs in solids, liquids, and gases.

Types of Thermal Expansion

1. Linear Expansion: It involves an increase in one dimension (length) of a solid.
2. Area Expansion: It involves an increase in the surface area of a solid.
3. Volumetric Expansion: It involves an increase in the volume of a material (solids, liquids, or gases).
4. Apparent Expansion: It refers to a liquid's observed expansion when heated in a container. It ac-
counts for the combined effect of the liquid's and the container's expansion.
5. Real Expansion: It refers to the true increase in volume of a liquid when it is heated without consider-
ing the expansion of the container.
• Anomalous Expansion of Water: Water's anomalous expansion refers to water's unusual behaviour
when it is cooled, particularly between 0°C and 4°C. Instead of contracting uniformly as most sub-
stances do, water actually expands when cooled from 4°C to 0°C.

4.19. Thermal Conductivity

• Thermal conductivity is a material property that measures a substance's ability to conduct heat. It
represents the amount of heat energy transferred per unit time and per unit area through a unit thick- 40
ness of the material under a given temperature difference.
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Black Body
• A black body is an idealised physical object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation, regardless of
frequency or angle of incidence. It is a perfect absorber and emitter of radiation, meaning it does not
reflect or transmit any light.
• No physical object is a perfect black body, but some materials and objects approximate its behaviour.
Newton's Law of Cooling
• Newton's Law of Cooling states that the rate of heat loss of an object is directly proportional to the
temperature difference between the object and its surroundings, provided the temperature difference
is small and the nature of the body's surface remains constant.

4.20. Thermodynamic Processes

• Thermodynamic processes describe how a system changes from one equilibrium state to another, in-
volving variations in pressure, volume, temperature, and energy.

Types of Thermodynamic Processes

1. Isothermal Process: The temperature of the system remains constant throughout the isothermal
process. E.g., melting ice at 0°C.
2. Isobaric Process: The pressure of the system remains constant throughout the isobaric process. E.g.,
heating water in an open container.
3. Isochoric Process: The volume of the system remains constant throughout the process. E.g., heating a
gas in a rigid container.
4. Adiabatic Process: No heat is exchanged between the system and its surroundings during the adia-
batic process. E.g., compression of gas in an insulated cylinder.
5. Cyclic Process: A process that returns the system to its initial state after a series of changes. E.g., the
operation of a heat engine.

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41
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 5. Gravitation

• Gravitation is the non-contact force by which all objects with mass attract one another. It is one of
the four fundamental forces of nature and plays a crucial role in the structure and dynamics of the uni-
verse.

5.1. Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

• Isaac Newton formulated the Law of Universal Gravitation, which states, “Every particle in the universe
attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their mass-
es and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.”
Mathematically, 𝐅𝐅 = 𝐆𝐆
𝐦𝐦𝟏𝟏 × 𝐦𝐦𝟐𝟐
•
𝐫𝐫 𝟐𝟐

• Where, F = gravitational force between the two objects, G = gravitational constant (6.674 x 10-
Nm2/kg2), m1 , m2 = masses of the two objects, and r = distance between the centres of the two ob-
11

jects.

5.2. Characteristics of Gravitational Force

1. Universal force: Gravitational force acts between any two objects with mass, irrespective of their size,
composition, or distance. It is present everywhere in the universe.
2. Attractive force: Gravitational force is always attractive (it pulls objects toward each other). It never
acts as a repulsive force.
3. Force is mutual: Gravitational force is equal and opposite for both objects. Each object exerts the
same magnitude of force on the other.
4. Depends on mass: Gravitational force between two objects is directly proportional to the product of
their masses. This means that the greater the mass of the objects, the stronger the gravitational force
between them.
5. Depends on distance: The strength of the gravitational force between two objects is inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance between the objects’ centres. This means that as the distance 42
between two objects increases, the gravitational force between them decreases.
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6. Acts over long distances: Gravitation operates over infinite distances, but its strength becomes negli-
gible as the distance increases.
7. Weakest fundamental force: Compared to other fundamental forces (electromagnetic, strong nuclear,
and weak nuclear forces), gravitation is the weakest.
8. Independent of medium: Gravitational force acts through a vacuum and does not require a medium
to propagate.
9. Responsible for celestial phenomena: Gravitational force is responsible for the evolution, structure
and motion of celestial bodies.

5.3. Gravity of the Earth

• The gravity of Earth is the force that attracts objects towards the centre of the planet. It is a result
of the Earth's mass and the universal force of gravitation acting between objects with mass.

Acceleration due to Gravity

• The acceleration due to gravity (g) is the constant acceleration that an object experiences when it
falls freely under the sole influence of Earth's gravity. 𝑔𝑔 is approximately 9.8 m/s2 near the Earth's
surface.
• Characteristics of acceleration due to gravity are:
1. Direction: It acts vertically downward toward the centre of the Earth.
2. Uniform for all objects: In the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the same acceleration,
regardless of their mass.
3. Depends on Location: The value of g varies slightly with altitude, latitude, and the Earth's shape
(since the Earth is not a perfect sphere).

Factors Affecting Gravity and Acceleration due to Gravity

1. Altitude: Gravity and g decrease slightly with increasing altitude above the Earth's surface. This is be-
cause gravity is inversely proportional to the distance between two bodies.
2. Latitude: Gravity and g are slightly stronger at the poles and slightly weaker at the equator due to
the Earth's rotation. The Earth's rotation causes an outward centrifugal force that is greater at the
equator than at the poles. This force counteracts the Earth's gravity, reducing the apparent downward
acceleration of falling objects.
3. Earth's mass distribution: Local variations in the Earth's density can cause slight variations in the
strength of gravity and g. E.g., mountain ranges have a stronger gravitational pull than oceans because
rock is denser than water.
4. Depth: Gravitational force and g decreases as one moves deeper into the Earth because the Earth's 43
mass decreases as one gets closer to its centre.
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Effects of Gravity on the Earth

1. Keeps us grounded: Gravity keeps us firmly on the ground. Without it, we would float off into space.
2. Falling of objects: Gravity causes objects to fall towards the Earth.
3. Tides: The gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun causes tides in the Earth's oceans.
4. Formation of atmosphere: Earth's gravity holds the atmosphere close to the planet. Without gravity,
gases will escape into space, and Earth will not have the atmosphere that is essential for life.
5. Earth's shape: Gravity has played a significant role in shaping the Earth into a nearly spherical shape.
6. Plate tectonics: Gravity plays a role in driving plate tectonics, the movement of the Earth's crust.
7. Orbital motion: Gravity keeps the Moon and artificial satellites in orbit around the Earth.
8. Weather patterns: Gravity influences the movement of air masses and the formation of weather pat-
terns.

5.4. Mass and Weight

Mass
• Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in an object. It is a scalar quantity.
• The S.I. unit of mass is kilograms (kg).
• Main characteristics of mass are:
1. Mass is intrinsic to an object and does not change regardless of location. It is the same on Earth,
the Moon, or any other planet.
2. Mass is not affected by gravity.
3. Mass determines an object's inertia, i.e., its resistance to a change in motion.
 The values of an object's inertial and gravitational mass are the same, but they describe different
properties of the object. Inertial mass is a measure of an object's resistance to acceleration. Gravi-
tational mass is a measure of how strongly an object interacts with gravity.

Weight
• Weight is the force exerted on an object due to gravity. Weight depends on the acceleration due to
gravity (𝐠𝐠) at the location of the object.
• The S.I. unit of weight is Newtons (N). It is a vector quantity.
• The formula for weight is: Weight = Mass x Acceleration due to gravity
Feature Mass Weight
Definition Amount of matter in an object Force due to gravity on the object
Nature Scalar quantity Vector quantity (has direction).
Unit Kilogram (kg) Newton (N) 44
Role of Gravity Independent of gravity Directly depends on acceleration due to gravity
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Variation Constant everywhere Changes with location (e.g., in Earth and Moon).

Weightlessness or Zero Gravity

• Weightlessness is a condition where an object or person experiences no apparent weight, even
though gravity is still acting on them. In this state, the normal force or the support force that usu-
ally provides the sensation of weight is absent.
• Scenarios of weightlessness are free fall on Earth, astronauts in space, and artificial environment.
5.5. Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

• Kepler's Laws describe the motion of planets around the Sun. These three laws are:
1. Kepler’s First Law or Law of Ellipses or Law of Orbits
2. Kepler’s Second Law or Law of Equal Areas
3. Kepler’s Third Law or Law of Harmonies or Law of Periods

Law of Ellipses or Law of Orbits

• Kepler’s first law states, “The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun located at
one of the two foci.”
• This law means that a planet's orbit is not a perfect circle but an ellipse. The Sun is located not at the
centre but at one focus of the ellipse while the other focus of the ellipse is empty.
• Implication: The distance between a planet and the Sun varies as the planet moves in its orbit. The
closest point to the Sun is perihelion, and the farthest point from the Sun is aphelion.

Law of Equal Areas

• Kepler’s second law states, “A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in
equal intervals of time.”
• This law means that a planet moves faster when it is closer to the Sun (perihelion) and slower when it
is farther from the Sun (aphelion).
• Implication: The orbital speed of a planet is not constant but depends on its distance from the Sun.

Law of Harmonies or Law of Periods

• Kepler’s third law states, “The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube
of the semi-major axis of its orbit.”
• This means that the planets farther from the Sun take longer to complete an orbit around the Sun.
 Orbital speed is the speed at which an object must travel to maintain a stable orbit around a ce-
lestial body, such as a planet, star, or moon. It is determined by the balance between the gravitational
pull of the central body and the object's inertia. It is a scalar quantity (shows only magnitude).
 Orbital velocity is a vector quantity that includes both the magnitude (orbital speed) and the di- 45
rection of the object’s motion in its orbit.
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 6. Solids and Fluids

• A solid is a state of matter that has a definite shape and volume. The particles (atoms, molecules, or
ions) in a solid are tightly packed in a fixed, orderly arrangement, which makes solids rigid and re-
sistant to deformation. E.g., metals, wood, and ice.
• A fluid is a substance that can flow and does not have a fixed shape. The particles are loosely packed
due to which they can continuously flow and deform under the application of shear force. It includes:
1. Liquids: They have a definite volume but not definite shape (take the shape of their container).
E.g., water and oil.
2. Gases: They have neither definite shape nor volume and expand to fill their container. E.g., air and
helium.

6.1. Comparison between Solids and Fluids

Feature Solids Fluids (Liquids and Gases)

Shape Definite Indefinite (take the shape of the container)
Volume Definite Definite (liquids), indefinite (gases)
Density Generally high. High but less than solids (liquids), very low
(gases)
Intermolecular Strong Weak
Forces
Particle Ar- Closely packed, ordered or disordered Loosely packed, randomly arranged
rangement
Movement of Vibrate around fixed positions Free to move and collide
Particles
Compressibility Generally incompressible Easily compressible (gases), slightly com-
pressible (liquids)

46
Flow Do not flow. Flow under applied forces.
Elasticity Elastic (return to original shape after Not elastic; deforms easily
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removal of deforming force)

Examples Metals, wood, ice, glass, rocks Water, air, oil, helium, milk

6.2. Physical Properties of Solids and Fluids

Mass and Weight

Mass
• Mass is the measure of the amount of matter in an object. It is a scalar quantity.
• The S.I. unit of mass is kilograms (kg).
• Main characteristics of mass are:
4. Mass is intrinsic to an object and does not change regardless of location. It is the same on Earth,
the Moon, or any other planet.
5. Mass is not affected by gravity.
6. Mass determines an object's inertia, i.e., its resistance to a change in motion.
 The values of an object's inertial and gravitational mass are the same, but they describe different
properties of the object. Inertial mass is a measure of an object's resistance to acceleration. Gravi-
tational mass is a measure of how strongly an object interacts with gravity.

Weight
• Weight is the force exerted on an object due to gravity. Weight depends on the acceleration due to
gravity (𝐠𝐠) at the location of the object.
• The S.I. unit of weight is Newtons (N). It is a vector quantity.
• The formula for weight is: Weight = Mass x Acceleration due to gravity
Feature Mass Weight
Definition Amount of matter in an object Force due to gravity on the object
Nature Scalar quantity Vector quantity (has direction).
Unit Kilogram (kg) Newton (N)
Role of Gravity Independent of gravity Directly depends on acceleration due to gravity
Variation Constant everywhere Changes with location (Earth, Moon).

Weightlessness or Zero Gravity

• Weightlessness is a condition where an object or person experiences no apparent weight, even
though gravity is still acting on them. In this state, the normal force or the support force that usu-
ally provides the sensation of weight is absent.
• Scenarios of weightlessness are free fall on Earth, astronauts in space, and artificial environment.

Volume 47
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• Volume is the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by a substance (solid, liquid, or gas).
• It is a scalar quantity (has magnitude but no direction). The common units for volume are cubic metres
(m³), cubic centimetres (cm³), litres (L), and millilitres (mL).
• The formula to calculate the volume depends on the shape of the object:
1. Regular Shapes:
i) Cube: 𝐕𝐕 = 𝐚𝐚3, where a is the side length.
ii) Rectangular Cuboid: 𝐕𝐕 = 𝐥𝐥 𝐱𝐱 𝐛𝐛 𝐱𝐱 𝐡𝐡, where l, b, and h are the length, breadth, and height.
 iii) Cylinder: 𝐕𝐕 = 𝛑𝛑𝛑𝛑2𝐡𝐡, where r is the radius and h is the height.
iv) Sphere: 𝐕𝐕 = 𝛑𝛑𝐚𝐚𝟑𝟑 , where r is the radius.
𝟒𝟒
𝟑𝟑

v) Cone: 𝐕𝐕 = 𝛑𝛑𝐫𝐫 𝟐𝟐 𝐡𝐡, where r is the radius, and h is the height.

𝟏𝟏
𝟑𝟑

2. Irregular Shapes: For objects with irregular shapes, volume is measured using displacement
methods (e.g., by submerging the object in water and measuring the displaced volume).

Density
• Density measures how much mass is contained in a given volume of a substance.
• The formula of density is: Density = Mass / Volume
• The S.I. unit of density is kg/m3 (kilogram per cubic meter)
• Characteristics of density are:
1. High density: Substances with high density are compact and heavy for their size (e.g., metals).
2. Low density: Substances with low density are light for their size (e.g., gases or cork).
3. Dependence on temperature and pressure: For solids and liquids, density is relatively unaffected
by changes in temperature or pressure. For gases, density changes significantly with variations in
temperature and pressure.

Relative Density
• Relative Density (or specific gravity) is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a
reference substance.
• The formula is: Relative Density = Density of the substance / Density of the reference material
• Characteristics of relative density are:
1. Dimensionless quantity: Since it is a ratio of two densities, it has no units.
2. Reference substance: For solids and liquids, the reference material is usually water at 4°C ((where
water has its maximum density of 1000 kg/m3). For gases, the reference material is usually air at
standard temperature and pressure (STP).
• Interpretation of relative velocity values are:
1. Relative density = 1: The substance has the same density as water.
2. Relative density > 1: The substance is denser than water and sinks. 48
3. Relative density < 1: The substance is less dense than water and floats.
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6.3. Mechanical Properties of Solids

1. Elasticity: The ability of a material to return to its original shape and size after the removal of an
applied force, provided the force is within the material's elastic limit. E.g., rubber bands return to their
original shape when stretched and released.
2. Plasticity: The ability of a material to undergo permanent deformation without breaking when a
force exceeds its elastic limit. E.g., clay becomes mouldable when pressed and retains the new shape.
3. Brittleness: The tendency of a material to fracture or break without significant deformation when
subjected to stress. E.g., glass or ceramic materials break easily without much bending.
4. Ductility: The ability of a material to be drawn into wires without breaking. E.g., gold and copper are
highly ductile materials.
5. Malleability: The ability of a material to be hammered or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.
E.g., aluminium and gold are malleable materials.
6. Toughness: The ability of a material to absorb energy and deform without breaking. It is a combina-
tion of strength and ductility. E.g., steel is tougher than glass.
7. Hardness: The resistance of a material to deformation, indentation, or scratching. E.g., a diamond is
extremely hard and resistant to scratching.
8. Strength: The ability of a solid to resist deformation or fracture under stress. Its types are: tensile
strength (ability to resist stretching), compressive strength (ability to resist compression), and shear
strength (ability to resist shearing forces).
9. Stiffness: The ability of a material to resist deformation under an applied force. E.g., steel is stiffer
than rubber.
10. Fatigue: The weakening of a material caused by repeated loading and unloading cycles, which may
eventually lead to failure. E.g., aircraft wings may fail due to metal fatigue after repeated use.
11. Creep: The gradual, time-dependent deformation of a material under a constant load, typically oc-
curring at high temperatures. E.g., deformation of metal items subjected to high heat for long periods.

Elasticity
• Elasticity is a property of a material that describes its ability to return to its original shape and size
after the external forces causing deformation are removed. It measures how a material responds to
stress and strain within its elastic limit.
 Elastic Limit: The maximum extent to which a material can be stretched or compressed and still return to
its original shape when the force is removed. Beyond this limit, the material undergoes permanent defor-
mation. 49

Stress
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• Stress is defined as the internal resistance offered by a material to an external force or load per
unit area. It measures how a material reacts internally to the applied force, trying to restore its original
shape.
• The formula for stress: Stress = Force / Area
• The SI unit of stress is the Pascal (Pa), which is equal to one newton per square meter (N/m²).
• Characteristics of stress are:
 1. Directly proportional to force: Larger forces result in greater stress.
2. Inversely proportional to area: Stress increases when the area over which the force is applied de-
creases.
3. Internal resistance: Stress arises from the internal restoring forces within the material.

Types of Stress
1. Normal Stress: It occurs when the force is applied perpendicular to the surface. Its two subtypes:
i) Tensile Stress: It occurs when the material is stretched.
ii) Compressive Stress: It occurs when the material is compressed.
2. Shear Stress: It occurs when the force is applied parallel to the surface.
3. Volumetric Stress or Bulk Stress or Hydraulic Stress: It occurs when the material experiences force
uniformly in all directions, leading to a change in volume.

Strain
• Strain is a measure of deformation in a material when stress is applied. It quantifies how much an
object changes shape or size in response to an external force.
• Strain is the ratio of the change in dimension of the material to its original dimension.
• Mathematically, strain is expressed as: Strain = Original Dimension / Change in Dimension
• Characteristics of strain are:
1. Dimensionless: Since strain is a ratio, it has no units.
2. Directly proportional to stress: Strain increases as stress increases.
3. Depends on material properties: Different materials exhibit varying strains for the same applied
stress due to differences in elasticity.

Types of Strain
1. Normal Strain or Longitudinal Strain: It occurs when a force acts perpendicular to the surface of the
material. It is the ratio of change in length to its original length (Normal Strain = Change in Length /
Original Length). Its subtypes:
i) Tensile Strain: The material is stretched or elongated. E.g., pulling on a rubber band.
ii) Compressive Strain: The material is compressed or shortened. E.g., squeezing a sponge. 50

2. Shear Strain: It occurs when a force acts parallel to the cross section of the material. It is defined as
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the relative displacement of layers divided by the original distance between the layers (Shear Strain =
Relative Displacement / Original Length). E.g., cutting a piece of paper with scissors.
3. Volumetric Strain: It occurs when a force acts uniformly on all sides of the material, causing a change
in its volume (Volumetric Strain = Change in Volume / Original Volume). E.g., submerging an object
in water.
Hooke’s Law
• Hooke's Law is a fundamental principle of elasticity that states the deformation (strain) of an elastic
material is directly proportional to the applied force (stress) within the material's elastic limit.
• Mathematically, Stress ∝ Strain => Stress = E x Strain
• Where, E is the constant of proportionality called the modulus of elasticity.
• Conditions for Hooke’s Law:
1. This law is valid only within the elastic limit of the material.
2. This law applies to small deformations where the material behaves linearly.

Poisson's Ratio
• Poisson's ratio is a measure of the deformation of a material in directions perpendicular to the di-
rection of applied force. It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain (perpendicular deformation) to
longitudinal strain (axial deformation) within the elastic limit of the material.
• Mathematically, Poisson’s ratio = Lateral Strain / Longitudinal Strain

Types of Solids Based on Elasticity

• Based on elasticity, solids can be elastic, plastic, ductile, malleable, brittle and rigid.
• Elastomers are a class of polymeric materials that exhibit significant elasticity.

6.4. Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Fluid Pressure
• Fluid pressure refers to the force exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) per unit area on a surface. It acts
uniformly in all directions at a given point within the fluid. This pressure arises due to the fluid's weight
and its molecules' motion.
• The pressure in a static fluid is given by: 𝐏𝐏 = 𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒𝛒 + 𝐏𝐏𝟎𝟎
• Where, 𝐏𝐏 is total pressure (Pa), ρ: Density of the fluid (kg/m3), g is acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2),
h is the depth of the fluid (m), and P0 is external pressure (e.g., atmospheric pressure).

51
• The S.I. unit for fluid pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is equal to one newton per square metre (N/m²).
• Factors affecting fluid pressure are:
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1. Depth: Fluid pressure increases with depth in a fluid because the weight of the fluid above a point
increase with depth.
2. Density of the fluid: Denser fluids exert greater pressure at a given depth.
3. Gravity: Stronger gravitational fields result in greater fluid pressure.
4. External pressure: Atmospheric and other external pressure adds to the total fluid pressure.
• Types of fluid pressure are:
 1. Hydrostatic or Static Pressure: The pressure exerted by a fluid at rest (e.g., water in a tank).
2. Dynamic Pressure: The pressure due to the fluid's motion (e.g., water flowing in a pipe).

Pascal's Law
• Pascal's Law, also known as the Principle of Transmission of Fluid-Pressure, states, “In a confined in-
compressible fluid at rest, any change in pressure applied to the fluid at any point is transmitted undi-
minished throughout the fluid in all directions.”
• This law means that when any pressure is applied to a fluid in a closed system at one point, that pres-
sure is transmitted equally and in all directions to every part of the fluid and the walls of its con-
tainer.
• Characteristics of Pascal’s law are:
1. Confined fluid: The law applies to fluids that are enclosed in a container.
2. Equal transmission: The pressure is transmitted equally throughout the fluid.
3. Independent of container shape: The transmission of pressure does not depend on the shape of
the container.
4. Applications: Pascal’s law is used extensively in the design of hydraulic and pneumatic systems.

Atmospheric Pressure
• Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the weight of the Earth’s atmosphere on a unit area of
any surface. It is caused by the Earth's gravitational pull acting on the air molecules in the atmos-
phere.
• The common units for atmospheric pressure are Pascals (Pa), Millibars (mb), Atmospheres (atm) and
Inches of mercury (inHg).
• Standard Atmospheric Pressure: At sea level, the average atmospheric pressure is approximately 1
atm = 101,325 Pa = 760 mmHg = 14.7psi
• Atmospheric pressure is measured using a barometer.

Buoyancy

52
• Buoyancy is the upward force exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) on an object immersed in it, which
opposes the object's weight. This force allows objects to float or appear lighter when submerged.
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

• Buoyancy acts vertically upward, opposite to the force of gravity.

• Application of buoyancy is seen in ships, submarines, helium balloons and icebergs.

Factors Affecting Buoyant Force

1. Density of the fluid: A denser fluid exerts a greater buoyant force. E.g., seawater exerts more buoyant
force than freshwater due to its higher density.
2. Gravitational acceleration: The greater the acceleration due to gravity, the greater the weight of the
displaced fluid by the submerged object, resulting in greater buoyant force.

Conditions for Floating and Sinking

1. Floating: An object floats when the buoyant force equals its weight.
2. Sinking: An object sinks if the buoyant force is less than its weight.
3. Neutral Buoyancy: It occurs when the object's weight and buoyant force are equal and the object re-
mains suspended.

Archimedes' Principle
• Archimedes' Principle states that when a body is partially or fully submerged in a fluid (liquid or gas), it
experiences an upward force called the buoyant force, which is equal to the weight of the fluid dis-
placed by the body.
• In simple terms, the buoyant force acting on an object = weight of the fluid displaced by the ob-
ject.

Surface Tension
• Surface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist external forces. It is
caused by the cohesive forces between molecules in the liquid. Molecules at the surface of a liquid
experience an inward force due to the lack of neighbouring molecules above them, resulting in the liq-
uid behaving like a stretched elastic membrane.
• E.g., water droplets, insects walking on water, soap, bubbles, and tears forming on eyes.

Characteristics of Surface Tension

1. Cohesive forces: Molecules within a liquid are attracted to each other by cohesive forces.
2. Surface molecules: Molecules at the surface of a liquid experience a net inward force towards the bulk
of the liquid. This inward force creates tension on the surface.
3. Minimising surface area: Liquids tend to minimise their surface area due to surface tension. This is
why liquid droplets form spherical shapes, as a sphere has the smallest surface area for a given vol-
ume. 53
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Factors Affecting Surface Tension

1. Nature of the liquid: Different liquids have different surface tensions due to differences in molecular
forces. E.g., water has a high surface tension due to strong hydrogen bonding between molecules.
2. Temperature: As the temperature increases, surface tension decreases. This happens because the
kinetic energy of the molecules increases, causing them to move more rapidly and weakening the in-
termolecular forces.
3. Impurities or surfactants: The presence of impurities or surfactants (substances that lower surface ten-
sion) can reduce the surface tension of a liquid. E.g., soap reduces the surface tension of water.

Capillarity
• Capillarity (or capillary action) is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces (such as inside a ca-
pillary tube) without the assistance of external forces like gravity. This phenomenon occurs due to
adhesive forces (attraction between the liquid and the solid surface) and cohesive forces (attraction
between the liquid molecules).
• Surface tension and capillarity: Higher surface tension leads to greater capillary rise.
• E.g., plant water transport, wicking materials like towels, ink pens, and soil moisture.

Types of Capillarity
1. Capillary Rise: This occurs when the adhesive forces between the liquid and the tube are stronger
than the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules. In this case, the liquid rises in the tube. E.g.,
water rising in a thin glass tube.
2. Capillary Fall: This happens when the cohesive forces between the liquid molecules are stronger
than the adhesive forces between the liquid and the surface of the tube. In this case, the liquid falls in
the tube. E.g., mercury in a glass tube.

Viscosity
• Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes how much a fluid resists deformation
under shear stress or tensile stress.
• Viscosity arises from the internal friction between the layers of the fluid moving relative to each other.
Therefore, viscosity reflects the "thickness" or "internal friction" of the fluid.
• High viscosity fluids like honey or syrup flow slowly due to high resistance. Low viscosity fluids like
water or alcohol flow easily due to low resistance.
• Factors affecting viscosity are:
1. Temperature: For liquids, viscosity generally decreases with increasing temperature. For gases, vis-
cosity generally increases with increasing temperature.
2. Intermolecular forces: Strong intermolecular forces between fluid molecules lead to higher viscosi- 54
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

ty.
• Types of fluids based on viscosity:
1. Newtonian fluids: Fluids with a constant viscosity regardless of the applied stress. E.g., water and
air.
2. Non-Newtonian Fluids: Fluids whose viscosity changes with the applied stress or strain rate. E.g.,
blood and ketchup.
• Types of viscosity are:
 1. Dynamic Viscosity: It quantifies the internal resistance of a fluid to flow when an external force is
applied.
2. Kinematic Viscosity: It relates dynamic viscosity to fluid density and measures how fast a fluid
spreads under gravity.

Flow of Fluids
1. Laminar Flow or Steady Flow: In laminar flow, the fluid moves smoothly in parallel layers, with no
mixing between the layers. This flow type is generally seen at lower velocities and in small, smooth
pipes or channels. The velocity of the liquid at different points is uniform and predictable. E.g., a
stream with gentle flow.
2. Turbulent Flow: In turbulent flow, the fluid moves chaotically and irregularly. This flow involves mix-
ing, swirling, and eddies. This occurs at higher speeds and when the flow encounters obstacles or
rough surfaces. E.g., water flowing rapidly in a river.
 Reynolds number: The transition between laminar and turbulent flow is determined by this number.
 Flow rate: It refers to the volume of fluid passing through a given point in a given time.
 Critical velocity: The threshold velocity at which fluid flow transitions from laminar to turbulent flow.

Bernoulli's Theorem
• Bernoulli's Theorem is a fundamental principle in fluid dynamics that describes the behaviour of a
moving fluid. The theorem states, “For an incompressible, non-viscous fluid flowing steadily through a
streamline, the total mechanical energy (sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy)
remains constant.” This is known as the conservation of mechanical energy for fluids in motion.
• Implication: As the speed of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases because the mechanical energy
remains constant.
 Pressure Energy: The energy due to the pressure of the fluid.
 Kinetic Energy: The energy due to the motion of the fluid.
 Potential Energy: The energy due to the elevation of the fluid.
• Assumptions in Bernoulli's Theorem:

55
1. Incompressible fluid: The fluid's density remains constant throughout the flow.
2. Non-viscous fluid: The fluid has no internal resistance to flow (no viscosity).
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

3. Steady flow: The flow parameters (velocity, pressure, and density) do not change with time.
4. Along a streamline: Bernoulli’s equation is valid for points along the same streamline of the fluid
flow.
• Applications of Bernoulli’s Theorem:
1. Airplane wings: The curved shape of an aeroplane wing creates a difference in airspeed above and
below the wing, generating lift.
 2. Venturi meter: It is used to measure the flow rate of a fluid.

Torricelli's Law
• Torricelli's Law states, “The speed of the fluid flowing out of an opening in a tank is proportional to the
square root of the vertical distance (height) between the liquid surface and the centre of the opening.”
• This law explains that the speed of a fluid exiting an opening depends on the height of the fluid
above the opening. The greater the height, the faster the fluid will exit due to the influence of
gravity.
• This principle has applications in various fields, including hydraulics, fluid mechanics, and engineering
design, such as in calculating the discharge rate from tanks, designing nozzles, etc.
• Assumptions of Torricelli's Law:
1. Incompressible fluid: The fluid is incompressible, meaning its density remains constant.
2. Ideal fluid: The fluid is assumed to be an ideal fluid, meaning it has no viscosity (no internal fric-
tion). In reality, all fluids have some viscosity.
3. Steady flow: The flow of the fluid is assumed to be steady, meaning the velocity and pressure at
any given point in the fluid remain constant over time.
4. Small opening: The size of the opening in the tank is assumed to be small compared to the cross-
sectional area of the tank itself.
5. Open tank: The tank is open to the atmosphere with no lid or covering.

Ideal Gas and Ideal Gas Law

Ideal Gas
• An ideal gas is a theoretical gas that perfectly follows the ideal gas law, which is an equation describ-
ing the behavior of gases under various conditions. The concept of an ideal gas simplifies real gas be-
havior.
• Characteristics of an ideal gas are:
1. Negligible particle size: Gas molecules are point particles with no volume. The actual size of the
molecules is negligible compared to the space they occupy.
2. No intermolecular forces: There are no attractive or repulsive forces between the gas particles, ex- 56
cept during collisions.
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3. Elastic collisions: Collisions between gas particles and with the walls of the container are perfectly
elastic, meaning no energy is lost.
4. Random motion: Gas molecules are in constant, random motion.

Ideal Gas Law

• The ideal gas law is expressed as: PV = nRT
• Where, P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, n is the number of moles of the gas, and
R is the ideal gas constant (a universal constant).
• The ideal gas law is a combination of Boyle's law, Charles's law, Gay-Lussac's law, and Avogadro's
law.
• Real gases do not perfectly follow the Ideal Gas Law, especially at high pressures and low tempera-
tures.

Boyle's Law
• Boyle’s law state that at constant temperature, the pressure of a given amount of gas is inversely
proportional to its volume.
Mathematically, 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 ∝
𝟏𝟏
•
𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠

Examples
1. Breathing: During inhalation, the diaphragm moves down, increasing lung volume and decreasing
pressure, allowing air to flow in. During exhalation, lung volume decreases, increasing pressure, and
air is pushed out.
2. Syringes: Pulling the plunger increases volume inside the syringe, reducing pressure and drawing
fluid in.

Charles's Law
• Charles's law describes the relationship between the volume and temperature of a gas when the pres-
sure and amount of gas remain constant.
• Charles's law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a given amount of gas is directly propor-
tional to its absolute temperature.
• Mathematically, 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 ∝ 𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠

Examples
1. Hot air balloons: Heating the air inside the balloon increases its volume, causing the balloon to
rise.
2. Deflating a ball in cold weather: As the temperature decreases, the air inside contracts, reducing 57
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

the ball's volume.

Gay-Lussac's Law
• Gay-Lussac's law describes the relationship between the pressure and temperature of a gas when the
volume and amount of gas remain constant.
• Gay-Lussac's law states that at constant volume, the pressure of a given amount of gas is directly pro-
portional to its absolute temperature.
• Mathematically, 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 ∝ 𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠

Examples
1. Pressure in a tire: On a hot day, the temperature of the air inside a car tire increases, causing the
pressure to rise.
2. Pressure cookers: As the temperature inside a sealed pressure cooker increases, the pressure of the
steam also increases.

Avogadro's Law
• Avogadro's law describes the relationship between the volume and the amount (moles) of gas when the
pressure and temperature remains constant.
• Avogadro's law states, “Equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain
the same number of molecules.” This means that at constant temperature and pressure, the volume
of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles (amount) of the gas.
• Mathematically, 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 ∝ 𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍𝐍 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦𝐦 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠

Examples
1. Inflating balloons: Adding more air (moles of gas) to a balloon increases its volume, assuming con-
stant pressure and temperature.
2. Breathing: The volume of air in the lungs changes with the number of gas molecules inhaled or ex-
haled.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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 7. Waves: Mechanical and Electromagnetic

7.1. Waves

• A wave is a disturbance or oscillation that travels through space and matter, transferring energy
from one point to another without the transport of matter.

Key Properties of Wave

Wavelength
59
• Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive points in phase on a wave (e.g., crest to crest
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

or trough to trough). It is measured in metres (m).

Amplitude
• The maximum displacement of particles from their equilibrium position.
• It is essentially the "height" of the wave.
• It represents the energy carried by the wave; a larger amplitude indicates higher energy.

Frequency
• The frequency of a wave is the number of waves that pass by each second. It is measured in Hertz
(Hz).
• The formulas for frequency are:
1. Frequency = Velocity / Wavelength
2. Frequency = 1 / Time Period

Time Period
• The time period of a wave is the time taken for one complete oscillation or cycle. It is measured in
seconds (secs).
• It is the inverse of frequency. The formula for the time period of a wave is: Time Period = 1 / Fre-
quency

Wave Velocity
• Wave velocity is the distance travelled by a wave per unit time. It is the speed at which a wave moves
through a medium. It is measured in metres per second (m/s).
• The formula for wave velocity is: Wave velocity = Wavelength x Frequency

60
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7.2. Types of Waves

Mechanical Waves
• Mechanical waves are disturbances that travel through a material medium (solid, liquid, or gas) by
the oscillation of particles within the medium.
• Characteristics of mechanical waves are:
1. Medium requirement: Mechanical waves cannot exist without a medium (e.g., air, water, steel).
2. Energy transfer: They transfer energy from one point to another without any net movement of
particles in the medium because the medium’s particles oscillate around their equilibrium position.
3. Restoring force: The disturbed particles of the medium return to equilibrium due to the elasticity
of the medium.
• E.g., sound waves and seismic waves.

61
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Electromagnetic Waves
• Electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical waves that do not require a medium for their propagation;
they can travel through a vacuum. They are waves of energy consisting of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and to the direction of wave propagation.
• Characteristics of electromagnetic waves are:
1. No medium required: They can travel through empty space, unlike mechanical waves.
2. Self-propagation: The oscillating electric field generates a magnetic field and vice versa, enabling
the electromagnetic wave to propagate.
3. Constant speed in a vacuum: In a vacuum, electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light
(3×108m/s).
4. Energy transfer: Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum, which can be transferred to
objects upon interaction.
• E.g., light waves and radio waves.

7.3. Types of Mechanical Waves 62

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• The types of mechanical waves include transverse waves and longitudinal waves.

Transverse Waves
• In transverse waves, particles of the medium through which the wave propagates oscillate perpen-
dicular to the direction of wave propagation.
• The main features of transverse waves are:
1. Crest: The highest point of the wave.
 2. Trough: The lowest point of the wave.
• E.g., waves on a string and seismic S-waves (secondary waves).

Longitudinal Waves
• In longitudinal waves, particles of the medium through which the wave propagates oscillate parallel
to the direction of wave propagation.
• The main features of longitudinal waves are:
1. Compressions: Regions in the wave where particles are close together.
2. Rarefactions: Regions in the wave where particles are spread apart.
• E.g., sound waves in air and seismic P-waves (primary waves).

7.4. Types of Electromagnetic Waves

• The types of electromagnetic waves include radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light,
ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and gamma rays.

Radio Waves

63
• Radio waves are the longest-wavelength (1 mm to 100 km) electromagnetic waves with the lowest
frequencies (< 300 GHz) in the electromagnetic spectrum.
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• Radio waves have low energy compared to other electromagnetic waves.

• Applications of radio waves are:
1. Communication: Radio and television broadcasting, cellular phones, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, GPS, and
satellite communication.
2. Radar: Used for navigation, weather tracking, and air traffic control.
3. Medical imaging: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and radiotherapy.
• Advantages of radio waves are:
 1. Radio waves can travel long distances and penetrate through obstacles like buildings.
2. Radio waves are easy to produce and detect. They are generated by oscillating charges or currents
in antennas.
• Limitations of radio waves are:
1. Radio waves are subject to interference from other electronic devices.
2. They have limited bandwidth for data transmission compared to higher-frequency waves.

Microwaves
• Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with shorter wavelengths (1 mm to 1 m) and higher frequencies
(300 MHz to 300 GHz) than radio waves. They have higher energy compared to radio waves.
• Applications of microwaves are:
1. Communication: Satellite communication, mobile phones and Wi-Fi, television broadcasting.
2. Cooking: Microwave ovens use microwaves to heat food by agitating water molecules.
3. Radar technology: Used for weather forecasting and air traffic control, detecting speed and loca-
tion of objects (e.g., speed radars).
4. Medical applications: Microwave therapy for cancer treatment.
• Advantages of microwaves are:
1. Microwaves can carry large amounts of data over long distances.
2. They are highly directional, allowing focused communication.
3. They are less susceptible to interference compared to radio waves.
• Limitations of microwaves are:
1. Microwaves can be blocked by large obstacles.
2. They are affected by weather conditions, such as heavy rain.

Infrared
• Infrared (IR) waves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths (700 nm to 1 mm) longer than visible
light but shorter than microwaves. The frequency range of infrared waves is 300 GHz to 430 THz. They
have higher energy than microwaves but lower than visible light.

64
• Infrared waves are primarily associated with heat and are emitted by all objects with temperatures
above absolute zero.
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• Applications of infrared waves are:

1. Thermal imaging: Used in night vision cameras and infrared thermography.
2. Remote controls: Many remote controls use infrared light to transmit signals.
3. Communication: Optical fibre communication utilises infrared light.
4. Heating: Infrared heaters and lamps are used for warmth in homes and industries.
5. Medical use: Infrared therapy for muscle relaxation and pain relief.
6. Food processing: Infrared waves are used for drying and cooking food.
• Advantages of infrared waves are:
1. Infrared waves can penetrate smoke, fog, and thin layers of material.
2. They are efficient in energy transfer (e.g., heating applications).
3. They are non-invasive and safe for various uses, including medical applications.
• Limitations of infrared waves are:
1. Infrared waves are limited to short-range communication (e.g., remote controls).
2. They are absorbed by water vapour, which can reduce effectiveness in certain conditions.

Visible Light
• Visible light is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can detect. It allows us
to perceive colours and forms the basis of vision and illumination.
• The wavelength range of visible light is 380 nm to 700 nm, and the frequency range is 430 THz to 770
THz. They have higher energy than infrared waves but lower than ultraviolet radiation.
• Colours of visible light: The visible spectrum consists of seven colours: red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, and violet. Red light has the longest wavelength and lowest energy, while violet light

65
has the shortest wavelength and the highest energy.
• Applications of visible light are:
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1. Vision: Enables us to see the world around us.

2. Photosynthesis: Plants use visible light for photosynthesis.
3. Illumination: Visible light is used for lighting homes, streets, and workplaces.
4. Communication: Optical fibre communication uses visible light.
5. Photography and entertainment: Visible light is essential in cameras, projectors, and visual dis-
plays.
6. Medical applications: Visible light is used in endoscopy, microscopy, and laser surgeries.
• Advantages of visible light are:
1. Visible light is essential for life, enabling photosynthesis in plants and vision in humans.
2. It is safe for humans when exposure is moderate.
3. It is versatile with applications in science, art, and technology.
• Limitations of visible light are:
1. Visible light cannot penetrate through opaque objects.
2. It has a limited range in certain conditions, such as underwater or in fog.

[UPSC 2020] With reference to the “Visible Light Communication” technology,

which of the following statements are correct?
1. VLC uses electromagnetic spectrum wavelengths 375 to 780 nm.
2. VLC is known as long-range optical wireless communication.
3. VLC can transmit large amounts of data faster than Bluetooth.
4. VLC has no electromagnetic interference.

Select the correct answer using the given code below:

a) 1, 2 and 3 only
b) 1, 2 and 4 only
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) 2, 3 and 4 only

Explanation
• Visible light communication (VLC) is a wireless method that enables high-speed transmission of
data with visible light. This data is transmitted by modulating the intensity of light given off by a
light source. The signal is received by a photodiode device that transforms the data into forms that
are readable and readily-consumed by end users.
• VLC operates in the visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, which ranges from ap-
proximately 375 nm to 780 nm for transmitting data through light signals.
• VLC is categorised as a short-range optical wireless communication technology. The reason for

66
this is that visible light, unlike radio waves, cannot penetrate walls which limits its effective range.
• In VLC, the visible light spectrum offers a higher bandwidth when compared to other electromag-
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

netic spectrums. As a result, it transmits larger volumes of data in a shorter time. In contrast, Blue-
tooth typically offers lower speed.
• Since VLC uses visible light instead of radio waves, which has immunity to electromagnetic inter-
ference (EMI).

Answer: (c) 1, 3 and 4 only

Ultraviolet Waves
• Ultraviolet (UV) waves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths (10 nm to 400 nm) shorter than vis-
ible light but longer than X-rays. They have a frequency range of 7.5×1014 Hz to 3×1016 Hz.
• UV waves are invisible to the human eye and are known for their high energy.
• Applications of ultraviolet waves are:
1. Medical use: UV waves are used for sterilising medical equipment (UVC radiation kills bacteria and
viruses). They are also used for the treatment of skin conditions like psoriasis.
2. Disinfection: They are used in water purification systems.
3. Forensics: They are used for detecting fingerprints and body fluids.
4. Industrial uses: They are used for curing inks, adhesives, and coatings.
• Advantages of ultraviolet waves are:
1. UV waves are effective in sterilisation and disinfection.
2. They provide essential vitamin D synthesis when exposed to sunlight in moderation.
• Limitations of ultraviolet waves are:
1. Overexposure to UV radiation can cause skin cancer, sunburns, eye damage (like cataracts), etc.
2. UV waves have limited penetration through opaque materials.

Types of UV Radiation
UVA (Longwave UV)
• Wavelength range of UVA: 315 nm to 400 nm.
• Characteristics of UVA are:
1. UVA has the longest wavelength and lowest energy among UV rays.
2. It can penetrate deep into the skin's layers.
3. It is the least harmful among UV rays but contributes to skin ageing, indirect DNA damage and
skin cancer.
4. 95% of UV radiation reaching Earth from the Sun is UVA.

UVB (Midwave UV)

• Wavelength range of UVB: 280 nm to 315 nm. 67
• Characteristics of UVB are:
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1. UVB has higher energy than UVA, but does not penetrate as deeply.
2. It causes direct DNA damage, sunburn, and skin cancer (including melanoma).
3. It is partially absorbed by the Earth's ozone layer.
4. It makes up about 5% of UV radiation reaching Earth from the Sun.
5. It is essential for vitamin D synthesis in the skin.

UVC (Shortwave UV)

• Wavelength range of UVC: 100 nm to 280 nm.
• Characteristics of UVC are:
• Shortest wavelength and highest energy among UV rays.
1. UVC is the most harmful form of UV radiation.
2. It is completely absorbed by Earth's atmosphere (ozone layer).
3. It can kill bacteria and viruses, making it useful for sterilisation.
4. It is dangerous for living tissues if exposure occurs (requires safety precautions).
Comparison of UV Radiation Types
Feature UVA UVB UVC
Wavelength 315 nm – 400 nm 280 nm – 315 nm 100 nm – 280 nm
Range
Energy Level Lowest Moderate Highest
Penetration Deep into skin layers Outer skin layers Absorbed by atmosphere
Effects on Skin Ageing, wrinkles, indirect Sunburn, direct DNA Highly harmful to human skin
DNA damage damage, skin cancer if exposed
Source Sunlight (95% of UV reach- Sunlight (5% of UV reach- Artificial sources like germi-
ing Earth), tanning beds ing Earth), UV lamps cidal lamps, welding arcs
Ozone Ab- Not absorbed Partially absorbed Completely absorbed
sorption
Beneficial Ef- Stimulates pigment produc- Aids in vitamin D synthe- Sterilisation and disinfection
fects tion sis
Harmful Ef- Premature ageing, skin Skin cancer, sunburn Harmful to living tissues
fects damage
Protection Broad-spectrum sunscreen, Sunscreen, hats, shade Controlled environments only
protective clothing

X-Rays
X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths (0.01 nm to 10 nm) shorter than ultra-
68
•
violet light and longer than gamma rays. They have high energy and are capable of penetrating most
materials, making them invaluable in medical and industrial applications.
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

• Application of X-rays are:

1. Medical imaging: Diagnosing fractures, infections, and tumors through X-ray radiography. CT scans
for detailed cross-sectional images of the body also use X-rays.
2. Industrial use: X-rays are used for inspecting welds, detecting flaws in materials, and security
screening in airports.
3. Scientific research: It is used for studying atomic structures using X-ray crystallography.
 4. Art restoration: X-rays detect underlying layers and authenticity in paintings.
• The advantage of X-rays is that they are non-invasive imaging of internal structures.
• The limitation of X-rays is that overexposure can cause damage to living tissues and increase cancer
risk. Protective measures (e.g., lead aprons and shields) are required to minimise radiation exposure.

Gamma Rays
• Gamma Rays are the most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation. They have the shortest wave-
lengths (<10-12 m) and the highest frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum.
• The sources of gamma rays are:
1. Radioactive decay (e.g., gamma decay from isotopes like Cobalt-60)
2. Nuclear reactions (such as fusion and fission)
3. Cosmic phenomena (including supernovae and black holes)
• Applications of gamma rays are:
1. Medical uses: Gamma rays are used in radiation therapy to destroy cancer cells. They are also
used for diagnostic imaging like PET scans.
2. Industrial uses: Gamma rays are used for non-destructive inspection of welds and structural integ-
rity.
3. Sterilisation: Gamma rays are used for sterilising medical equipment and food.
4. Scientific research: Gamma rays are used for radioactive dating and analysis.
• The advantage of gamma rays is that they can penetrate most materials, including human tissue.
• The disadvantage of gamma rays is that they can cause cell mutations and increase cancer risk over
time. High dose exposure can cause acute radiation sickness, severe tissue damage, and potential
death.

Comparison Between Types of Electromagnetic Radiations

Features Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared Visible Ultraviolet X-Rays Gamma
Waves Light (UV) Rays Rays
Wavelength 1 mm to 100 1 mm to 1 cm 700 nm 400 nm to 10 nm to 0.01 nm < 0.01 nm

69
range km to 1 mm 700 nm 400 nm to 10 nm
Frequency < 300 GHz 300 MHz to 300 GHz 430 THz to 750 THz to 30 PHz to > 30 EHz PMF IAS – Science – Physics
range 300 GHz to 430 750 THz 30 PHz 30 EHz
THz
Energy Lowest Low Moderate Moderate High Very high Highest
Penetration Very low Low Low Visible to Moderate High Very high
the human
eye
Sources Antennas, stars Radar, ovens, Sun, Sun, artificial Sun, UV X-ray Radioac-
 cosmic sources heaters, light sources lamps ma- tive decay,
warm chines, cosmic
objects stars events
Applica- Communica- Cooking, radar, Remote Illumination, Sterilisa- Medical Cancer
tions tion, broadcast- communica- controls, photog- tion, vita- imaging, treatment,
ing tion night vi- raphy min D syn- security research
sion thesis
Effects on Minimal Heating of tis- Skin Enables vi- Sunburn, Cell Severe tis-
Humans sues warming, sion DNA dam- damage, sue dam-
burns age cancer age, radia-
risk tion sick-
ness
Protection No shielding Insulation, dis- Insula- None need- Sunscreen, Lead Lead or
needed tance tion, ed clothing shielding thick con-
shielding crete
shielding

---------- End of Chapter ----------

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 8. Light and Optics

• Light is a form of energy which travels as an electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human
eye and is responsible for the sense of sight.

8.1. Characteristics of Light

Dual Nature (Wave-Particle Duality)

• Dual nature (wave-particle duality): Light behaves as a wave, showing properties like reflection, re- 71

fraction, diffraction, and interference. Light also behaves as a particle (photon) in phenomena like
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

the photoelectric effect.

• Electromagnetic wave: Light is a transverse wave consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
perpendicular to each other and the direction of propagation.
• Speed of light: In a vacuum, light travels at a constant speed of 3×108 m/s. Light slows down in denser
media, such as glass or water.
• Wavelength and frequency relationship: The speed of light is related to its wavelength and frequency
as: Speed of light = Wavelength x Frequency
• Spectrum: The visible spectrum ranges from 400nm (violet) to 700nm (red).

8.2. Reflection of Light

• Reflection of light is the phenomenon where light rays strike a surface and bounce back. This process
is responsible for many optical effects, including the formation of images in mirrors and the appear-
ance of objects.
• Key terms of reflection of light are:
1. Incident ray: The incoming ray of light.
2. Reflected ray: The ray of light that bounces back from the surface.
3. Normal: An imaginary line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the light ray strikes.
4. Angle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal.
5. Angle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Laws of Reflection
• First Law of Reflection: The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
• Second Law of Reflection: The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in
the same plane.

Types of Reflection
Regular Reflection (Specular Reflection)
• Regular reflection occurs when light reflects off a smooth, shiny surface, such as a mirror or still water.
• The reflected rays are parallel, and a clear image is formed.
• E.g., reflections in a plane mirror.

Irregular Reflection (Diffuse Reflection)

• Irregular reflection occurs when light strikes a rough or uneven surface.
• The reflected rays scatter in many directions, and no clear image is formed. 72
• E.g., reflection from a wall or unpolished surface.
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8.3. Mirrors

• A mirror is a smooth surface that reflects light, forming an image of whatever is in front of it.
• Key concepts associated with mirrors are:
1. Pole: The geometric centre of the reflecting surface of the mirror.
2. Centre of curvature: The centre of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part.
 3. Radius of curvature: The distance between the pole and the centre of curvature.
4. Principal axis: A straight line passing through the pole and the centre of curvature.
5. Principal focus: The point on the principal axis where parallel rays of light incident on the mirror
converge (concave mirror) or appear to diverge (convex mirror) after reflection.
6. Focal length: The distance between the pole and the principal focus.
7. Aperture: The effective diameter of the reflecting surface of the mirror.
• The mirror equation relates the focal length, the object distance (distance from the mirror to the ob-
ject), and the image distance (distance from the mirror to the image):
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= +
𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

8.4. Types of Mirrors

• The most common types of mirrors are plane mirrors, concave mirrors, and convex mirrors.

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Plane Mirrors
• Plane mirrors have a flat surface.
• Properties of an image formed by plane mirrors:
1. The image is virtual, upright, and laterally inverted (left-right reversal).
2. The image size is the same as the object size.
3. The image is formed behind the mirror.
 4. The image distance is equal to the object distance.
• Uses: Everyday mirrors (bathroom, makeup, etc.), telescopes, and periscopes.

Concave Mirrors (Converging Mirror)

• Concave mirrors are curved inward (like the inside of a spoon).
• Reflection: In concave mirrors, parallel rays of light converge after reflection.
• Image formation: They can form real or virtual images, depending on the object’s position relative to
the focal point.
• Uses: Reflecting telescopes, flashlights, shaving mirrors, and satellite dishes.
Images Formed by a Concave Mirror
Position of Object Position of Image Nature of Orientation Size
Image
At infinity At the focus Real Inverted Highly dimin-
ished
Beyond the centre of curva- Between the centre of cur- Real Inverted Diminished
ture vature and focus
At the centre of curvature At the centre of curvature Real Inverted Same size
Between the centre of curva- Beyond the centre of cur- Real Inverted Magnified
ture and focus vature
At the focus At infinity Real Inverted Highly magni-
fied
Between the focus and the Behind the mirror Virtual Upright Magnified
pole of the mirror

Convex Mirror (Diverging Mirror)

• Convex mirrors are curved outward (like the back of a spoon).
• Reflection: In convex mirrors, parallel rays of light diverge after reflection.
• Image formation: They always form virtual, upright, and reduced images. The image is always small-
er than the object. 74
• Uses: Vehicle side mirrors, security mirrors, and traffic mirrors for safety and wide coverage.
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Magnification
• The magnification produced by a mirror is given by the ratio of the image height to the object height
or equivalently, the ratio of the image distance to the object distance:
𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
M𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 = =
𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎 𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡𝐡 𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎𝐎 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
• If m>1, the image is magnified.
• If m<1, the image is diminished.
• If m=1, the image is the same size as the object.

8.5. Types of Images

• There are two primary types of images formed by mirrors: real images and virtual images.

Real Images
• A real image is formed when light rays actually converge after reflecting from a mirror.
• Characteristics of a real image:
1. The image is inverted (upside down).
2. It is reduced or magnified in size, depending on the distance from the mirror.
3. It can be captured or projected on a screen.

Virtual Images
• A virtual image is formed when light rays appear to diverge after reflecting from the mirror, but no
actual convergence occurs. The image appears to be formed behind a mirror, but, in reality, the image
is not present there.
• Characteristics of a virtual image:
1. The image is upright (right-side up).
2. It cannot be captured or projected on a screen; it can only be seen by looking into the mirror.

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8.6. Refraction of Light

• Refraction of light is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another with a different
refractive index. This bending occurs due to the change in the speed of light in different media.
• Key terms of refraction of light are:
1. Incident ray: The ray of light that strikes the surface of a medium. It is the incoming ray approach-
ing the boundary between two media.
2. Refracted ray: The ray of light that passes into the second medium and bends at the boundary due
to a change in speed.
3. Angle of incidence: The angle at which the light ray strikes the boundary between the two media.
4. Angle of refraction: The angle at which the light ray bends as it enters the second medium.
5. Normal: An imaginary line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the light ray strikes.
• Applications of refraction:
1. Lenses: Used in eyeglasses, cameras, and microscopes.
2. Prism and Dispersion: Separation of white light into its spectrum.
3. Mirages: Optical phenomena caused by refraction in air layers of different densities.
4. Fiber Optics: Transmission of light signals through total internal reflection.

Characteristics of Refraction
• Change in speed: Light travels fastest in a vacuum. Light slows down in a denser medium and speeds
up in a rarer medium.
• Direction of bending: Light bends towards the normal when it enters a denser medium. Light bends
away from the normal when it enters a rarer medium.
• No refraction: If the light ray enters perpendicular to the surface (along the normal), it does not bend.
• Wavelength and frequency: The wavelength of light changes during refraction, but the frequency re-
mains constant.

Laws of Refraction
• First Law of Refraction: The incident ray, refracted ray, and normal all lie in the same plane.

76
• Second Law of Refraction (Snell's Law): The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (𝑖𝑖) to the sine
of the angle of refraction (𝑟𝑟) is constant for a given pair of media. Here, constant is the refractive index
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of the second medium relative to the first medium.

sin 𝑖𝑖
= 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
sin 𝑟𝑟

Refractive Index
• The refractive index of a medium quantifies how much light bends or changes direction when enter-
ing that medium from another. It is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed
of light in a given medium.
• The formula is: Refractive index = Speed of light in a vacuum / Speed of light in the medium
Refractive Index Values for Common Materials
Material Refractive Index
Vacuum 1.000
Air 1.0003
Water 1.33
Glass (Typical) 1.5
Diamond 2.42

Types of Refractive Index

1. Absolute Refractive Index: It is the refractive index of a medium relative to a vacuum or air. The for-
mula is: Refractive index = Speed of light in a vacuum / Speed of light in the medium
2. Relative Refractive Index: It is the refractive index of one medium relative to another. The formula is:
Relative refractive index = Refractive index of medium 2 / Refractive index of medium 1

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Total Internal Reflection

• Total internal reflection is a phenomenon that occurs when light waves are completely reflected back
into a medium instead of refracting into another medium. It happens when light travels from a
denser medium to a less dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle.
• Critical angle: It is the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the
rarer medium is 90°.
• E.g., diamond sparkle, prism, mirages, and fibre optics.

Mirage
• A mirage is an optical phenomenon caused by the refraction of light due to temperature gradi-

78
ents in the atmosphere. It creates an illusion where distant objects appear displaced, inverted, or
even as if they are floating, often resembling water on a hot surface.
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Types of Mirages
Inferior Mirage
• Inferior mirage is commonly seen on hot surfaces, such as roads or deserts.
• The image appears below the actual object, often looking like a pool of water.

Superior Mirage
• Superior mirage occurs in colder conditions, often over water.
• The image appears above the actual object, caused by light bending due to cold air trapped be-
neath warm air (temperature inversion).
• Looming effect is a specific type of superior mirage where the object appears significantly el-
evated above its true position. It often gives the impression that the object is "floating" in the air.
• Fata morgana is a complex and rare superior mirage that creates stacked, inverted, stretched,
or compressed images of objects. They are often seen in polar regions or over large water bodies.

Processes Involved in Mirage Formation

Temperature Gradient:
• A mirage occurs when there is a significant difference in air temperature between layers close to the
ground.
i) Inferior Mirage: The ground is hotter than the air above it.
ii) Superior Mirage: The ground or surface is colder, and a layer of warm air lies above cooler air
(temperature inversion).

Variation in Air Density

• The air's refractive index changes with temperature:
i) Hot air is less dense and has a lower refractive index.
ii) Cold air is denser and has a higher refractive index.
• This variation in density causes light rays to bend as they travel through the atmosphere.

Refraction of Light
• Refraction occurs when light passes between two mediums with different refractive indices.
• In a mirage, light travels through layers of air with continuously changing densities. So, as light
passes from denser (cool) air to less dense (hot) air or vice versa, its speed and direction change,
causing the ray to bend.

Bending of Light Rays

• The curvature of light rays depends on the temperature gradient:
i) Inferior Mirage: Light bends upwards as it moves from cooler, denser air to warmer, less dense
air near the ground. 79
ii) Superior Mirage: Light bends downwards as it moves from warmer, less dense air to cooler,
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denser air below.

Total Internal Reflection

• In cases where the temperature gradient is steep, light rays can undergo total internal reflection
at the boundary between layers, creating a mirror-like effect.

Perception by the Observer:

• The human brain assumes light travels in straight lines. When observing refracted light rays, the
brain interprets the displaced rays as coming from a different location, creating an illusion:
i) Inferior Mirage: The object appears below its actual position, often as a reflection resembling
water.
ii) Superior Mirage: The object appears above its actual position, sometimes inverted or distorted.

8.7. Lens

• A lens is a transparent optical device made of glass or other transparent materials, designed to re-
fract (bend) light to focus or disperse it. Lenses are widely used in optical instruments such as eye-
glasses, microscopes, telescopes, and cameras.
• Primary types of lenses are: concave lenses and convex lenses.

• Key concepts associated with lenses:

1. Principal axis: The straight line passing through the centre of the lens and perpendicular to the sur-
faces of the lens.
2. Optical Centre: The point at the centre of the lens where light rays passing through do not bend.
3. Focus: The point where light rays converge or appear to diverge after passing through the lens. 80
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i) For convex lenses: The focal point is real and on the opposite side of the light source.
ii) For concave lenses: The focal point is virtual and on the same side as the light source.
4. Focal length: The distance between the optical centre and the focus.
i) For convex lenses: The focal length is positive.
ii) For concave lenses: The focal length is negative.
5. Lens type: Lenses can be convex (converging) or concave (diverging).
Concave Lens
• A concave lens is a type of lens that is thinner at the centre than at the edges. It is also called a di-
verging lens because it spreads out incoming parallel light rays, making them appear to diverge from a
point called the focus.
• It always forms virtual, upright, and diminished images.
• The power of a concave lens is negative.
• Applications: Correcting near-sightedness (myopia), telescopes, camera lenses, and peepholes.

Power of a Lens
• The power of a lens refers to its ability to bend (refract) light and bring it to focus. It is measured
as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens in meters.
• The formula is: Power of the lens = 1 / Focal length of the lens
• The power of a lens is measured in dioptres (D).

Convex Lens
• A convex lens is a type of lens that is thicker in the middle than at the edges. It is also known as a
converging lens because it converges (brings together) parallel rays of light that pass through it.
• It forms both real and virtual images, depending on the position of the object relative to the lens.
• The power of a convex lens is positive.
• Applications: Correcting hyperopia (farsightedness), magnifying glasses, cameras, telescopes and
microscopes.
Images Formed by Convex Lens
Object Position Image Position Nature of Image Size of Image
At infinity At the focus (F2) Real, inverted Highly diminished
Beyond 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Real, inverted Diminished
At 2F1 At 2F2 Real, inverted Same size
Between F1 and 2F1 Beyond 2F2 Real, inverted Magnified
At F1 At infinity No image No image
Between F1 and the lens On the same side as the object Virtual, erect Magnified 81
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 F1 and F2: Represent the two principal foci of the lens, located on opposite sides.
 2F1 and 2F2: Represent points twice the focal length from the lens centre.

8.8. Dispersion of Light

• Dispersion of light refers to the phenomenon where white light separates into its constituent colours
(red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet) when it passes through a transparent medium
with varying refractive indices for different wavelengths.
Examples
1. Prism: When white light passes through a glass prism, it splits into a spectrum of colours.
2. Rainbows: Water droplets in the atmosphere act as natural prisms, causing sunlight to disperse into
a colourful arc.

Principles of Dispersion of Light

• Dependence of refractive index on wavelength: The refractive index of a material varies with the
wavelength of light.
i) Shorter wavelengths (like violet) have a higher refractive index and bend more.
ii) Longer wavelengths (like red) have a lower refractive index and bend less.
• Separation of colours: White light, a mixture of all visible wavelengths, splits into its component col-

82
ours (spectrum) when it passes through a medium such as a prism. This is because each wavelength re-
fracts at a different angle, producing a continuous spectrum of colours.
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• Material dispersion power: The dispersion power of a material indicates its ability to separate light
into its constituent colours. Materials with a high dispersion power, like flint glass, produce a more
widely spread spectrum compared to materials with lower dispersion power, like crown glass.
• Chromatic dispersion: Chromatic dispersion is the phenomenon where light waves of different
wavelengths travel at different speeds within a medium, leading to varying degrees of bending.
• Angle of deviation: The deviation of each colour depends on its wavelength. Violet light deviates the
most, while red light deviates the least in a prism.
Rainbow
• A rainbow is a natural optical phenomenon resulting from the interaction of sunlight with water
droplets in the atmosphere. It is caused by refraction, internal reflection, and dispersion of light
within the droplets, producing a spectrum of collars in the form of a circular arc.
• The rainbow consists of seven colours arranged in the following order: red (outermost), orange, yel-
low, green, blue, indigo and violet (innermost).

Formation of a Rainbow
1. Refraction: When sunlight enters a water droplet, it slows down and bends due to a change in medi-
um (air to water).
2. Dispersion: The light separates into its constituent colours (spectrum) because each colour has a dif-
ferent wavelength and refracts at a slightly different angle.
3. Internal Reflection: The light reflects off the inside surface of the water droplet.
4. Refraction Again: As the light exits the droplet, it refracts again, bending further and enhancing the
separation of colours.

[UPSC 2014] Rainbow is produced when sunlight falls on drops of rain. Which of
the following physical phenomena are responsible for this?
1. Dispersion
2. Refraction
3. Internal reflection

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Explanation
• When sunlight passes through a raindrop, it undergoes refraction, dispersion, and internal reflec- 83
tion. All three processes work together to produce a rainbow.
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Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3

[UPSC 2014] Consider the following phenomena:

1. Size of the sun at dusk
2. Colour of the sun at dawn
3. Moon being visible at dawn
 4. Twinkle of stars in the sky
5. Polestar being visible in the sky

Which of the above are optical illusions?

a) 1, 2 and 3
b) 3, 4 and 5
c) 1, 2 and 4
d) 2, 3 and 5

Explanation
• Size of the sun at dusk: The sun appears larger near the horizon due to atmospheric refraction, an
optical illusion.
• Colour of the sun at dawn: The sun appears red or orange at dawn because of the scattering of
shorter wavelengths of light (blue and violet) by the atmosphere, creating an illusion of colour.
• Moon being visible at dawn: This is not an optical illusion; the moon is visible depending on its po-
sition relative to the Earth and the Sun.
• Twinkle of stars in the sky: This is an optical illusion caused by the Earth's atmosphere, which causes
the light from stars to refract and appear to twinkle.
• Polestar being visible in the sky: The polestar's visibility is not an illusion; it remains relatively fixed
in the sky.

Answer: (c) 1, 2 and 4

8.9. Scattering of Light

• Scattering of light refers to the process by which small particles in a medium cause light rays to de-
viate from their straight path. This phenomenon occurs when light interacts with particles in the at-
mosphere, such as dust, gas molecules, or water droplets, and gets dispersed in different directions.
• Types of scattering are: Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering and non-selective scattering.

Rayleigh Scattering
84
• Rayleigh scattering is the scattering of light by particles that are much smaller than the wavelength of
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the light. This type of scattering occurs in all directions and is highly dependent on the wavelength
of the light.

Examples of Rayleigh Scattering

Blue Sky
• The atmosphere is composed of small gas molecules that scatter shorter wavelengths (blue) more ef-
fectively than longer wavelengths (red), making the sky appear blue.
Red Sunsets and Sunrises
• At sunrise and sunset, sunlight passes through a thicker layer of the atmosphere (longer path). The
shorter wavelengths (blue and violet) are scattered out, leaving the longer wavelengths (red and or-
ange) to dominate.

Colour of Distant Mountains

• Distant mountains often appear bluish due to the scattering of shorter wavelengths by atmospheric
particles between the observer and the mountains.

Mie Scattering
• Mie scattering occurs when light is scattered by particles that are comparable in size to the wave-
length of the light. Unlike Rayleigh scattering, Mie scattering is not strongly wavelength-dependent
and tends to scatter light in a forward direction.

Examples of Mie Scattering

Clouds and Fog
• Water droplets in clouds & fog scatter all wavelengths almost equally, giving them a white appearance.

Hazy Atmosphere
• Larger atmospheric particles, like dust and pollution, scatter light, reducing visibility and creating haze.

Rainbows and Halos

• Some optical phenomena, such as the appearance of halos around the sun or moon, are influenced by
Mie scattering in conjunction with refraction and diffraction.

Non-Selective Scattering
• Non-selective scattering occurs when particles are significantly larger than the wavelength of light.
This type of scattering affects all wavelengths of light equally, resulting in no colour dependence. It is
termed "non-selective" because the scattered light is not influenced by its wavelength.

Examples of Non-Selective Scattering 85

Cloud
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• Water droplets in clouds are much larger than the wavelengths of visible light, scattering all wave-
lengths equally and making clouds appear white.

Fog and Mist

• Similar to clouds, the large droplets in fog and mist scatter light without wavelength preference, creat-
ing a uniform, white appearance.
Large Dust Particles
• Large dust particles scatter light non-selectively, reducing visibility without a specific colour bias.

Comparison Between Different Types of Scattering

Feature Rayleigh Scattering Mie Scattering Non-Selective Scattering
Particle Size Much smaller than the Comparable to wave- Much larger than the wave-
wavelength length length
Dependence on Wave- Strongly wavelength- Weakly wavelength- Wavelength-independent
length dependent dependent
Scattering Direction Uniform in all directions Primarily forward Uniform
Examples Blue sky, red sunsets White clouds, haze, Clouds, fog, large particles
fog

Tyndall Effect
• The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by particles in a colloidal mixture or a very fine suspen-
sion. It occurs when the particle size is large enough to scatter light but small enough to remain
suspended in the medium. The effect makes the path of the light beam visible.

Examples of the Tyndall Effect

Sunlight Through a Foggy or Dusty Room
• When sunlight enters a dusty room or through fog, the tiny dust particles or water droplets scatter the
light, making the beam of sunlight visible.

Milk in Water
• A colloidal suspension of milk in water shows the Tyndall effect. When a beam of light passes through
the solution, the particles of milk scatter the light, making the path of the light visible.

Light Passing Through Smoke

• In smoke, the small particles (such as soot) scatter the light, and the path of the light becomes visible,
especially in the dark. 86
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Blue Colour of the Sky

• The blue sky is due to Rayleigh scattering and the Tyndall effect itself is not responsible for the blue sky.
However, the Tyndall effect can occur in the visible sunlight beams.

Car Headlights in Fog

• When a car headlight is turned on during foggy weather, the water droplets in the fog scatter the light,
making the beam visible as it travels through the fog.
A Laser Pointer in a Dark Room
• If you shine a laser pointer in a dark room filled with smoke or mist, the path of the laser beam be-
comes visible due to the scattering by the smoke or mist particles.

Clouds
• Clouds are colloidal systems with water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air. These particles
scatter sunlight, contributing to the formation of the cloud's appearance.

8.10. Diffraction of Light

• Diffraction is the bending of light waves around obstacles or through openings, which causes the
light to spread out. This phenomenon occurs when light passes through a narrow slit or around an ob-
stacle that is comparable in size to the wavelength of light.
• Characteristics of diffraction of light:
1. Wavelength of light: The wavelength should be comparable to or larger than the size of the obsta-
cle or slit.
2. Width of the Slit/Obstacle: Diffraction is most noticeable when the size of the opening is close to
the wavelength of the light. For smaller openings (relative to the wavelength), diffraction effects are
more prominent.

8.11. Polarization of Light

• Light is an electromagnetic wave, consisting of both electric and magnetic fields oscillating perpendicu-
lar to each other and to the direction of wave propagation.
• Unpolarized Light: Most natural light is unpolarized, meaning the electric field oscillates in many
different directions. E.g., sunlight, light from an incandescent bulb, or light from a common torch.
• Polarized Light: Light is said to be polarized when its electric field oscillates in only one direction or
plane. Polarized light can be produced by filtering or reflecting unpolarized light.

Applications of Polarization
• Sunglasses: Polarization reduces glare from reflective surfaces. 87
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• 3D Movies: It create the illusion of depth.

• Photography: It enhances contrast and reduces glare.
• LCD Displays: It is used in liquid crystal displays in televisions, computers, and smartphones.

8.12. Interference of Light

• Interference occurs when two or more light waves meet and combine. This interaction can result in
either an increase or a decrease in the overall intensity of the light.
Types of Interference of Light
• Constructive Interference: When the crests (peaks) of one wave align with the crests of another wave,
and the troughs (valleys) align with the troughs. This results in a wave with a larger amplitude, leading
to brighter light.
• Destructive Interference: When the crests of one wave align with the troughs of another wave. This
results in a wave with a smaller amplitude, leading to dimmer light or even no light at all if the waves
perfectly cancel each other out.

8.13. Defects of Vision: Causes and Corrections

• Human eyes can experience several vision defects due to structural or functional abnormalities.

Myopia (Near-sightedness)
• Description: Inability to see distant objects clearly while nearby objects appear sharp.
• Causes:
1. Elongation of the eyeball (increased axial length).
2. Excessive curvature of the cornea or lens.
• Effect: Light rays focus in front of the retina instead of directly on it.
• Correction: Use of concave lenses (diverging lenses) to shift the focal point onto the retina.

Hyperopia (Farsightedness)
• Description: Inability to see close objects clearly while distant objects appear sharp.
• Causes:
1. Shortening of the eyeball (decreased axial length).
2. Insufficient curvature of the cornea or lens.
• Effect: Light rays focus behind the retina.
• Correction: Use of convex lenses (converging lenses) to focus light on the retina.

Astigmatism
• Description: Blurred or distorted vision (difficulty seeing fine details). 88
Causes: Uneven shape of the cornea or lens.
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•
• Effect: Light rays do not focus evenly on the retina, causing distorted or blurry images.
• Correction: Use of cylindrical lenses to correct uneven focusing.

Presbyopia
• Description: Age-related vision defect, causing difficulty in focusing on close objects.
• Causes:
 1. Loss of elasticity in the lens with age.
2. Weakening of ciliary muscles that adjust the lens curvature.
• Effect: Reduced ability of the lens to accommodate near objects.
• Correction: Use of bifocal lenses or progressive lenses (combining corrections for both near and dis-
tant vision) and reading glasses.

Cataract
• Description: Clouding of the lens, leading to blurred or dim vision.
• Causes:
1. Aging, diabetes, prolonged UV exposure, or injury.
2. Protein clumping in the lens, reduces its transparency.
• Effect: Scattered or blocked light entering the eye.
• Correction: Surgical replacement of the clouded lens with an artificial intraocular lens.

Night Blindness (Nyctalopia)

• Description: Difficulty seeing in low-light or dark conditions.
• Causes:
1. Vitamin A deficiency.
2. Retinal disorders or certain genetic conditions.
• Effect: Reduced functionality of rod cells in the retina.
• Correction: Improved diet rich in Vitamin A or treatment of underlying conditions.

Colour Blindness
• Description: Inability to distinguish between certain colours (e.g., red and green).
• Causes:
1. Genetic defect affecting photoreceptor cones in the retina.
2. Damage to the optic nerve or brain.
• Effect: Partial or total inability to perceive specific colours.

89
• Correction: No complete cure, but colour-corrective lenses can enhance colour differentiation.
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 9. Sound Waves

• Sound waves are a type of mechanical longitudinal wave that propagates through a medium by caus-
ing its particles to oscillate parallel to the direction of wave propagation.

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9.1. Characteristics of Sound Waves

Speed of Sound Waves

• Sound waves require a medium to propagate. They travel fastest in solids, slower in liquids, and
slowest in gases.
• Factors affecting the speed of sound are:
 1. Medium's elasticity: Higher elasticity increases the speed of sound.
2. Medium's density: Higher density decreases the speed of sound (if elasticity remains constant).
3. Temperature: Higher temperatures increase the speed of sound due to the increased kinetic energy
of particles, causing them to vibrate faster.
4. Pressure:
5. Humidity: Increased humidity increases the speed of sound in the air because humidity decreases
the air’s density.
Speed of Sound in Common Materials
Medium Speed of Sound
Air (at 20°C) 343m/s
Water (at 25°C) 1,480m/s
Wood (Hardwood) 3,960m/s
Glass 5,200m/s
Steel 5,960m/s

Tone and Noise

• Both tone and noise are types of sound but differ in their regularity, structure, and perception by hu-
mans.

Tone
• A tone is a sound with a specific frequency and a regular wave pattern. It is often pleasant to the
ear and is associated with musical sounds.
• Characteristics of tone are:
1. Frequency: A single, well-defined frequency or a combination of harmonically related frequencies.
2. Regularity: Waveform is periodic and consistent.
3. Perception: Often perceived as melodious or harmonious.
• E.g., notes produced by musical instruments like a piano or guitar.

Noise
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• Noise is a sound that consists of multiple frequencies that are non-harmonically related, creating a
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random and irregular wave pattern. It is often perceived as unpleasant.

• Characteristics of noise are:
1. Frequency: A mix of multiple frequencies that are not harmonically related.
2. Irregularity: Waveform is irregular and non-periodic.
3. Perception: Often described as harsh, discordant, or disturbing.
• E.g., traffic sounds, machinery or construction noise, and static in a radio signal.
Pitch
• Pitch refers to the perceived frequency of a sound by the human ear. It determines whether a sound is
high or low.
• Characteristics of pitch are:
1. Dependence on frequency: Higher frequency corresponds to a higher pitch (e.g., whistle, bird
chirping, and violin strings), while lower frequency corresponds to a lower pitch (e.g., thunder,
drumbeats, and bass guitar).
2. Independent of amplitude: Pitch is not affected by the loudness (amplitude) of a sound. A soft
and loud sound at the same frequency will have the same pitch.
3. Human hearing range: The typical human ear can perceive sounds with frequencies ranging from
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Sounds outside this range are not detectable as a pitch by humans.
4. Medium of transmission: The speed of sound in a medium affects the wavelength of the sound,
indirectly influencing the perception of pitch.
5. Listener’s perception: Sensitivity to pitch may vary between individuals, especially with age or
hearing loss. Thus, pitch is a subjective perception.

Intensity and Loudness of Sound

Intensity of Sound
• Sound intensity refers to the amount of sound energy transmitted per unit area per unit time in a
direction perpendicular to the area. It quantifies the energy flow of a sound wave and is directly re-
lated to how loud a sound is perceived.
• The S.I. unit of sound intensity is watts per square meter (W/m²).
• Decibel is also the unit of sound intensity. It is used to measure the relative loudness of sounds.
• Factors affecting sound intensity are:
1. Distance from the source: Intensity inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the
source. So, sound intensity decreases as the distance from the source increases.
2. Amplitude: Intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the sound wave. So, larger

92
amplitude sound waves have higher intensity.
3. Medium: The properties of the medium (density, temperature) can affect sound intensity.
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Loudness
• Loudness refers to the perception of the strength or intensity of a sound. It is a subjective quality,
meaning it depends on how the human ear perceives sound rather than its physical properties alone.
Loudness is often associated with the intensity of the sound, but it is influenced by several factors, in-
cluding frequency and the sensitivity of the listener's ear.
• Factors affecting loudness are:
1. Intensity of sound (amplitude): The greater the intensity of a sound wave, the louder it is per-
ceived.
2. Frequency of sound: The human ear is more sensitive to sounds with frequencies between the
range of 1,000 to 5,000 Hz. Sounds at these frequencies are perceived as louder than sounds at
lower or higher frequencies, even if their intensities are the same.
3. Duration of sound: Longer sounds are often perceived as louder than shorter ones of the same in-
tensity.
4. Individual perception: Loudness perception can vary significantly between individuals due to fac-
tors such as age, hearing loss, and individual sensitivity.

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Mach Number
• The Mach number is a dimensionless quantity that represents the ratio of the speed of an object to
the speed of sound in the same medium.
• The formula is: Mach number = Speed of object / Speed of sound

Mach Number Ranges

• Subsonic (M<1): Mach number less than 1 (speed slower than sound)
• Transonic (M≈1): Mach number around 1 (speeds approaching the speed of sound)
• Supersonic (1<M<5): Mach number greater than 1 (speed faster than sound)
• Hypersonic (M>5): Mach number greater than 5 (very high speeds)
 A sonic boom is a loud explosive noise caused by the shock waves created when an object travels
through the air faster than the speed of sound (M>1).

9.2. Classification of Sound Waves

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• Sound waves can be classified based on their frequency range, which determines whether they are au-
dible to humans into: infrasonic waves, audible waves, and ultrasonic waves.

Infrasonic Waves or Subsonic Waves

• Infrasonic waves are sound waves with frequencies lower than 20 Hz. They are inaudible to humans.
• Natural sources of infrasonic waves are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, ocean waves, some animal vo-
calisations (e.g., elephants, whales), etc. Artificial sources are explosions, machinery and engines, sonic
booms, etc.
• Applications of infrasonic waves are:
1. Earthquake monitoring: Infrasonic waves help detect and analyse seismic activity.
2. Volcanic eruption prediction: Infrasonic sensors monitor volcanic activity and predict eruptions.
3. Animal communication: Infrasonic communication among animals like elephants and whales.
4. Tsunami detection: Infrasonic waves generated by tsunamis are used for early warning systems.
5. Industrial applications: They are used to monitor large-scale machinery vibrations and structural
health.

Audible Waves
• Audible waves are sound waves with frequencies in the range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. They are audible
to human ears.
• Natural sources of audible waves are human speech, musical instruments, animal sounds (e.g., birds
chirping, dogs barking) and environmental sounds like wind and flowing water. Artificial sources are
speakers and headphones., machines and engines, alarms and sirens.

Ultrasonic Waves
• Ultrasonic waves are sound waves with frequencies above 20,000 Hz. They are inaudible to humans.
• Natural sources of ultrasonic waves are bats, dolphins, and whales. Artificial sources are ultrasonic
transducers and piezoelectric crystals.
• Applications of ultrasonic waves are:

95
1. Medical applications: Ultrasound imaging is used for diagnostic purposes, such as monitoring
foetal development. In physiotherapy, ultrasonic waves are used for deep tissue treatments.
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2. Industrial applications: Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) uses ultrasounds to detect cracks or de-
fects in materials. Ultrasonic cleaning is used to clean delicate items like jewellery and electronics.
Ultrasonic welding is used for joining materials using high-frequency sound waves.
3. Animal communication: Some animals like bats and dolphins, use echolocation for navigation.
4. Pest control: Devices emitting ultrasonic waves repel pests like rodents and insects.
5. Military applications: Detection of submarines and underwater mines using sonar technology
and ultrasonic communication systems.
SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging)
• SONAR is a technique that uses ultrasonic waves to detect, locate, & map objects underwater. It op-
erates by emitting ultrasonic waves and analysing their reflections (echoes) from surfaces or objects.
• SONAR uses ultrasonic waves because they can penetrate water long distances and are not easily
absorbed and shattered.
• Types of SONAR:
1. Active Sonar: It emits sound pulses and listens for the echoes.
2. Passive Sonar: It detects and analyses sounds emitted by other sources.

Echolocation
• Echolocation is a technique that animals use to sense their surroundings by emitting sound waves
and listening to their echoes. It is also known as biological sonar.

9.3. Behaviour of Sound Waves

Reflection of Sound
• Reflection of sound occurs when sound waves strike a surface or medium boundary and bounce
back into the original medium.

Characteristics of Sound Reflection

Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection
• Sound waves follow the law of reflection, where the angle at which the wave hits a surface (angle of
incidence) equals the angle at which it reflects (angle of reflection).

Surface Type Affects Reflection

• Hard and smooth surfaces: Reflect most of the sound waves, enhancing clarity.
• Soft and rough surfaces: Absorb or scatter sound, reducing reflection.

Echo
• An echo is a distinct repetition of a sound that arrives at the listener with a delay after the direct 96
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sound. It occurs when a sound wave bounces off a hard surface and returns to the listener.
• An echo is produced when reflected sound waves reach the listener after a delay > 0.1 seconds.
• The minimum distance required for an echo to occur is 17 meters in air (at room temperature).

Reverberation
• Reverberation is the persistence of sound after it has stopped. It occurs as a result of multiple re-
flections from surfaces such as room walls, furniture, air, etc., within an enclosed space.
• The multiple reflections cause sound waves to bounce back and forth, creating overlapping sounds
before fading away.

Refraction of Sound
• Refraction of sound is the bending of sound waves as they pass from one medium to another or
through regions with varying properties (such as temperature, density, or pressure) within the same
medium.

Characteristics of Sound Refraction

Change in Speed
• The speed of sound depends on the medium's properties, such as temperature, pressure, and density.
• When sound enters a region where the speed changes, the wave bends toward the slower medium.

Effect of Temperature
• In the atmosphere, sound waves travel faster in warm air and slower in cold air. This causes sound to
bend toward the cooler region (thermal gradient).

Effect of Medium Transition

• When sound travels between two media with different densities (e.g., air to water), refraction occurs
at the boundary.

Wavelength and Frequency

• The frequency of the sound remains constant during refraction, while its wavelength changes in
proportion to the speed of sound in the new medium.

Day and Night Effect

• During the day, sound waves bend upward because the air near the ground is warmer than the air
above. At night, the reverse happens, and sound bends downward due to cooler air near the ground.
• At night or early morning, sound waves may travel long distances due to downward bending caused by
temperature inversions.
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Underwater Sound
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• In oceans, sound refracts due to variations in water temperature, pressure, and salinity, affecting under-
water communication and SONAR.

Diffraction of Sound Waves

• Diffraction of sound waves is the bending and spreading of sound waves as they encounter obsta-
cles or pass through small openings.
Characteristics of Sound Diffraction
Wavelength Dependence
• Diffraction is more noticeable when the size of the obstacle or opening is comparable to the wave-
length of the sound wave. Moreover, longer wavelengths (lower frequency sounds) diffract more than
shorter wavelengths (higher frequency sounds).

Obstacles and Openings

• Sound waves bend around objects such as walls, buildings, or barriers.
• Sound spreads out when passing through doorways, windows, or other narrow openings.

Doppler Effect in Sound Waves

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• Doppler effect in sound refers to the apparent change in the frequency or pitch of a sound wave
when there is relative motion between the source of the sound and the observer.
• Characteristics of the doppler effect in sound waves are:
1. Higher frequency (pitch) when approaching: If the sound source moves toward the observer, the
sound waves compress, leading to an increase in frequency and a higher pitch.
2. Lower frequency (pitch) when receding: If the sound source moves away from the observer, the
sound waves stretch, resulting in a decrease in frequency and a lower pitch.
 3. No change without relative motion: If the source and observer are stationary relative to each
other, the observed frequency is the same as the emitted frequency.
• E.g., the siren of a moving ambulance and train whistle.

Interference in Sound Waves

• Interference in sound waves occurs when two or more sound waves combine to create a new wave.

Types of Interference in Sound Waves

Constructive Interference
• Constructive interference occurs when sound waves meet in phase (crest meets crest, or trough meets
trough). The amplitudes of the waves combine, resulting in a louder sound (greater intensity).
• E.g., two speakers playing the same tone in sync and producing a louder sound.

Destructive Interference
• Destructive interference occurs when sound waves meet out of phase (crest meets trough). The ampli-
tudes cancel each other, resulting in a quieter or completely silent region (reduced intensity).
• E.g., noise-cancelling headphones use destructive interference to reduce unwanted ambient sounds.

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 10. Electricity and Magnetism

10.1. Electricity

• Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the flow of electric charge.

10.2. Main Concepts Related to Electricity

Electric Charge
• Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed
in an electric or magnetic field. It is the source of electromagnetic interactions and is carried by sub-
atomic particles such as electrons and protons.
• Types of charge:
1. Positive Charge: They are carried by protons.
2. Negative Charge: They are carried by electrons.
• The unit of electric charge is coulombs (C).
• Interaction of charges:
1. Like charges repel: Positive charges repel other positive charges, and negative charges repel other
negative charges.
2. Unlike charges attract: Positive charges attract negative charges.

Electric Current
• Electric current is the rate of flow of charge through a conductor.
• Mathematically, Current = Total charge / Time
• The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A), where 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second.
• Factors affecting current:
1. Potential difference (Voltage): It drives the flow of charge.
2. Resistance: It opposes the flow of current. 100
3. Material of conductor: It determines the ease of electron flow.
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• Effects of electric current:

1. Heating effect: Current flowing through a conductor produces heat (e.g., electric heaters).
2. Magnetic effect: Electric current generates a magnetic field around it (e.g., electromagnets).
3. Chemical effect: Electric current causes chemical reactions in solutions (e.g., electrolysis).

Voltage (Potential Difference)

• Voltage (or potential Difference) is the difference in electric potential energy between two points in a
circuit. It is the driving force that causes electric charges to flow in a circuit; charges naturally flow from
a point of higher potential to a lower potential.
• Voltage is the work done to move a unit charge from one point to another in an electric field.
• Mathematically, Voltage = Work done / Charge
• The unit for voltage is Volt (V), where 1 Volt = 1 Joule per Coulomb.

Types of Voltage
1. Direct Voltage (DC): Voltage remains constant in magnitude and direction. E.g., batteries and solar
cells.
2. Alternating Voltage (AC): Voltage alternates direction periodically. E.g., household power supply

Resistance
• Resistance is the opposition a material offers to the flow of electric current. It determines how much
current will flow through a circuit for a given voltage.
• The formula is: Resistance = Voltage / Current
• The SI unit of resistance is the Ohm (Ω), where 1 Ohm = 1 Volt/Ampere.

Factors Affecting Resistance

1. Material: Conductors like copper and silver have low resistance. Meanwhile, insulators like rubber and
glass have high resistance.
2. Length of the conductor: Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor. That
means the longer the length, the higher the resistance, and vice versa.
3. Cross-sectional area: Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area. Therefore,
thicker conductors (larger cross-sectional area) have lower resistance.
4. Temperature: The resistance of most conductors increases with temperature. However, the resistance
of semiconductors decreases with temperature.
5. Nature of the Material: Materials have a property called resistivity, which affects resistance.

101
Types of Resistance
1. Fixed Resistance: It remains constant (e.g., resistors in circuits).
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2. Variable Resistance: It can be adjusted (e.g., potentiometers, rheostats).

Resistivity
• Resistivity is a fundamental property of a material that quantifies how strongly it resists the flow of
electric current. It depends only on the material's composition and temperature, not shape or size.
• Unlike resistance, which depends on the dimensions of the material (length and cross-sectional area),
resistivity is a characteristic of the material itself.
• The formula is: Resistivity = Resistance x (Cross-sectional Area / Length of the material)
• The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter (Ω⋅m).

Factors Affecting Resistivity

1. Material Type: Different materials have different resistivity. Conductors (e.g., copper, aluminium) have
low resistivity, insulators (e.g., rubber, glass) have high resistivity, and semiconductors (e.g., silicon, ger-
manium) have intermediate resistivity.
2. Temperature: In conductors, resistivity increases with temperature. In semiconductors, resistivity de-
creases with temperature.
Resistivity vs Resistance
Feature Resistivity Resistance
Definition Resistivity is a material property that quanti- Resistance is the opposition to current
fies its inherent resistance to current flow flow in an electrical circuit
SI Unit Ohm-meter Ohms
Depends On Only the material and temperature Material, length, and cross-sectional
area
Material-Specific Yes, resistivity is unique to the material No, resistance depends on dimen-
sions as well as the material
Temperature De- Resistivity increases with temperature in Resistance also changes with temper-
pendence conductors ature, as it depends on resistivity

Power in Electricity
• Power in electricity refers to the rate at which electrical energy is transferred or converted into an-
other form, such as heat, light, or motion. It measures how quickly work is done in an electrical circuit.
• In simpler terms, power is the rate at which electrical energy is consumed.
• Mathematically, Power = Voltage x Current
• The SI unit of power is watts (W), where 1 Watts = 1 Joule per second. Sometimes, horsepower (1 HP
≈ 746 W) is used to denote the power of motors.

Energy in Electricity 102

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• The total work done by an electric current is called energy. The unit of energy is joules (J).
• The formula is: Energy = Power x Time

Coulomb’s Law
• Coulomb's Law states that electric force between two point charges is:
1. Directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges.
2. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
 Mathematically, 𝐅𝐅 = 𝐤𝐤 ×
𝐪𝐪𝟏𝟏 ×𝐪𝐪𝟐𝟐
•
𝐫𝐫 𝟐𝟐

• Where, F = force between charges; k = Coulomb's constant (9x109 Nm2/C2), q1 , q2 = magnitudes of the
charges, and 𝑟𝑟 = distance between the charges.

Ohm’s Law
• Ohm's Law describes the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit.
• Ohm's Law states that the current flowing through a conductor between two points is directly propor-
tional to the voltage across the two points.
• This implies that if the voltage across a conductor increases, the current flowing through it will also in-
crease proportionally as long as the resistance remains constant.
• Mathematically, Voltage = Current x Resistance
• Limitations: Ohm's Law applies primarily to ohmic materials (materials that exhibit a linear relation-
ship between voltage and current).

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

• Conductors and insulators are materials that differ in their ability to allow the flow of electric charge
(electricity).

Conductors
• Conductors are materials that allow electric charges (electrons) to flow freely through them.
• Properties of conductors are:
1. High electrical conductivity.
2. Low resistance to the flow of current.
3. Outer electrons in atoms (valence electrons) are loosely bound and can move freely.
• Examples of conductors:
1. Metals: Copper, silver, aluminium, and gold
2. Non-metals: Graphite (carbon)
3. Solutions: Saltwater, acids, and bases

103
• Applications of conductors: Used in electrical wiring (e.g., copper wires), components in circuits (e.g.,
electrodes), electrical contacts and switches.
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Insulators
• Insulators are materials that resist or block the flow of electric charges.
• Properties of insulators are:
1. Low electrical conductivity.
2. High resistance to current flow.
3. Electrons are tightly bound to atoms and cannot move freely.
• Examples of insulators:
1. Non-metals: Rubber, plastic, wood, glass, and ceramic
2. Dry air
• Applications of insulators: They are used to insulate electrical wires and protective coverings in electrical
appliances and prevent accidents from electrical shocks.
Property Conductors Insulators
Electric Current Allows current to flow freely Blocks or resists current flow
Resistance Low resistance High resistance
Electron Movement Free electrons move easily Electrons are tightly bound
Examples Copper, silver, and aluminium Rubber, plastic, and wood
Applications Electrical wiring and circuits Insulation and safety equipment

Semiconductors
• Semiconductors are materials that have conductivity between that of conductors and insulators.
• E.g., silicon and germanium.
• Applications of semiconductors: Used in electronics (transistors, diodes, solar cells).

10.3. Types of Electricity

• The main types of electricity are static electricity and current electricity.

Static Electricity
• Static electricity is the accumulation of electric charges on the surface of an object, typically caused
by friction between two materials.
• Characteristics of static electricity:
1. The charges remain stationary unless discharged.
2. Static energy results from the transfer of electrons between objects.
• Common causes of static electricity:
1. Friction: Rubbing two objects together can transfer electrons between them and build a static
charge. E.g., rubbing a balloon on your hair, which causes it to stick to a wall. 104
2. Contact: When objects with different charges touch, electrons can transfer between them. E.g.,
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peeling off plastic wraps from surfaces.

3. Induction: A nearby charged object can cause a redistribution of charges on a neutral object with-
out direct contact. E.g., a charged comb attracting small paper pieces.

Current Electricity
• Current electricity refers to the continuous flow of electric charge through a conductor.
• Characteristics of current electricity:
1. Current electricity requires a closed circuit to flow.
2. It produces a magnetic field around the conductor.
• Types of current electricity:
1. Direct Current (DC): The electric charges flow in only one direction. E.g., batteries and solar pan-
els.
2. Alternating Current (AC): The flow of electric charge that periodically reverses direction. This is
the type of electricity that powers most homes and businesses.

10.4. Magnetism

• Magnetism is the force of attraction or repulsion that arises due to the motion of electric charges. It
is a physical phenomenon associated with magnetic fields produced by moving electric charges, such as
electrons in atoms or currents in conductors.
• Magnetism can manifest in materials like magnets or natural phenomena such as Earth's magnetic field.

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PMF IAS – Science – Physics

Magnetic Poles
• Magnetic poles are the regions at the ends of a magnet where the magnetic field is strongest. Every
magnet has two poles:
 1. North Pole (N): The pole that points toward the geographic North Pole (or magnetic South
Pole) when the magnet is freely suspended.
2. South Pole (S): The pole that points toward the geographic South Pole (or magnetic North Pole)
when the magnet is freely suspended.
• Magnetic poles always exist in pairs; a single isolated pole (monopole) does not exist.

Law of Magnetic Poles

• Like poles repel each other: The North Pole repels the North Pole and vice versa.
• Unlike poles attract each other: The North Pole attracts the South Pole and vice versa.

Magnetic Field
• The magnetic field is the region around a magnet or a current-carrying conductor within which the
force of magnetism acts.
• It is represented by magnetic field lines that indicate the direction and strength of the field.
• Magnetic field strength is measured in tesla (T) in the SI system or gauss (G) in the CGS system. (1 tes-
la = 10,000 gauss).

Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

1. Continuous and closed Loops: Magnetic field lines always form continuous and closed loops.
2. Density of lines: The closer the lines, the stronger the magnetic field. Lines are denser near the poles.
3. Direction of field lines: Magnetic field lines flow from the North Pole to the South Pole outside the
magnet and from the South Pole to the North Pole inside the magnet.
4. No intersecting lines: Magnetic field lines never cross each other because the field at a point has a
single direction.

Applications of Magnetic Fields

1. Electric motors and generators: Magnetic fields convert electrical energy to mechanical energy and
vice versa. This process is called electromechanical energy conversion.
2. Magnetic storage: Hard drives and magnetic tapes use magnetic fields for data storage.
3. Medical imaging: MRI machines use strong magnetic fields for imaging. 106
4. Navigation: Magnetic compasses work by aligning with the Earth's magnetic field.
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

Laws of Magnetism
Coulomb’s Law for Magnetism
• Magnetic force between poles is proportional to the product of their strengths and inversely propor-
tional to the square of the distance between them.

Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

• Magnetic monopoles do not exist; magnetic field lines always form closed loops.

Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction

• A changing magnetic field induces an electric current.

10.5. Types of Magnetism

• Magnetism is classified based on how materials respond to a magnetic field. The primary types of mag-
netism are:

Diamagnetism
• Diamagnetism is a weak form of magnetism present in all materials where the material creates an
opposing magnetic field when exposed to an external magnetic field.
• Characteristics of diamagnetic materials:
1. They are weakly repelled by the magnetic field.
2. They do not retain magnetism.
3. Their magnetic susceptibility is negative.
• E.g., copper, gold, silver, and bismuth.

Paramagnetism
• In paramagnetism, materials that have unpaired electrons are weakly attracted to a magnetic field.
• Characteristics of paramagnetic materials:
1. Alignment of their magnetic dipoles in the same direction as the magnetic field.
2. They have a weak attraction to magnetic fields.
3. Their magnetic susceptibility is positive but small.
• E.g., aluminium, platinum, and magnesium.

Ferromagnetism
• Ferromagnetism is a strong form of magnetism where materials exhibit spontaneous magnetisation

107
even without an external magnetic field.
• Characteristics of ferromagnetic materials: PMF IAS – Science – Physics

1. They have a strong attraction to magnetic fields.

2. Their magnetic domains align in the direction of the magnetic field, leading to high magnetisation.
3. Their magnetic susceptibility is very high.
4. They can retain magnetisation (permanent magnets).
• E.g., iron, nickel, and cobalt.

Antiferromagnetism
• Antiferromagnetism is a type of magnetism where adjacent magnetic moments or spins align in oppo-
site directions, cancelling each other.
• Characteristics of antiferromagnetic materials:
1. There is no net magnetic moment due to opposite spin alignment.
2. They exhibit magnetism only under specific temperature conditions (Néel temperature).
• E.g., manganese oxide and hematite.

Ferrimagnetism
• Ferrimagnetism is similar to antiferromagnetism, but the opposing magnetic moments are unequal,
resulting in spontaneous magnetisation.
• Characteristics of ferrimagnetic materials:
1. They are strongly attracted to magnetic fields but weaker than ferromagnetism.
2. They have net magnetic moment.
3. Their magnetic domains are partially aligned.
• E.g., magnetite and ferrites.

Superparamagnetism
• Superparamagnetism is a phenomenon observed in very small ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic nano-
particles where they exhibit paramagnetic behaviour at certain temperatures.
• Characteristics of superparamagnetic materials:
1. They do not retain magnetisation.
2. They are highly sensitive to external magnetic fields.
3. They are used in magnetic data storage and medical imaging.

10.6. Geomagnetism

• Geomagnetism refers to the magnetic field associated with the Earth. It is generated primarily by the
movement of molten iron and nickel in the Earth's outer core, which creates electric currents and a
global magnetic field.
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Main Features of Geomagnetism PMF IAS – Science – Physics

• Magnetic poles: The Earth has two magnetic poles – the north magnetic pole and the south mag-
netic pole. These poles are not fixed; their positions change over time due to the dynamics of Earth's
core.
• Magnetic axis: The magnetic axis is the line connecting the north and south magnetic poles. It is in-
clined at an angle (approximately 11°) to the Earth's rotational axis.
• Magnetic field lines: Magnetic field lines emerge from the south magnetic pole and re-enter at the
north magnetic pole, forming closed loops.
• Magnetic declination: The angle between the geographic north and the magnetic north at a particular
location is called magnetic declination.
• Magnetic inclination (Dip): The angle that a magnetic needle makes with the horizontal plane at any
point on Earth is called the magnetic inclination or dip.
• Magnetic intensity: The strength of the Earth's magnetic field varies from place to place, being
strongest near the poles and weakest near the equator.

109
Sources of Geomagnetism
1. Core dynamo effect: The Earth's magnetic field is primarily generated by the motion of molten iron
PMF IAS – Science – Physics

and nickel in the outer core, which produces electric currents.

2. Crustal magnetism: Some parts of the Earth's crust contain magnetic minerals (like magnetite), which
contribute to localised magnetic anomalies.
3. Magnetosphere and ionosphere: Electric currents flowing in the ionosphere and magnetosphere can
also contribute to variations in the Earth's magnetic field.

Uses of Geomagnetism
• Navigation: The Earth's magnetic field has been used for navigation for centuries, guiding compasses.
• Protection from solar radiation: The Earth's magnetic field interacts with solar winds to form the
magnetosphere, a protective shield that deflects harmful solar radiation.
• Animal navigation: Many species, including birds and sea turtles, use Earth's magnetic field for migra-
tion and navigation.
• Geological studies: Geomagnetic data helps scientists study plate tectonics and the movement of con-
tinents.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

110
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 PMF IAS

Chemistry
 1. Atoms and Molecules: Building Blocks of Matter

1.1. Atoms

• An atom is the smallest unit of matter (or fundamental unit of matter) that retains the identity and
properties of an element. Atom consists of three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and elec-
trons.

1.2. Structure of an Atom

Nucleus: Protons and Neutrons

• The nucleus is a dense, positively charged central core of an atom, where most of the atom's mass 1
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
is concentrated. It was discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1911 through his famous gold foil experi-
ment.
• The nucleus is made up of subatomic particles called nucleons, which include protons and neutrons.

Protons
• Protons are positively charged subatomic particles. Ernest Rutherford discovered them.
• They are responsible for the positive charge of the nucleus.
Neutrons
• Neutrons are electrically neutral subatomic particles. James Chadwick discovered them.
• They provide stability to the nucleus by offsetting repulsive forces between protons.
 Both protons and neutrons have similar mass.

Electrons
• Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that orbit the nucleus in definite orbits called en-
ergy levels (or shells). The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the higher its energy.
• Discovered by J.J. Thomson, electrons can move between the energy levels by absorbing or emitting
specific amounts of energy (usually in the form of light, i.e., photons).
• Electrons have negligible mass compared to protons and neutrons. Due to their small mass, electrons
contribute very little to the overall mass of an atom.
• Electrons exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties, a concept known as wave-particle duality.
• The number of electrons equals the number of protons in a neutral atom.

1.3. Characteristics of an Atom

Atomic Number
• Atomic number of an element is the number of protons present in the nucleus of its atom.
• It is denoted by the letter Z.
• Importance of atomic number:
1. Atomic number is unique for each element. It determines the element’s identity. Elements are ar-
ranged in the periodic table in ascending order of their atomic numbers.
2. Atomic number determines an atom’s chemical properties. Atomic number equals the number of
electrons in a neutral atom, making the atom electrically neutral. It also determines how an ele-
ment will behave in nuclear reactions and its nuclear stability.
Element Symbol Atomic Number (Z)

2
Hydrogen H 1
Helium He 2 PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Carbon C 6
Oxygen O 8
Gold Au 79

Mass Number
• Mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
• Mass number of an atom = Atomic number (total protons) + Total neutrons
• Importance of mass number:
1. Mass number helps determine the composition of the nucleus.
2. It distinguishes isotopes of the same element.
3. Mass numbers can affect the atom's physical properties (like mass).
4. It changes during nuclear reactions, such as fission or fusion.
Element Symbol Atomic Number Neutrons Mass Number
Hydrogen H 1 0 1
Helium He 2 2 4
Carbon C 6 6 12
Oxygen O 8 8 16
Uranium-238 U 92 146 238

Atomic Mass
• Atomic mass is the sum of the masses of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom. The actual
mass of the nucleus is slightly less than the sum of the individual masses of its protons and neutrons
due to the release of binding energy during nuclear formation.
• It is the mass of a single atom of a specific isotope of an element.
• Atomic mass is measured in atomic mass units (amu) or Daltons (Da). 1 amu = 1/12th of the mass of a
single carbon-12 atom (the most abundant carbon isotope).

Atomic Weight (Relative Atomic Mass)

• Atomic weight is the weighted average mass of all the naturally occurring isotopes of that ele-
ment. This means it considers the relative abundance of each isotope in nature.
• E.g., chlorine has two main isotopes: Chlorine-35 and Chlorine-37. The atomic mass of chlorine is calcu-
lated by considering the masses and relative abundances of these isotopes.

Size
• Atoms are extremely small, typically measured in picometers (10-12 meters).

3
• The size of an atom refers to its atomic radius, which is the distance from the nucleus to the outermost
electron shell. Atomic radius depends on the number of electrons and their distribution.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

Neutrality
• Atoms are considered neutral when they have an equal number of protons and electrons. This bal-
ance ensures that the positive charge of the protons in the nucleus is exactly cancelled by the nega-
tive charge of the electrons orbiting around it, resulting in no overall electric charge.

Energy Levels (or Shells)

• Electrons are arranged in discrete energy levels or shells around the nucleus.
• The lowest energy level is closest to the nucleus and the highest energy level is farthest from the nucle-
us.
• Thus, the energy of an electron increases with distance from the nucleus. The electrostatic potential
energy becomes less negative (less attractive) as the electron moves further away. The total energy
(kinetic + potential) increases due to the weaker attractive force at larger distances, even though the
electron's kinetic energy decreases slightly.

Chemical Behaviour
• The chemical behaviour of an atom is primarily determined by the arrangement and behaviour of its
electrons, specifically the valence electrons (electrons in the outermost shell).
• Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share valence electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration.

Stability
• The stability of an atom depends on its proton-to-neutron ratio.
1. For lighter elements (low atomic numbers): A stable ratio is typically around 1:1 (equal numbers
of protons and neutrons).
2. For heavier elements (high atomic numbers): More neutrons than protons are required to coun-
teract the repulsive forces between the positively charged protons. Thus, the ideal neutron-to-
proton ratio gradually increases with atomic number.
• Unstable atoms (with imbalanced ratios) are radioactive and undergo decay.

Indivisibility
• In chemical reactions, atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or divided into smaller particles; they are
rearranged to form new compounds.
• However, in nuclear reactions, atoms can split (fission) or combine (fusion).

Wave-Particle Duality

4
• Atoms demonstrate both particle (e.g., mass) and wave-like properties (e.g., electron diffraction). This
duality is a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics. PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

1.4. Different Atomic Species

• Atomic species are classified based on the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons they contain.
These variations result in different chemical and physical properties. The main categories include iso-
topes, ions, isobars, isotones, allotropes, and isoelectronic species.

Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass num-
bers.
• E.g.,
1. Isotopes of hydrogen:
i) Protium ( 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝐇𝐇): 1 proton, 0 neutrons
ii) Deuterium ( 𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏𝐇𝐇): 1 proton, 1 neutron
iii) Tritium ( 𝟑𝟑𝟏𝟏𝐇𝐇): 1 proton, 2 neutrons
2. Isotopes of carbon:
i) Carbon-12 ( 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔𝐂𝐂): 6 protons, 6 neutrons
ii) Carbon-13 ( 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔𝐂𝐂): 6 protons, 7 neutrons
iii) Carbon-14 ( 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔𝐂𝐂): 6 protons, 8 neutrons

Characteristics of Isotopes
1. Same atomic number: Isotopes belong to the same element and have the same number of protons
in their nuclei.
2. Different neutron count: They have different number of neutrons, leading to different mass num-
bers.
3. Physical properties: Isotopes may differ in physical properties (e.g., mass and density) because of
their differing mass numbers.
4. Chemical properties: Isotopes of the same element generally exhibit similar chemical behaviour be-
cause they have identical electron configurations.

Types of Isotopes
1. Stable Isotopes: These isotopes do not undergo radioactive decay and remain unchanged over time.
E.g., Protium, deuterium, and carbon-12
2. Radioactive Isotopes: These isotopes are unstable and decay over time, emitting radiation. E.g., Iodine-
131, Cobalt-60, Carbon-14, and Uranium-235.

Ions
• Ions are atoms or molecules that have gained or lost one or more electrons, resulting in a net elec- 5
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

trical charge. Thus, ions are atomic species that are charged.

Types of Ions
1. Cations: They are positively charged ions formed when an atom loses electrons. Cations typically
form from metals. E.g., Sodium ion (Na+) and Calcium ion (Ca2+).
2. Anions: They are negatively charged ions formed when an atom gains electrons. Anions typically
form from nonmetals. E.g., Chloride ion (Cl−) and Sulfide ion (S2−).
Properties of Ions
1. Opposite attraction: Cations are attracted to negative charges, and anions are attracted to positive
charges. In an electrolytic cell, cations move toward the cathode (negative electrode), and anions move
toward the anode (positive electrode).
2. Conductivity: When present in solutions or molten form, ions conduct electricity because they can
move and carry charges. Due to this property, ionic compounds are often electrolytes (substances
that conduct electricity when dissolved in water).
3. High reactivity: Ions are generally more reactive than neutral atoms because they are eager to gain,
lose, or share electrons to reach a stable electron configuration.
4. Solubility: Ions are highly soluble in water because water molecules, due to their polarity, can sur-
round and stabilise ions in solution. E.g., sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolves in water to form Na+ and Cl−
ions.
5. Stability: Ions are more stable when they achieve an electron configuration similar to a noble gas (a
full outer electron shell). E.g., a sodium ion (Na+) has the same electron configuration as neon (Ne),
which makes it more stable than a neutral sodium atom.
6. High melting and boiling points: Ionic compounds generally have high melting and boiling points
due to the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions in the crystal lat-
tice.
 Polarity is the separation of electric charges within a molecule or atom, resulting in a positive and neg-
ative end.
 Noble gases are chemical elements in Group 18 of the periodic table. These elements are character-
ised by their low chemical reactivity due to their full valence electron shells. E.g., helium and neon.

Applications of Ions
• Electrolysis: Ions are used in refining metals and electroplating.
• Biological processes: Ions like Na+, K+, and Cl− are vital for nerve impulses and cellular function.
• Chemical reactions: Ions participate in acid-base reactions, redox processes, and salt formation.

6
• Energy storage: Ions found in batteries, such as lithium-ion cells.

Isobars
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• Isobars are atoms of different elements with the same mass number but different atomic numbers.
• E.g., Argon-40 (18 protons, 22 neutrons) and Calcium-40 (20 protons, 20 neutrons).

Characteristics of Isobars
1. Same mass number: Isobars have the same total number of protons and neutrons in their nuclei.
2. Different atomic numbers: Since they are different elements, they have different numbers of protons.
3. Different chemical properties: Due to their different atomic numbers, isobars exhibit distinct chemical
properties.

Isotones
• Isotones are atoms of different elements that have the same number of neutrons but different
numbers of protons and electrons. E.g., Carbon-13 and Nitrogen-14 both have 7 neutrons.

Characteristics of Isotones
1. Same number of neutrons: Isotones share the same neutron count but differ in atomic and mass
numbers.
2. Different protons: Since they have different proton numbers, they belong to different elements.
3. Physical and chemical properties: Isotones have different chemical properties due to their different
atomic structures (resulting from different proton numbers).
4. Nuclear properties: The stability and radioactive nature of isotones may vary significantly depending
on the element.

Allotropes
• Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element in the same physical state. They arise
due to differences in bonding arrangements, crystal structures, or molecular configurations. This
variation leads to distinct physical and chemical properties among the allotropes.

Characteristics of Allotropes
1. Same element: Allotropes are forms of the same element in the same physical state.
2. Different structures: Theirs differences arise due to differences in atomic arrangement or bonding.
3. Varied properties: Allotropes have distinct physical and chemical properties (e.g., hardness, conductivi-
ty, reactivity).
4. Dependent on conditions: The stability of allotropes can depend on environmental factors like tem-
perature and pressure.

7
Common Allotropes of Elements
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Allotropes of Carbon
Diamond
• Properties: Hardest natural substance, transparent, high refractive index, high thermal conductivity,
and non-conductive.
• Uses: Jewellery and cutting tools.

Graphite
• Properties: Soft, slippery, and good electrical conductor.
• Uses: Pencils, lubricants, and electrodes.

Graphene
• Properties: Extremely strong, lightweight, and excellent electrical conductor.
• Uses: Advanced electronics and nanotechnology.

Fullerenes
• Properties: Lightweight, chemically stable, and conductive.
• Uses: Medicine, materials science, and nanotechnology.

Allotropes of Oxygen
Dioxygen (O2)
• Properties: Colourless, odourless, tasteless, slightly soluble in water, highly reactive, and oxidising
agent.
• Uses: Essential for life and combustion.

Ozone (O3)
• Properties: Pale blue gas with a pungent odour, highly reactive, strong oxidising agent, absorbs ultravi-
olet radiation.
• Uses: UV protection (ozone layer) and disinfection.

Allotropes of Phosphorus
White Phosphorus
• Properties: Colourless or yellowish-white, highly reactive, waxy, flammable, toxic, and glows in the dark.
• Uses: Military applications.

Red Phosphorus
• Properties: More stable and less reactive than white phosphorus.
• Uses: Matchsticks, flame retardants, pesticides, and pigments.

Black Phosphorus

8
• Properties: Good semiconductor.
Uses: Electronics.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
•

Allotropes of Sulfur
Rhombic Sulfur
• Properties: Yellow crystals that are stable at room temperature.
• Uses: Production of sulfuric acid and vulcanization of rubber.

Monoclinic Sulfur
• Properties: Needle-like crystals that are stable at higher temperatures.
Plastic Sulfur
• Properties: Amorphous form obtained by rapid cooling of molten sulfur.

Allotropes of Tin
White Tin
• Properties: Metallic form and stable at room temperature.

Gray Tin
• Properties: Non-metallic form and stable at low temperatures.

Silicon
• Amorphous silicon (used in thin-film solar cells) and crystalline silicon (used in semiconductors and
microelectronics).

Boron
• Amorphous boron (powder form; used in pyrotechnics) and crystalline boron (hard and used in abra-
sives and cutting tools).

Iron
• Ferrite (stable at room temperature), austenite: Stable at high temperatures, and δ-Iron (stable at very
high temperatures).

Arsenic
• Yellow arsenic (soft and waxy), gray arsenic (metallic and more stable), and black arsenic (glassy and
brittle).

Isomers
• Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula (i.e., the same number and types of at-
oms) but different arrangements of those atoms.

Characteristics of Isomers
1. Same formula, different structure: Isomers have the same chemical formula but differ in how the at- 9
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
oms are connected or positioned in space.
2. Different properties: This difference in arrangement often leads to significant differences in their phys-
ical and chemical properties, such as melting point, boiling point, reactivity, and biological activity.
Comparison of Different Atomic Species
Type No. of Protons No. of Neutrons No. of Electrons Key Difference
Isotopes Same Different Same Different mass numbers
Ions Same Same Different Charge due to electron gain/loss
Isobars Different Different Same Same mass number, different elements
Isotones Different Same Same Same neutrons, different elements
Allotropes Same Same Same Different atomic structures
Isomers Same Same Same Different nuclear energy states

1.5. Atomic Models

• The concept of the atom has evolved over time through various atomic models.

Dalton's Model (1803): The Billiard Ball Model

• The billiard ball model was proposed by John Dalton.

Main Features of Dalton's Model

1. Matter is made up of indivisible particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
3. Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms, but atoms are neither created nor destroyed.

Limitations of Dalton's Model

1. The model does not account for subatomic particles (electrons, protons, neutrons).
2. It fails to explain the behaviour of isotopes (atoms of the same element with different masses).

Thomson's Model (1897): The Plum Pudding Model

• The plum pudding model was proposed by J.J. Thomson.

Main Features of the Plum Pudding Model

1. Atoms are made up of a positively charged "pudding" with negatively charged electrons embedded
within it (like raisins in a plum pudding).
2. The atom is electrically neutral overall, with the positive and negative charges balanced.

Limitations of the Plum Pudding Model

10
1. The model did not explain how electrons are arranged in the atom.
2. It was unable to account for the atom's stability or its scattering behaviour.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

Rutherford's Model (1911): The Nuclear Model

• The nuclear model was proposed by Ernest Rutherford.

Main Features of the Nuclear Model

1. The atom consists of a tiny, dense, positively charged nucleus at its centre, which contains most of the
atom's mass.
2. Electrons orbit the nucleus, similar to planets orbiting the sun.

Limitations of the Nuclear Model

1. The model did not explain the stability of the atom (i.e., why electrons don’t spiral into the nucleus due
to electromagnetic attraction).
2. It failed to explain the emission spectra of atoms.

Bohr's Model (1913) - The Planetary Model

• The planetary model was proposed by Niels Bohr.

Main Features of the Planetary Model

1. Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific, stable energy levels or orbits.
2. Electrons can jump from one energy level to another by absorbing or emitting a quantum of energy
(photon).
3. The orbits are quantized, meaning only certain orbits are allowed, and the energy of electrons is also
quantized.

Limitations of the Planetary Model

1. It works well for hydrogen but fails to explain the spectra of more complex atoms.
2. It does not account for the wave-like nature of electrons, as later shown by quantum mechanics.

Quantum Mechanical Model (1926) - The Modern Atomic Model

• The modern atomic model was developed by Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, and others.

Main Features of the Modern Atomic Model

1. Electrons are treated as both particles and waves (wave-particle duality).
2. The position and momentum of an electron cannot both be precisely determined at the same time
(Heisenberg uncertainty principle).
3. Electrons are found in orbitals, which are regions of space where there is a high probability of finding

11
an electron.
4. The model incorporates quantum mechanics to explain the behaviour of electrons in atoms. PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

5. Electrons occupy discrete energy levels, but their positions are described probabilistically rather than in
fixed orbits.

Significance of the Modern Atomic Model

1. The modern model explains the chemical behaviour of atoms more accurately.
2. It successfully explains the atomic spectra of all elements and accounts for electron configurations.
Model Key Concept Limitations
Dalton's Model Indivisible atoms Does not explain isotopes and
subatomic particles
Thomson's Model "Plum pudding" atom, embedded electrons Does not explain atomic structure
or stability
Rutherford's Model Atom with a central nucleus, electrons orbiting Does not explain electron stability
Bohr's Model Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific, quan- Fails for atoms with more than
tized energy levels one electron
Quantum Mechanical Electrons are treated as both particles and Complex, but the most accurate
Model waves (wave-particle duality) model
Electrons exist in orbitals, not orbits, with a
probability distribution

1.6. Molecules

• A molecule is a group of two or more atoms chemically bonded together. It can consist of atoms of
the same or different elements.
• Molecule is the smallest unit of a chemical compound that can exist independently while retaining
the chemical properties of the compound.

Types of Molecules
Based on Composition
1. Homonuclear molecules: They are composed of atoms of the same element. E.g.,
i) Oxygen (O2): Two oxygen atoms bonded together.
ii) Nitrogen (N2): Two nitrogen atoms bonded together.
2. Heteronuclear molecules: They are composed of atoms of different elements. E.g.,
i) Water (H2O): A compound of hydrogen and oxygen.
ii) Ammonia (NH3): A compound of nitrogen and hydrogen.

12
Based on the Number of Atoms
• Monatomic molecules: They consist of a single atom. E.g.,
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

i) Helium (He): One helium atom.

ii) Neon (Ne): One neon atom
• Diatomic molecules: They consist of two atoms, either of the same or different elements. E.g.,
i) Oxygen (O2): Two oxygen atoms.
ii) Hydrogen Chloride (HCl): One hydrogen atom and one chlorine atom.
• Triatomic molecules: They consist of two atoms, either of the same or different elements. E.g.,
i) O3 (Ozone): Three oxygen atoms.
 ii) CO₂ (Carbon Dioxide): One carbon atom and two oxygen atoms.
• Polyatomic molecules: They consist of more than three atoms. E.g.,
i) CH₄ (Methane): One carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.
ii) C₆H₁₂O₆ (Glucose): Contains 24 atoms (6 carbon, 12 hydrogens, and 6 oxygen atoms).

1.7. Properties of Molecules

Size and Shape

• Size: Molecules can be very small (like diatomic hydrogen, H₂) to very large (like proteins and DNA).
• Shape: Molecules can be linear, angular, planar, or three-dimensional (e.g., tetrahedral), based on the
arrangement of atoms. E.g., H2O has a bent shape and CO2 is linear. Shape influences factors like polari-
ty, reactivity, and biological activity.

Molecular Mass
• The molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a mole-
cule.
• It is typically expressed in atomic mass units (amu or u).

Polarity
• Polarity refers to the distribution of electrical charge within a molecule. Polarity influences solubility,
intermolecular forces, and reactivity.
• Molecules can be polar or nonpolar.
1. Polar molecules: Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms creates a separation of charge,
with one end slightly positive and the other slightly negative. This leads to a dipole moment.
2. Nonpolar molecules: Electrons are shared equally between atoms, resulting in no net charge
separation. This results in no dipole moment.

Polar Molecules vs Nonpolar Molecules

13
Feature Polar Molecules Nonpolar Molecules
Electron sharing Unequal Equal PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
between atom
Charge distribu- Uneven, with partial positive and nega- Even, with no net charge separation
tion tive charges
Dipole moment Present Absent
Electronegativity Significant Negligible
difference
Molecular geome- Asymmetrical Symmetrical
try
Intermolecular Strong forces like dipole-dipole interac- Weak forces like London dispersion
Forces tions or hydrogen bonding forces (van der Waals forces)
Boiling/Melting Higher due to stronger intermolecular Lower due to weaker intermolecular
Points forces forces
Solubility Soluble in polar solvents (e.g., water) Soluble in nonpolar solvents (e.g., oil,
benzene)
Examples Water (H₂O) Methane (CH₄)
Ammonia (NH₃) Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)
Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) Oxygen (O₂)

[UPSC 2021] Water can dissolve more substances than any other liquid because
a) it is dipolar in nature
b) it is a good conductor of heat
c) it has high value of specific heat
d) it is an oxide of hydrogen

Explanation
• Water molecules are polar, meaning they have a positive charge on one end (near the hydrogen
atoms) and a negative charge on the other (near the oxygen atom).
• This polarity allows water molecules to surround and interact with various ions and polar molecules,
effectively breaking them apart and dissolving them.
• The positive and negative ends of water molecules attract the oppositely charged parts of other sub-
stances, allowing water to dissolve salts, sugars, acids, bases, gases, and many other compounds.
• This is why water is often called the "universal solvent."
• The polar nature of water makes it (a) a very good solvent for ionic and partially ionic compounds; (b)
acts as an amphoteric (acid as well as base) substance; and (c) forms hydrates of different types.

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Answer: (a) it is dipolar in nature

Intermolecular Forces
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• Intermolecular forces are the attractive or repulsive forces that exist between molecules. These forc-
es are weaker than the intramolecular forces that hold atoms together within a molecule.
• These forces determine many physical properties of substances, such as boiling and melting points, sol-
ubility, and state of matter.

Types of Intermolecular Forces

Dispersion Forces (London Dispersion Forces)
• Dispersion forces are weak forces caused by temporary dipoles that arise due to the movement of
electrons within atoms or molecules. They are present in all molecules (polar or nonpolar).
• They are stronger in larger molecules with more electrons.
• E.g., noble gases (e.g., argon and helium) and nonpolar molecules (e.g., oxygen and methane).

Dipole-Dipole Interactions
• Dipole-dipole interactions occur between polar molecules due to the attraction of the positive end of
one dipole to the negative end of another. They are stronger than dispersion forces.
• E.g., hydrogen chloride (HCl) and acetone.

Hydrogen Bonding
• Hydrogen bonding is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction that occurs when hydrogen is bonded
to highly electronegative atoms like nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), or fluorine (F).
• They are stronger than regular dipole-dipole interactions.
• E.g., water, ammonia, and hydrogen fluoride.

Ion-Dipole Interactions
• Ion-dipole forces occur between an ion and a polar molecule. They are stronger than hydrogen
bonds.
• These interactions are common in solutions of ionic compounds in polar solvents.
• E.g., sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolved in water.
 A Van der Waals Force is a collective term that refers to the combined effect of both dispersion forces
(also called London dispersion forces) and dipole-dipole interactions; essentially, it encompasses all
weak intermolecular forces arising from temporary or permanent dipoles in molecules.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

15
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
 2. Matter and its Classification

2.1. Matter

• Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. It is made up of tiny particles called atoms or
molecules. It is the physical substance that makes up the universe. It primarily exists in three states: sol-
id, liquid, and gas.

2.2. Characteristics of Matter

Physical Characteristics of Matter

• Physical characteristics refer to the properties of matter that can be observed or measured without
changing the substance's chemical composition. These include:
1. Mass: Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in a substance. It is typically measured in grams
(g), kilograms (kg), or milligrams (mg).
2. Volume: Volume is the amount of space a substance occupies. It is measured in cubic meters
(m³), litres (L), or millilitres (mL).
3. Density: Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. It is calculated as Density =
Mass/Volume. The units of density are kg/m³ or g/cm³.
4. State of matter: Matter exists in three primary states: solid, liquid, and gas. The state depends on
the temperature and pressure conditions. Two other states, plasma and Bose-Einstein conden-
sates, are observed under specific conditions.
5. Particles of matter: Matter comprises tiny particles, such as atoms or molecules.
6. Melting point: The temperature at which a solid turn into a liquid (e.g., ice melting at 0°C or 273K).
7. Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid turn into a gas (e.g., water boiling at 100°C or
373K).
8. Colour: The colour of an object is determined by the wavelengths of light it reflects.

16
9. Hardness: Hardness is a material's resistance to deformation, scratching, or indentation. E.g., dia-
monds are the hardest natural materials.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

10. Solubility: The ability of a substance to dissolve in a solvent to form a homogeneous mixture. E.g.,
salt dissolves in water.
11. Electrical conductivity: The ability of a substance to conduct electricity. Metals like copper are
good conductors, while rubber is a poor conductor (insulator).
12. Compressibility: The ability of a substance, particularly gases, to be reduced in volume under pres-
sure. Gases are highly compressible compared to solids and liquids.
Chemical Characteristics of Matter
• Chemical characteristics are those that describe how matter reacts with other substances to form new
substances. These include:
1. Reactivity: The tendency of a substance to undergo chemical reactions with other substances.
E.g., iron reacts with oxygen to form rust (iron oxide).
2. Flammability: The ability of a substance to catch fire and burn when exposed to a heat source or
flame. E.g., paper is highly flammable, while water is not.
3. pH Level: The measure of how acidic or basic a substance is. The scale ranges from 0 (very acid-
ic) to 14 (very basic), with 7 being neutral. E.g., lemon juice has a low pH and is acidic.
4. Oxidation and reduction: The tendency of a substance to lose electrons (oxidation) or gain elec-
trons (reduction) during chemical reactions. This is important in reactions like combustion or rust-
ing.
5. Toxicity: The degree to which a substance can harm living organisms. E.g., cyanide is highly toxic.
6. Corrosion resistance: The ability of a material to resist corrosion due to environmental factors like
moisture and chemicals. E.g., stainless steel is more corrosion-resistant than regular steel.

Extensive vs Intensive Properties of Matter

1. Extensive properties: These depend on the amount of matter present. E.g., mass, volume, length,
shape, and total energy.
• Intensive Properties: These do not depend on the amount of matter and are intrinsic to the sub-
stance. E.g., density, colour, and boiling point.

2.3. Physical Classification of Matter

• Matter exists in different states or phases, primarily determined by the arrangement of its particles (at-
oms or molecules) and the amount of energy they possess. The common states of matter are solid, liq-
uid, gas, plasma, and Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC).

17
Solid
• In a solid, particles (atoms or molecules) are tightly packed together in a regular arrangement. They PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

vibrate in fixed positions but do not move past each other.

• E.g., ice, rock, and wood.

Properties of Solid
1. Solids have low energy, as particles are in a fixed position.
2. It has a rigid structure, so it maintains a definite shape and volume.
3. It cannot be compressed easily.
4. It has strong intermolecular forces.
5. It has a high density compared to liquid and gas.

Types of Solid
• Solids are classified into two distinct classes: crystalline solids and amorphous solids.

Crystalline Solids
• In crystalline solids, particles are arranged in a well-ordered, repeating three-dimensional pattern.
• E.g., sodium chloride (NaCl), diamond, iron, and ice.

Properties of Crystalline Solids

1. Crystalline solids have a definite geometric shape.
2. They melt at a specific temperature.
3. They are anisotropic in nature (properties vary with direction).
4. They have long-range order in particle arrangement.

Amorphous Solids
• In amorphous solids, particles are not arranged in a regular, repeating pattern (disordered).
• They are often called ‘pseudo-solids’ or ‘supercooled liquids’.
• E.g., glass, plastic, and rubber.

Properties of Amorphous Solids

1. Amorphous solids do not have a definite geometric shape.
2. They melt over a range of temperatures.
3. They are isotropic in nature (properties are the same in all directions).
4. They have short-range order in particle arrangement.

Liquid
• In a liquid, particles are still close together but not in a fixed arrangement. The particles can move
past each other, allowing the liquid to flow.

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• E.g., water, oil, and mercury.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Properties of Liquid
1. Liquid has medium energy, allowing particles to move around but still stay close to one another.
2. It has a definite volume but no definite shape (it takes the shape of the container).
3. It can flow and be poured.
4. It is lightly compressible.
5. It has moderate intermolecular forces.
Gas
• In a gas, particles are far apart and move freely in all directions.
• E.g., air, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.

Properties of Gas
1. Gas has high energy, allowing particles to move freely and spread out.
2. It has no definite shape or volume (expands to fill any container).
3. It is highly compressible.
4. It has a low density compared to solids and liquids.
5. It has weak intermolecular forces.

Plasma
• Plasma consists of positively charged ions and free electrons.
• E.g., lightning, the Sun, plasma TVs, and auroras.

Properties of Plasma
1. Plasma has very high energy, as the particles are in constant motion and are ionised.
2. It has no definite shape or volume (it takes the shape and volume of the container).
3. It conducts electricity and is influenced by magnetic fields.
4. It is common in high-energy environments, like stars (including the Sun) and neon lights.

Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)

• In a Bose-Einstein condensate, atoms are cooled to near absolute zero (−273.15°C), causing them to
occupy the same quantum state and behave as a single particle. Atoms in BEC move in synchrony,
forming a ‘super atom’.
• E.g., laboratory created rubidium and sodium.

Properties of Bose-Einstein Condensate

19
• BEC has extremely low energy, close to absolute zero (0 Kelvin).
• It exhibits unusual quantum properties (e.g., superfluidity and superconductivity). PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Physical Classification of Matter
State of Mat- Particle Arrange- Energy of Parti- Properties Examples
ter ment cles
Solid Tightly packed in a Low energy; Definite shape and volume, Ice, rock, wood
regular arrange- fixed positions rigid, and cannot be com-
ment pressed easily
Liquid Close together but Medium energy; Definite volume, no definite Water, oil,
 not fixed can move past shape, flows, and slightly com- mercury
each other pressible
Gas Far apart, move High energy; lots No definite shape or volume, Air, oxygen,
freely of movement highly compressible, and low- nitrogen
density
Plasma Ions and free elec- Very high ener- No definite shape or volume, Sun, lightning,
trons gy; ionised conducts electricity, and is af- auroras
fected by magnetic fields
Bose-Einstein Atoms occupy the Extremely low Superfluidity, superconductivi- Laboratory-
Condensate same quantum energy (near ab- ty, and atoms behave as a sin- created rubidi-
state solute zero) gle particle um

2.4. Chemical Classification of Matter

• Chemical classification of matter refers to categorising matter based on its chemical composition and
properties. Matter can be classified into two main categories: pure substances and mixtures.
Chemical Classification of Matter
Category Subcategory Description Examples
Elements Composed of one type Hydrogen (H), oxygen
of atom; cannot be bro- (O), and gold (Au)
ken down chemically
Pure Substances Compounds Composed of two or Water (H₂O), sodium
more elements chemi- chloride (NaCl), and
cally bonded; can be carbon dioxide (CO₂)
broken down chemically
Homogeneous Uniform composition, Saltwater, air, and alloys
components not visibly (e.g., bronze)

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distinguishable
Mixtures
Heterogeneous Non-uniform composi- Salad, oil and water, and
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
tion; components can sand and water
be distinguished

2.5. Pure Substances

• A pure substance is a form of matter with a fixed composition and distinct properties. It consists of a
single type of particle and cannot be separated into other substances by physical means.

Characteristics of Pure Substances

 21
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

1. Uniform composition: The composition of pure substances is the same throughout.

2. Fixed properties: Pure substances have consistent physical and chemical properties like boiling point,
melting point, density, and colour.
3. Single type of particle: They are composed of only one type of atom (elements) or one type of mol-
ecule (compounds).
4. Chemical separation: They can only be broken down into simpler substances through chemical
methods (if they are compounds).
2.6. Types of Pure Substances

• Pure substances can be further classified into elements and compounds.

Elements 22
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• An element is a pure substance made of only one type of atom. Each element has unique properties
and cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.
• E.g., hydrogen (H), oxygen (O2), gold (Au), and iron (Fe).

Properties of Elements
1. Elements are composed of atoms of the same type.
2. They can exist as atoms (e.g., helium) or molecules (e.g., oxygen).
3. They can exist in different forms (e.g., gases, solids, and liquids).

Types of Elements
• The types of elements include metals, non-metals, and metalloids.

Metals
• Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. They are malleable and ductile.
• E.g., iron (Fe), gold (Au), and aluminium (Al).

Non-Metals
• Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. They are brittle when solid.
• E.g., carbon (C), sulfur (S), and nitrogen (N).

Metalloids
• Metalloids exhibit properties of both metals and non-metals.
• E.g., silicon (Si) and boron (B).

Compounds
• A compound is a pure substance composed of two or more different types of elements chemically
bonded together in fixed ratios.
• E.g.,
1. Water (H₂O): Composed of hydrogen and oxygen.
2. Sodium Chloride (NaCl): Composed of sodium and chlorine.
3. Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Composed of carbon and oxygen.

Properties of Compounds
1. Elements in a compound are chemically bonded (ionic, covalent, or metallic bonds).
2. Compounds have unique properties that differ from the elements they are made of.
3. Compounds can be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means, such as electrolysis.

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Types of Compounds
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
• Compounds can be broadly classified into organic compounds and inorganic compounds.

Organic Compounds
• Organic compounds are chemical substances that primarily contain carbon atoms bonded to hydro-
gen and often other elements like oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus.
• E.g., glucose (C6H12O6), methane (CH4), and ethane (C2H6).

Inorganic Compounds
• Inorganic compounds are chemical substances that generally do not contain carbon-hydrogen (C-H)
bonds. They include compounds made from metals, nonmetals, and minerals.
• E.g., sodium chloride (NaCl), carbon dioxide (CO2), and iron oxide (Fe2O3)
Elements and Compounds
Property Element Compound
Definition Pure substance with one type of Pure substance with two or more elements chemically
atom combined
Composition Consists of only one type of at- Consists of two or more types of atoms
om
Separation Cannot be broken down chemi- Can be broken down into elements chemically
cally
Examples Oxygen (O) and gold (Au) Water (H₂O) and sodium chloride (NaCl)

2.7. Mixtures

• A mixture is a combination of two or more substances (elements, compounds, or both) that are
physically blended together but not chemically combined. Each component in a mixture retains its
own properties.

Characteristics of Mixtures
• No Chemical Bonding: Components in a mixture are not chemically bonded.
• Can be separated by physical methods.
• Variable Composition:
• The proportion of components can vary (e.g., saltwater may have more or less salt).
• Retained Properties:
• Each substance in a mixture retains its original properties.
• No Fixed Melting/Boiling Points:
• Mixtures do not have a specific melting or boiling point as they depend on the proportions of compo-

24
nents.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
2.8. Types of Mixtures

Homogeneous Mixtures
• In homogeneous mixtures, the composition is uniform throughout, and the components are evenly
distributed. E.g., saltwater, air (a mixture of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, etc.), and alloys (e.g., brass, a
mixture of copper and zinc).
• The components of the homogeneous mixtures cannot be easily distinguished.
Heterogeneous Mixtures
• In heterogeneous mixtures, the composition is not uniform, and the components are unevenly dis-
tributed. E.g., sand and water, oil and water, and salad (a mixture of vegetables).
• The individual components of heterogeneous mixtures can often be separated or seen.
Pure Substances vs Mixtures
Feature Pure Substances Mixtures
Composition Consists of only one type of atom Composed of two or more different substances
or molecule
Separation Cannot be separated by physical Can be separated by physical methods
methods
Uniformity Uniform throughout Can be homogeneous (uniform) or heterogene-
ous (non-uniform)
Chemical Reac- Has distinct chemical properties Individual components retain their properties
tions
Examples Water (H₂O), oxygen (O₂), and gold Air, sand and water, and salad
(Au)
Mixtures vs Compounds
Feature Mixture Compound
Composition Variable, not fixed Fixed ratio of components
Separation Components can be separated physically Requires chemical methods for separation
Properties Components retain their individual prop- Properties are different from constituent el-
erties ements
Examples Sand and salt and air Water (H₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂)

2.9. Separation of Mixtures

• Separation of mixtures involves using physical methods to isolate the components based on their

25
physical properties.

Filtration
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• Filtration is used to separate insoluble solids from liquids.

• The principle behind this is the difference in particle size.
• E.g., sand from water and coffee grounds from brewed coffee.

Distillation
• Distillation is used to separate components of a mixture based on differences in boiling points.
• The principle behind this is the different boiling points of substances.
• E.g., alcohol from water and crude oil purification into petrol and diesel.

Evaporation
• Evaporation is used to separate a dissolved solid from a liquid.
• The principle behind this is the liquid evaporates, leaving the dissolved solid behind.
• E.g., salt from seawater and sugar from a sugar solution.

Chromatography
• Chromatography separates mixtures of liquids or gases based on their movement through a medi-
um.
• The principle behind this is the differing solubilities and affinities of components for the stationary
and mobile phases.
• E.g., separation of plant pigments and separation of ink dyes.

Centrifugation
• Centrifugation is used to separate substances based on their densities.
• The principle behind this is that denser particles move to the bottom under high-speed spinning.
• E.g., cream from milk and blood components (plasma, red blood cells).

Magnetic Separation
• Magnetic separation is used to separate magnetic materials from non-magnetic ones.
• The principle behind this is the magnetic properties of certain substances.
• E.g., iron from sand and magnetic metals from waste.

Decantation
• Decantation separates two immiscible liquids or insoluble solids from liquids.
• The principle behind this is the difference in density.
• E.g., oil and water, and muddy water and sediment.

26
Sedimentation
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
• Sedimentation is used to separate heavier particles in a suspension.
• The principle is that heavier particles settle at the bottom over time.
• E.g., sand in water and fine particles in wastewater treatment.

Crystallisation
• Crystallisation is used to separate pure solid crystals from a solution.
• The principle behind this is solubility decreases with temperature for some substances.
• E.g., purification of sugar and formation of salt crystals.
Sublimation
• Sublimation separates a substance that sublimes (changes directly from solid to gas) from a mixture.
• The principle behind this is that certain solids sublime under specific conditions.
• E.g., iodine from sand and camphor from impurities.

2.10. Changes in Matter

• Matter changes due to physical or chemical processes. These changes are broadly classified into physi-
cal changes and chemical changes.

Physical Changes
• The changes that affect the form or appearance of a substance without altering its chemical com-
position are called physical changes.

Main Features of Physical Changes

1. No new substance is formed in physical changes.
2. These changes are reversible in most cases.
3. They involve changes in physical properties (like state, shape, and size).

Examples of Physical Changes

1. Change in state: Melting of ice, boiling of water.
2. Change in shape: Cutting of paper, molding of clay.
3. Dissolution: Salt dissolving in water.
4. Expansion or contraction: Heating a metal rod.

Chemical Changes
• The changes that result in the formation of one or more new substances with different chemical
properties and compositions are called chemical changes.

27
Main Features of Chemical Changes
1. New substances are formed through chemical changes.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

2. These changes are irreversible in most cases.

3. They involve a change in chemical bonds.

Examples of Chemical Changes

1. Combustion: Burning of wood or fuel.
2. Rusting: Iron reacting with oxygen and water.
3. Cooking: Baking a cake or frying an egg.
4. Reaction with acids: Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas.
Comparison of Physical and Chemical Changes
Feature Physical Change Chemical Change
Composition of Matter Remains the same Changes to form new substances
Reversibility Usually, reversible Usually, irreversible
Energy Change Minimal energy change Significant energy change
Examples Freezing, melting, boiling Rusting, combustion, cooking

[UPSC 2014] Which of the following is/are the example/examples of chemical

change?
1. Crystallization of sodium chloride
2. Melting of ice
3. Souring of milk

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 3 only
c) 1, 2 and 3
d) None

Explanation
• Crystallization of sodium chloride: This is a physical change, as the process involves the transition of
sodium chloride from its dissolved state to a solid crystalline form without altering its chemical compo-
sition.
• Melting of ice: This is also a physical change, as it involves the transformation of water from solid to
liquid form, with no change in its chemical structure (H₂O remains the same).
• Souring of milk: This is a chemical change because the process involves the breakdown of lactose (a
sugar) into lactic acid by bacteria, resulting in a new substance with different properties.

28
Answer: (b) 3 only
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 3. Chemical Bonding and Reactions

3.1. Chemical Bonds

• A chemical bond is the force that holds two or more atoms together in a molecule or compound. It
is formed when atoms share or transfer electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration.

29
3.2. Types of Chemical Bonds PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

Covalent Bond
• A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.
• E.g., H₂ (Hydrogen molecule) and O₂ (Oxygen molecule)

Properties of Covalent Bond

1. Covalent bonds are often formed between nonmetals.
2. They can form single, double, or triple bonds depending on the number of electron pairs shared.
3. They typically have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds.

Ionic Bond
• An ionic bond is formed when one atom donates electrons to another, creating positively charged
ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions) that are held together by electrostatic forces.
• E.g., NaCl (Sodium chloride) and MgO (Magnesium oxide)

Properties of Ionic Bond

1. Ionic bonds are typically formed between metals and nonmetals.
2. They have high melting and boiling points.
3. They usually dissolve in water.
4. They conduct electricity in a solution or molten state (because the ions can move freely).

Metallic Bond
• A metallic bond occurs between metal atoms where electrons are shared in a "sea" of delocalised
electrons that move freely throughout the structure.
• E.g., Fe (Iron) and Cu (Copper).

Properties of Metallic Bond

1. Metallic bonds are good conductors of heat and electricity.
2. They are malleable and ductile (can be hammered or drawn into wires).
3. They have high melting points.

Hydrogen Bond
• A hydrogen bond is a weak bond formed when a hydrogen atom attached to an electronegative
atom (like oxygen or nitrogen) interacts with another electronegative atom.
• E.g., H₂O (water molecules) and DNA (between base pairs)

30
Properties of Hydrogen Bond
1. Hydrogen bonds are weak compared to covalent and ionic bonds.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

2. They are important in determining the properties of water, DNA structure, and protein folding.
3. They are responsible for phenomena like water’s high surface tension and high boiling point com-
pared to other molecules of similar size.
Comparison of Chemical Bonds
Feature Covalent Ionic Bond Metallic Bond Hydrogen Bond
Bond
Type of atoms Nonmetals Metal and nonmetal Metal atoms Hydrogen and electronega-
 tive atom
Electron Shared elec- Transferred electrons Delocalised Attraction between H and
movement trons electrons electronegative atom
Bond strength Moderate to Strong Moderate to Weak
strong strong
Conductivity Poor (in solid Good (in solu- Good (in solid None
state) tion/molten) state)
Melting point Low to mod- High High Low
erate
Examples H₂, O₂, and N₂ NaCl and MgO Fe and Cu H₂O and DNA

3.3. Valency

• Valency is the measure of the ability of an atom to combine with other atoms. It represents the
number of electrons an atom can gain, lose, or share to achieve a stable electronic configuration
(usually a full outer shell, like that of noble gases).

Characteristics of Valency
1. Based on electrons in the outer shell: The valency of an atom is determined by the number of elec-
trons in its outermost shell (valence shell). Atoms with 1 to 4 electrons in their valence shell usually
lose electrons, while atoms with 5 to 7 electrons gain electrons.
2. Octet rule: Atoms gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a full valence shell, typically 8 electrons (or
2 in the case of hydrogen and helium).
3. Types of valency:
i) Positive Valency: When an atom loses electrons (e.g., Na has a valency of +1).
ii) Negative Valency: When an atom gains electrons (e.g., Cl has a valency of -1).
4. Hydrogen reference: Valency is often determined relative to hydrogen, which has a valency of 1.

Significance of Valency
1. Chemical bonding: Valency determines how atoms combine to form molecules (covalent or ionic 31
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
bonds).
2. Predicting molecular formulas: Valency helps predict the chemical formulas of compounds. E.g., H₂O:
oxygen (valency 2) bonds with 2 hydrogen atoms (valency 1 each).
3. Reactivity: Elements with incomplete valence shells are more reactive.

3.4. Octet Rule

• The Octet rule is a chemical principle stating that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to
achieve a stable configuration of eight electrons in their valence shell, resembling the electron con-
figuration of a noble gas.
 Stability of noble gases: Noble gases (e.g., helium, neon, argon) are chemically stable because their
outermost shell is fully occupied with electrons (8 for most; 2 for helium). Other elements strive to
achieve a similar configuration.
 Incomplete Octet: Elements like hydrogen (H), helium (He), lithium (Li), and beryllium (Be) are stable
with fewer than 8 electrons.

3.5. Chemical Formula

• A chemical formula is a concise way of representing a chemical compound using symbols for its
constituent elements and numerical subscripts to indicate the proportions of these elements. It pro-
vides essential information about the composition of the compound.

Key Components of a Chemical Formula

• Element symbols: They are represented by one or two letters (e.g., H for Hydrogen and Na for Sodi-
um).
• Subscripts: The numbers written below and to the right of an element's symbol indicate the number of
atoms of that element in one molecule of the compound (e.g., H₂O has two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom).
• Parentheses: They are used for polyatomic groups when there are multiples of the same group in a
molecule (e.g., Ca(OH)₂).

Types of Chemical Formulas

1. Empirical Formula: It shows the simplest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound. E.g., CH₂O
(simplest ratio for glucose).
2. Molecular Formula: It indicates the actual number of each type of atom in a molecule. E.g., C₆H₁₂O₆

32
(actual formula for glucose).
3. Structural Formula: It displays the arrangement of atoms and bonds in a molecule. E.g., H-O-H for wa- PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
ter.

3.6. Chemical Reactions

• A chemical reaction is a process in which one or more substances (reactants) are transformed into
new substances (products) with different chemical and physical properties. During a chemical reaction,
the bonds between atoms in the reactants are broken, and new bonds are formed to create the prod-
ucts.
Characteristics of Chemical Reactions
1. Formation of new substances: During chemical reactions, new substances with properties different
from the reactants are formed.
2. Energy changes: Chemical reactions may absorb energy (endothermic) or release energy (exother-
mic). E.g., combustion (exothermic) and photosynthesis (endothermic).
3. Rearrangement of atoms: Atoms are not created or destroyed; they are rearranged to form new
molecules. This follows the law of conservation of mass.
4. Change in physical and chemical properties: Changes may include colour, temperature, gas for-
mation, or the formation of a precipitate.

Chemical Equation
• A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a chemical reaction, where the reactants (sub-
stances undergoing change) are written on the left side, and the products (new substances formed) are
written on the right side. The two sides are separated by an arrow (→), indicating the direction of the
reaction.
𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂𝐂
• General representation of a chemical equation: 𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏

Balancing Chemical Equations

• The law of conservation of mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed. Thus, a chemical
equation must have an equal number of atoms for each element on both sides.

3.7. Types of Chemical Reactions

• Chemical reactions can be categorised based on how reactants transform into products. The main types
of chemical reactions are discussed below.

Combination (Synthesis) Reaction

• In a combination reaction, two or more reactants combine to form a single product.

33
• General representation of combination reaction: A+B→AB
• E.g., 2H2+O2 →2H2O (hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water) PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

Decomposition Reaction
• In a decomposition reaction, a single compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances.
• General representation of decomposition reaction: AB→A+B
• E.g., 2H2O→2H2+O2 (water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen)

Displacement (Substitution) Reaction

• In a displacement reaction, an element in a compound is replaced by another element.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry 34
• General representation of displacement reaction: A+BC→AC+B
• E.g., Zn+CuSO4→ZnSO4+Cu (zinc replaces copper in copper sulfate)

Double Displacement (Metathesis) Reaction

• In a double displacement reaction, the exchange of ions between two compounds to form new com-
pounds takes place.
• General representation of double displacement reaction: AB+CD→AD+CB
• E.g., NaCl+AgNO3→NaNO3+AgCl (sodium chloride reacts with silver nitrate to form sodium nitrate and
silver chloride).

Combustion Reaction
• In a combustion reaction, a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy in the form of heat and
light.
• General representation of combustion reaction: Hydrocarbon+O2→CO2+H2O
• E.g., CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O (methane burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water)

Redox (Oxidation-Reduction) Reaction

• A reaction involving the transfer of electrons between substances, with one substance being oxidised
and the other reduced, is called a redox reaction.
• General representation of redox reaction:
1. Oxidation: Loss of electrons
2. Reduction: Gain of electrons
• E.g., 2Mg+O2→2MgO (magnesium is oxidised, and oxygen is reduced)

Neutralisation Reaction
• Neutralisation reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water.
• General representation of neutralisation reaction: Acid + Base → Salt + Water
• E.g., HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O (hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride

35
and water)

Precipitation Reaction
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• In a precipitation reaction, two soluble salts react to form an insoluble solid (precipitate).
• General representation of precipitation reaction: AB+CD→AD+CB (where one product is a precipitate)
• E.g., BaCl2+Na2SO4→BaSO4+2NaCl (barium sulfate precipitates out of the solution)

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

• Endothermic reaction: It absorbs energy from the surroundings.
• E.g., 6CO2+6H2O+energy→C6H12O6+6O2 (photosynthesis)
• Exothermic reaction: It releases energy to the surroundings.
• E.g., CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O+energy (combustion)

Reversible and Irreversible Reactions

• Reversible reaction: In this reaction, products can reform into reactants.
• Example: 2H2+O2 ⇌ 2H2O (water formation
• Irreversible reaction: In this reaction, products cannot reform into reactants. This reaction proceeds
in one direction only.
• E.g., CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O+energy (combustion)

3.8. Factors Affecting Chemical Reaction

1. Nature of reactants: The chemical properties of the reactants, such as their bond strengths and mo-
lecular structure, affect how easily they react. E.g., ionic compounds generally react faster than covalent
compounds because ionic bonds are easier to break in solution.
2. Temperature: According to the Arrhenius equation, higher temperatures provide more energy to
molecules, enabling them to overcome the activation energy barrier. As a result, the reaction rate
increases due to more frequent and energetic collisions. E.g., food spoils faster in warmer environments
due to accelerated biochemical reactions.
3. Concentration of reactants: A higher concentration of reactants increases the likelihood of colli-
sions between reacting particles, leading to a faster reaction. E.g., dilute acids react more slowly with
metals compared to concentrated acids.
4. Pressure (for gaseous reactions): Increasing the pressure in a system involving gases compresses
the gas molecules into a smaller volume, increasing collision frequency and reaction rate. E.g., the
synthesis of ammonia is faster at high pressures.
5. Surface area of reactants: Finely divided or powdered solids have a larger surface area exposed to
the other reactants, leading to a faster reaction. E.g., a powdered catalyst works more effectively than a
solid.

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6. Catalysts: Catalysts speed up the reaction by lowering the activation energy required for the reac-
tion without being consumed in the process. E.g., enzymes act as biological catalysts, speeding up met- PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
abolic reactions in living organisms.
7. Nature of the medium: The reaction medium (solid, liquid, or gas) and its properties (solvent polarity,
pH, etc.) can influence the reaction rate. E.g., sodium and water react violently, while sodium and oil do
not react.
8. Light (photochemical reactions): Light can provide the energy needed to initiate certain reactions
(photochemical reactions). E.g., photosynthesis in plants depends on light energy to convert carbon di-
oxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
9. Inhibitors: Inhibitors slow down or prevent chemical reactions by interfering with the reactants or
catalysts. E.g., preservatives in food act as inhibitors to slow microbial growth.
10. Mixing or stirring: Mixing increases the contact between reactants, enhancing the reaction rate. E.g.,
stirring sugar into water helps it dissolve and react faster.

3.9. Law of Conservation of Mass

• The law of conservation of mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical re-
action. The total mass of the reactants is always equal to the total mass of the products. This law is fun-
damental to understanding chemical processes and ensures the balance of matter in any reaction.
• Main features of the law of conservation of mass:
1. Total mass conservation: The sum of the masses of all reactants equals the sum of the masses of
all products (Mass of Reactants = Mass of Products).
2. Atoms are rearranged: In a chemical reaction, atoms are not created or destroyed; they are rear-
ranged to form new substances.
3. Applies to closed systems: The law holds true only in a closed system where no matter can enter
or leave.
4. Supports balanced chemical equations: All chemical equations must satisfy this law by having an
equal number of each type of atom on both sides of the equation.
• E.g., Combustion of Methane: CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O
• Here, Mass of Reactants (CH4 + O2) = Mass of Products (CO2 + H2O).
 The law of conservation of mass also applies to physical changes, such as changes in states. E.g.,
melting ice into water, where the mass of the ice will be equal to the mass of the resulting water.

3.10. Oxidising Agent and Reducing Agent

• In chemical reactions, particularly redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions, two types of substances play
key roles: oxidising agents and reducing agents. These agents are responsible for the transfer of

37
electrons.

Oxidising Agent (Oxidant) PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• An oxidising agent is a substance that gains electrons and undergoes reduction during a chemical
reaction. It facilitates the oxidation of another substance by accepting electrons from it.
• It often contains elements with high electronegativity, such as oxygen, chlorine, or fluorine.
• E.g.,
1. Oxygen (O2): It commonly oxidises substances by accepting electrons.
2. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2): It is used as a bleaching agent.
3. Potassium permanganate (KMnO4): It is a strong oxidising agent in an acidic medium.
Reducing Agent (Reductant)
• A reducing agent is a substance that loses electrons and undergoes oxidation during a chemical reac-
tion. It facilitates the reduction of another substance by donating electrons to it.
• It often contains elements with low electronegativity, such as metals.
• Examples:
1. Hydrogen (H2): It reduces oxygen to water in combustion reactions.
2. Carbon monoxide (CO): It reduces metal oxides in metallurgy.
3. Sodium (Na): A strong reductant due to its readiness to donate electrons.
Oxidising Agent vs Reducing Agent
Property Oxidising Agent Reducing Agent
Definition Gains electrons and is reduced Loses electrons and is oxidised
Role Oxidises another substance Reduces another substance
Electron transfer Accepts electrons Donates electrons
Example Oxygen and hydrogen peroxide Hydrogen and carbon monoxide
Reaction Undergoes reduction. Undergoes oxidation

3.11. Corrosion, Fermentation, and Rancidity

Corrosion
• Corrosion is the gradual destruction or deterioration of metals due to chemical reactions with
their environment, often involving oxygen, moisture, and other corrosive substances.
• Causes of corrosion:
1. Exposure to water (moisture) and oxygen.
2. Presence of acidic or saline conditions.
• E.g., rusting of iron.

Fermentation

38
• Fermentation is a biological process in which microorganisms like yeast or bacteria convert sugars
into alcohol, gases, or acids, typically in anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions. PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• Characteristics of fermentation:
1. Fermentation requires enzymes like zymase (from yeast).
2. It adds flavour and texture to food.
3. It reserves food for extended periods.
• E.g.,
1. Alcoholic fermentation: Conversion of glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide by yeast.
2. Lactic acid fermentation: Bacteria convert lactose to lactic acid (used in yogurt production).
• Applications of fermentation:
1. It is used in the production of bread, beer, wine, yogurt, and vinegar.
2. It is used in biotechnology (e.g., bioethanol production).

Rancidity
• Rancidity refers to the spoilage of fats and oils due to oxidation or hydrolysis, leading to an un-
pleasant smell, taste, and sometimes toxic by-products.
• Types of rancidity:
1. Oxidative rancidity: It is caused by the reaction of fats and oils with oxygen.
2. Hydrolytic rancidity: It is caused by the breakdown of fats in the presence of water and enzymes.
• Causes: Exposure to air (oxygen), high temperatures, light and moisture.
• Prevention:
1. Storing food in airtight containers.
2. Adding antioxidants like BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) or Vitamin E.
3. Refrigeration to slow down oxidation.
• E.g., spoiled butter or cooking oil and foul smell from fried snacks exposed to air for long periods.
Feature Corrosion Fermentation Rancidity
Process Chemical (oxidation of met- Biological (enzyme-mediated) Chemical (oxidation of
Type als) fats/oils)
Examples Rusting of iron, tarnishing of Alcohol production, yogurt Spoiled butter, rancid oils
silver making
Key Factors Oxygen, moisture, acids. Sugars, microorganisms, en- Oxygen, light, temperature
zymes
Outcome Weakens and destroys met- Produces useful products Spoils taste and smell of
als (food) fats

3.12. Catalyst

39
• A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing
any permanent chemical change. It is not consumed in the reaction, meaning it can be reused. PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

Main Features of Catalysts

1. Increases reaction rate: Catalysts lower the activation energy required for the reaction to proceed,
making it faster.
2. Not consumed: They remain unchanged at the end of the reaction.
3. Selective: A specific catalyst works only for particular reactions.
4. No effect on equilibrium: Catalysts do not alter the equilibrium position of reversible reactions; they
only help the system reach equilibrium faster.

Types of Catalysts
1. Homogeneous Catalyst: Catalysts and reactants are in the same phase (e.g., both are liquids or gases).
E.g., sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) in the esterification of ethanol and acetic acid.
2. Heterogeneous Catalysts: Catalysts and reactants are in different phases. E.g., finely divided nickel in
the hydrogenation of vegetable oils.
3. Autocatalysts: A product of the reaction itself acts as a catalyst. E.g., in the reaction of potassium per-
manganate (KMnO₄) with oxalic acid, manganese ions (Mn2+) act as an autocatalyst.
4. Biocatalysts: Enzymes in biological systems that act as catalysts. E.g., amylase catalyses the breakdown
of starch into sugars.

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PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
 4. Acids, Bases, and Salts

4.1. Acids

• Acids are substances that release hydrogen ions (H+) or protons when dissolved in water. They are
also characterised as proton donors.

Properties of Acids
1. Taste: Acids taste sour (e.g., lemon juice and vinegar).
2. Effect on litmus: They turn blue litmus paper to red.
3. pH Scale: Acids have a pH value below 7 on the pH scale.
4. Reactivity:
i) They react with bases to form salts and water (neutralisation reaction).
ii) They react with metals to produce hydrogen gas (H2).
iii) They react with carbonates and bicarbonates to release carbon dioxide gas (CO2).
5. Electrical conductivity: Acids conduct electricity in aqueous solutions due to the presence of ions.
6. Corrosive nature: Strong acids can corrode metals and skin.

Types of Acids
Based on Source
1. Organic Acids: They are derived from living organisms (e.g., citric acid and lactic acid).
2. Inorganic Acids: These are mineral acids (e.g., hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid).

Based on Strength
1. Strong Acids: They completely dissociate in water (e.g., hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid).
2. Weak Acids: They partially dissociate in water (e.g., acetic acid and carbonic acid).

Based on Concentration
1. Concentrated Acids: When there is a high proportion of acid in a solution. 41
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
2. Dilute Acids: When there is a low proportion of acid in a solution.

Based on Composition
1. Monoprotic Acids: They release one proton per molecule.
2. Diprotic Acids: They release two protons per molecule.
3. Triprotic Acids: They release three protons per molecule.

Common Examples of Acids

• Hydrochloric Acid: It is found in the stomach and aids in digestion. It is used in cleaning metals.
• Sulfuric Acid: It is used in car batteries. It is essential in the production of fertilisers.
• Acetic Acid: It is a component of vinegar.
• Citric Acid: It is found in citrus fruits like lemons and oranges.
• Carbonic Acid: It is present in carbonated drinks.

Applications of Acids
• Industry: Acids are used in manufacturing fertilisers, plastics, and dyes and as cleaning agents.
• Biological role: Stomach acid (hydrochloric acid) aids digestion. Amino acids are the building blocks
of proteins.
• Food preservation: Citric acid is used as a preservative and flavouring agent.
• Household uses: Vinegar (acetic acid) is used in cooking and cleaning.

4.2. Bases

• Bases are substances that produce hydroxide ions (OH−) in an aqueous solution. They are also de-
scribed as proton acceptors.

Properties of Bases
1. Taste: Bases taste bitter (e.g., baking soda).
2. Texture: They are slippery or soapy when touched.
3. Effect on litmus: They turn red litmus paper to blue.
4. pH Scale: Bases have a pH value greater than 7 on the pH scale.
5. Reactivity:
i) They react with acids to form salts and water (neutralisation reaction).
ii) They react with some metals (like aluminium and zinc) to release hydrogen gas.
6. Electrical conductivity: They conduct electricity in aqueous solutions due to the presence of ions.
7. Caustic nature: Strong bases can corrode organic materials and metals.

42
Types of Bases
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Based on Strength
1. Strong Bases: They completely dissociate in water. E.g., sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.
2. Weak Bases: They partially dissociate in water. E.g., ammonium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide.

Based on Solubility
1. Alkalis: They are soluble bases that dissolve in water to produce hydroxide ions. E.g., sodium hydroxide
and potassium hydroxide.
2. Insoluble Bases: They do not dissolve well in water. E.g., magnesium hydroxide and zinc hydroxide.
Based on Reactivity
1. Metal Hydroxides: They are formed when metals react with water. E.g., aluminium hydroxide and
magnesium hydroxide.
2. Ammonia-Based Bases: They are formed when ammonia (NH₃) reacts with water. E.g., ammonium
hydroxide.

Common Examples of Bases

• Sodium Hydroxide: It is used in soap making and drain cleaners.
• Potassium Hydroxide: It is used to manufacture fertilisers and batteries.
• Ammonium Hydroxide: It is found in household cleaning solutions.
• Calcium Hydroxide: Also known as slaked lime, used in whitewashing and construction.
• Magnesium Hydroxide: It is used as an antacid (milk of magnesia).

Applications of Bases
• Industry: Bases are used for soap and detergent manufacturing, production of paper and textiles, and
neutralising acidic waste.
• Food industry: Sodium bicarbonate is used in baking.
• Agriculture: Lime is used to neutralise acidic soils.
• Healthcare: Antacids like milk of magnesia are used to treat acidity.
• Laboratory uses: Bases are used as reagents and in pH testing.

4.3. Salts

• Salts are ionic compounds formed when the hydrogen ions (H+) of an acid are replaced by metal
ions or ammonium ions (NH4+) during a neutralisation reaction. They consist of positively charged
cations and negatively charged anions.
• Salts are formed by reaction between acid and base, acid and metal, or acid and carbonate.

Properties of Salt
• Appearance: Salts are generally crystalline solids. 43
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
• Solubility: Some salts are highly soluble in water (e.g., sodium chloride), while others are sparingly
soluble (e.g., barium sulfate).
• Taste: They can have different tastes like salty (e.g., sodium chloride), bitter (e.g., magnesium sulfate),
and sweet (e.g., lead acetate; toxic, so not safe to taste).
• Conductivity: Salts conduct electricity when dissolved in water or molten due to the presence of free
ions.
• Melting and boiling Points: Salts generally have high melting and boiling points.
• pH nature: The solution of a salt can be neutral, acidic, or basic, depending on the nature of the acid
and base from which it is formed.

Types of Salts
Based on Acid-Base Reactions
1. Neutral Salts: They are formed by the reaction of a strong acid and a strong base. These salts typically
have a neutral pH (around 7) in aqueous solution. E.g., sodium chloride (NaCl) from HCl (strong acid)
and NaOH (strong base).
2. Acidic Salts: They are formed by the reaction of a weak base and a strong acid. These salts have a pH
of less than 7 in aqueous solution. E.g., ammonium chloride (NH₄Cl) from NH₃ (weak base) and HCl
(strong acid).
3. Basic Salts: They are formed by the reaction of a strong base and a weak acid. These salts have a pH
of greater than 7 in aqueous solution. E.g., sodium acetate (CH₃COONa) from NaOH (strong base) and
CH₃COOH (weak acid).

Based on Composition
1. Simple Salts: They contain only one type of cation and one type of anion. E.g., sodium chloride
(NaCl) and potassium nitrate (KNO₃)
2. Double Salts: They contain two different cations or two different anions in the crystal structure. E.g.,
potash alum (KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O)
3. Mixed Salts: They contain more than one type of cation and anion.

Based on Solubility
1. Soluble Salts: They dissolve readily in water. E.g., sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium nitrate (KNO₃).
2. Insoluble Salts: They do not dissolve readily in water. E.g., silver chloride (AgCl) and calcium carbonate
(CaCO₃).

Common Examples of Salts

44
• Sodium Chloride: Also called table salt, it is used in cooking.
• Potassium Nitrate: It is used in fertilisers and fireworks. PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• Calcium Carbonate: It is found in chalk, limestone, and marble.

• Ammonium Sulfate: It is used as a fertiliser.
• Copper (II) Sulfate: It is used in fungicides and electroplating.

Applications of Salts
• Daily life: Table salt is used for cooking and preserving food.
• Industry: Sodium carbonate for glass manufacturing. Ammonium nitrate as fertiliser.
• Healthcare: Epsom salt is used for medicinal baths and laxatives. Zinc sulfate is used in supple-
ments.
• Agriculture: Potassium chloride and potassium nitrate are used as fertilisers.
• Construction: Calcium sulfate is used in plaster and cement.
Feature Acids Bases Salts
Definition Substances that release Substances that release Ionic compounds formed by
H⁺ ions in solution. OH⁻ ions in solution. the neutralisation of acids
and bases
Taste Sour (e.g., lemon juice, Bitter and slippery to the Generally salty, but varies
vinegar) touch (e.g., sodium chloride)
pH pH < 7 (acidic) pH > 7 (basic) Can have a pH > 7 or pH < 7
based on the parent ac-
id/base used
Reaction with Produces H⁺ ions (pro- Produces OH⁻ ions (hy- Some salts hydrolyse in water,
Water tons) droxide ions). affecting pH
Example Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Sodium chloride (NaCl), Po-
Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), Ace- Ammonia (NH₃), Calcium tassium sulfate (K₂SO₄), Mag-
tic acid (CH₃COOH) hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) nesium nitrate (Mg(NO₃)₂)
Effect on Litmus Red (turns litmus paper Blue (turns litmus paper Red if acidic salt and blue if
Paper red) blue) basic salt
Electrical Con- Good conductors of elec- Good conductors of elec- Good conductors of electrici-
ductivity tricity (electrolytes) in tricity (electrolytes) in ty (electrolytes) when dis-
aqueous solution aqueous solution solved in water
Neutralisation React with bases to form React with acids to form Formed from the neutralisa-
salts and water salts and water tion of acids and bases
Examples of HCl + NaOH → NaCl + NaOH + HCl → NaCl + Sodium chloride (NaCl) is
Reactions H₂O (acid + base → salt + H₂O. formed from HCl and NaOH

45
water) neutralisation
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

4.4. pH Scale

• The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a solution. It ranges from 0 to 14 and indicates the
concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the solution.
• If H+ is high, the solution is acidic (low pH).
• If H+ is low, the solution is basic (high pH).

pH Scale Range
• pH = 7: Neutral solution (e.g., pure water).
• pH < 7: Acidic solution (higher concentration of H+ ions).
• pH > 7: Basic (alkaline) solution (higher concentration of OH− ions).
pH Value Solution Type Examples
0-3 Strongly Acidic Battery acid and stomach acid
4-6 Weakly Acidic Vinegar and orange juice
7 Neutral Pure water
8-10 Weakly Basic Baking soda and seawater
11-14 Strongly Basic Bleach and liquid drain cleaner

Importance of pH 46
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• Biological systems: Enzyme activity depends on specific pH levels. Blood pH is tightly regulated
around 7.4, any major shift can cause health problems.
• Agriculture: Soil pH affects plant growth and nutrient absorption.
• Industry: pH is used in food production, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics to maintain product stability.
It controls the fermentation of foods and beverages like yogurt and pickles.
• Environmental monitoring: pH levels are monitored in water bodies to ensure they are safe for
aquatic life.
• Water Quality: pH is an important factor in water treatment and aquatic life survival.
• Cleaning: pH determines the effectiveness of cleaning products (acids and bases).

Indicators
• Indicators are substances that change colour to show whether a solution is acidic, neutral, or basic.
They are often used to measure the pH of a solution.

Types of Indicators
• Natural Indicators: These are sourced from natural sources. E.g., litmus (derived from lichens), tur-
meric, and red cabbage juice.
• Synthetic Indicators: These are artificially prepared indicators that change colour depending on the pH
of the solution. E.g., phenolphthalein, methyl orange, and bromothymol blue.
• Universal Indicator: A mixture of different indicators, it provides a range of colours to indicate the pH
of a solution on a scale from 0 to 14. Colours range from red (strong acid) to purple (strong base),
with green representing a neutral solution.
Examples of Indicator Colours and pH Ranges
Indicator Acidic Solution Colour Neutral Solution Colour Basic Solution Colour
Litmus Red Purple Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
Methyl Orange Red Yellow Yellow
Bromothymol Blue Yellow Green Blue
Universal Indicator Red (Strong Acid) Green (Neutral) Purple (Strong Base)

4.5. Buffer Solution

• A buffer solution is a solution that resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are
added to it.

Types of Buffer Solutions

1. Acidic Buffer (or Weak Acid and its Conjugate Base): It contains a weak acid and its salt with a 47
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
strong base. It maintains a pH below 7. E.g., a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate.
2. Basic Buffer (or Weak Base and its Conjugate Acid): It contains a weak base and its salt with a
strong acid. It maintains a pH above 7. E.g., a mixture of ammonia and ammonium chloride.

How Buffers Work

• Resistance to pH Change:
i) When a small amount of acid is added to the buffer, the conjugate base reacts to neutralise the
added hydrogen ions (H⁺).
 ii) When a small amount of base is added, the weak acid reacts to neutralise the added hydroxide
ions (OH⁻).
• Maintaining pH: This ability to neutralise added acids or bases allows the buffer solution to maintain a
relatively constant pH.

Applications of Buffer Solutions

• Biological Systems: Blood contains a bicarbonate buffer system to maintain a pH of approximately
7.4. Cellular processes rely on stable pH levels.
• Industrial Applications: It is used in fermentation, electroplating, and pharmaceutical production.
• Chemical Analysis: Buffers are employed in titration to maintain constant pH.
• Food Industry: It is used to maintain the flavour and stability of food products.

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48
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
 5. Metals, Non-Metals, and Metalloids

• Elements are broadly classified into metals, non-metals, and metalloids based on their physical and
chemical properties.

49
Comparison of Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids
Feature Metals Non-Metals Metalloids
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

Appearance Lustrous Dull Lustrous or dull

Malleability Malleable Brittle Brittle
Conductivity Good conductor Poor conductor Semi-conductor
Melting and Boiling Point High Low Intermediate
State Solid (except mercury) Solid, liquid, gas Solid
Examples Iron and gold Oxygen and sulfur Silicon and boron
 The periodic table is an organised arrangement of all known chemical elements, arranged by their
atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties. It is a fundamental tool
in chemistry that helps predict element behaviour and relationships.

5.1. Metals

• Metals are a class of elements that are typically found in the solid state (except mercury) and are
known for their strength, conductivity, and versatility.

Properties of Metals
Physical Properties of Metal
1. Lustre: Metals have a shiny appearance when polished.
2. Malleability: Metals can be hammered or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.
3. Ductility: Metals can be stretched into wires.
4. Conductivity:
i) Thermal Conductivity: Metals are excellent conductors of heat.
ii) Electrical Conductivity: Metals are good conductors of electricity due to free electrons.
5. High Density: Metals generally have a high density.
6. High Melting and Boiling Points: Metals require high temperatures to change their state.
7. Sonorous: Metals produce a ringing sound when struck.
8. Solid State: Most metals are solid at room temperature, except mercury (liquid).

Chemical Properties of Metal

1. Electropositive Nature: Metals tend to lose electrons and form positive ions (cations).
2. Reaction with Oxygen: Metals react with oxygen to form metallic oxides, which are usually basic.
3. Reaction with Water: Metals react with water to form hydroxides and release hydrogen gas.
4. Reaction with Acids: Metals react with acids to produce hydrogen gas and form salts.
5. Formation of Alloys: Metals can be mixed to form alloys, which have improved properties. E.g.,

50
bronze (copper + tin).
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
5.2. Classification of Metals

• Metals can be classified based on their physical and chemical properties, occurrence, and uses.

Ferrous Metals
• Metals that contain iron as their primary component are called ferrous metals.
• E.g., iron, steel, cast iron, and wrought iron.
Properties of Ferrous Metals
1. Ferrous metals are magnetic in nature.
2. They have high tensile strength.
3. They are prone to rusting (except stainless steel).

Uses of Ferrous Metals

• Construction (beams, bridges)
• Machinery and tools
• Automobile and shipbuilding

Non-Ferrous Metals
• Metals that do not contain iron are called non-ferrous metals.
• E.g., aluminium, copper, zinc, lead, and tin.

Properties of Non-Ferrous Metals

1. Non-ferrous metals are non-magnetic.
2. They are corrosion-resistant.
3. They are lightweight (e.g., aluminium).

Uses of Non-Ferrous Metals

• Electrical wiring (copper)
• Aircraft and automobiles (aluminium)
• Roofing and pipes (lead)

Noble Metals
• Noble metals are metals characterised by their high resistance to corrosion and oxidation.
• E.g., gold, silver, and platinum.

Properties of Precious Metals

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1. Noble metals are highly ductile and malleable.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
2. They are generally unreactive with most chemicals, including acids and bases.
3. They retain their metallic lustre and do not readily tarnish or corrode in air or water.

Uses of Noble Metals

• Jewellery and ornaments
• Investment and currency
• Electronics (gold for connectors)
Alkali Metals
• Alkali metals are highly reactive metals found in Group 1 of the periodic table.
• E.g., lithium (Li), sodium (Na), and potassium (K).

Properties of Alkali Metals

1. Alkali metals are soft and have low-density.
2. They react vigorously with water.
3. They are good conductors of electricity.

Uses of Alkali Metals

• Lithium in batteries
• Sodium in streetlights
• Potassium in fertilisers

Alkaline Earth Metals

• Alkaline earth metals are reactive metals found in Group 2 of the periodic table.
• E.g., magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and barium (Ba).

Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals

1. Alkaline earth metals are shiny and silvery-white.
2. They are less reactive than alkali metals.
3. They form basic oxides.

Uses of Alkaline Earth Metals

• Magnesium in alloys and fireworks
• Calcium in construction (cement)
• Barium in medical imaging

Transition Metals

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• Transition metals are metals in the middle of the periodic table with variable oxidation states.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
• Iron (Fe), Copper (Cu), Nickel (Ni), Chromium (Cr).

Properties of Transition Metals

1. Transition metals have high melting points and high density.
2. They form colourful compounds.
3. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

Uses of Transition Metals

• Iron for construction
• Copper for electrical wiring
• Chromium in stainless steel

Post-Transition Metals
• Post-transition metals are a group of elements located in the periodic table between the transition met-
als and the metalloids.
• E.g., aluminium (Al), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), and bismuth (Bi).

Properties of Post-Transition Metals

• They exhibit a blend of metallic and non-metallic properties.
• They are generally less reactive than alkali metals or alkaline earth metals.
• They can exhibit variable oxidation states.
• They are often softer and more malleable than transition metals.
• They generally have lower melting and boiling points.

Uses of Post-Transition Metals

• Aluminium, gallium, and indium are used in the electronics industry, particularly for semiconductors,
LED lighting, and solar panels.
• Tin and lead have been used in soldering.
• Lead is used as a radiation shield.
• Many post-transition metals are used in alloys, such as bronze (tin and copper)

Rare Earth Metals

• Rare earth metals are a group of 17 elements, including lanthanides, scandium, and yttrium.
• Examples: Neodymium (Nd), Samarium (Sm), Europium (Eu).

Properties of Rare Earth Metals

1. Rare earth metals have high conductivity.

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2. They are found in trace amounts in nature.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
3. They have magnetic properties.
4. These silver, silver-white, or gray metals exhibit high lustre. But they tarnish when exposed to air.
5. They are typically soft, malleable and ductile.
6. They can be fluorescent.

Uses of Rare Earth Metals

• Magnets (neodymium)
• Lasers and LED screens
Actinides
• Actinides are metallic chemical elements that are radioactive (meaning their nuclei are unstable and
decay over time).
• E.g., uranium (U), thorium (Th), and plutonium (Pu).
• They are used in nuclear energy and weapons.

Heavy Metals
• Heavy metals are metals with high atomic weight and density, often toxic in nature.
• E.g., lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), and cadmium (Cd).

Properties of Heavy Metals

1. Heavy metals are dense and malleable.
2. They are toxic at high concentrations.
3. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

Uses of Heavy metals

• Lead in batteries
• Mercury in thermometers
• Cadmium in plating

Light Metals
• Light metals are metals with low density, making them lightweight.
• E.g., aluminium (Al), magnesium (Mg), and titanium (Ti).

Properties of Light Metals

• Though low density, light metals are strong and corrosion-resistant.
• They are good conductors of heat.

Uses of Light Metals

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• Aerospace and automotive industries
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• Packaging (aluminium foil)
• Biomedical implants (titanium)

Classification of Metals Based on Reactivity

Type of Metal Examples Properties Reactivity
Alkali Metals Lithium (Li), sodium (Na), Soft, low melting points Most reactive
potassium (K), rubidium (Rb),
 cesium (Cs)
Alkaline Earth Magnesium (Mg), calcium Harder and higher melting points Very reactive (but
Metals (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium lower than alkali
(Ba) metals)
Transition Iron (Fe), copper (Cu), silver Stronger, good conductors, often Moderate to low re-
Metals (Ag), gold (Au), zinc (Zn) form coloured compounds activity
Post- Tin (Sn), lead (Pb), bismuth Softer, lower melting points than Low reactivity
Transition (Bi) transition metals
Metals
Noble Metals Gold (Au), platinum (Pt), silver Highly resistant to corrosion and Least reactive
(Ag) oxidation, often used in jewellery
and electronics
Rare Earth Cerium (Ce), neodymium Used in magnets and electronics Moderate reactivity
Metals (Nd), lanthanum (La)
Actinides Uranium (U), thorium (Th), Radioactive metals, used in nuclear Variable reactivity
plutonium (Pu) energy and weapons

Classification of Metals Based on Composition

Type of Metal Examples Properties
Ferrous Metals Steel, cast iron, wrought Contain iron, magnetic, prone to rust, and generally
Iron strong and durable
Non-Ferrous Aluminium (Al), copper (Cu), Do not contain iron, generally resistant to corrosion, often
Metals lead (Pb), zinc (Zn) lighter than ferrous metals (though exceptions like lead
exist)
Alloys Brass (Cu+Zn), bronze A mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which
(Cu+Sn), stainless steel is a metal, designed to enhance specific properties such
(Fe+Cr) as strength, resistance to corrosion, or hardness

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Classification of Metals Based on Physical Properties PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Type of Metal Examples Properties
Heavy Metals Lead (Pb), mercury (Hg) High density, some are toxic, used in radiation
shielding, manufacturing, electronics, and pigments.
Light Metals Aluminium (Al), magnesium (Mg), Low density, lightweight, often corrosion-resistant,
titanium (Ti) used in aerospace, transportation, medical implants,
packaging, and sports equipment
5.3. Reactivity Series

• Reactivity refers to the tendency of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction.

• The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in the order of their reactivity from most reactive to least
reactive. It helps predict how metals will react with water, acids, and oxygen.
Position Metal Reactivity
1 Potassium (K) Highly reactive with water and air.
2 Sodium (Na) Very reactive with water and air.
3 Calcium (Ca) Reacts vigorously with water.
4 Magnesium (Mg) Reacts slowly with water but faster with acids.
5 Aluminium (Al) Reacts with acids; forms a protective oxide layer.
6 Zinc (Zn) Moderate reactivity; reacts with acids and steam.
7 Iron (Fe) Reacts slowly with acids and water (rusts).
8 Lead (Pb) Reacts slowly with acids; low reactivity.
9 Copper (Cu) Does not react with water or diluted acids.
10 Silver (Ag) Least reactive; does not corrode easily.
11 Gold (Au) Inert; does not react with most substances.

5.4. Metallurgy

• Metallurgy is the science and technology of extracting metals from their ores, refining them, and
preparing them for practical use. It involves various processes to separate the desired metal from im-
purities and convert it into a usable form.

Processes Involved in Metallurgy

Extraction of Metals
• The first step in metallurgy involves extracting metals from their ores. This is typically done using three
main methods: pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and electrometallurgy.

Pyrometallurgy 56
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
• Pyrometallurgy is the process of using high temperatures to extract metals from their ores.
• Processes involved:
1. Roasting: Heating the ore in the presence of air to convert it into an oxide or remove unwanted
elements. E.g., roasting of zinc sulfide to form zinc oxide.
2. Smelting: Melting the ore at high temperatures to separate the metal from its ore. E.g., smelting
iron ore (Fe2O3) in a blast furnace to produce iron.
 3. Reduction: The process of removing oxygen from metal oxides to obtain the metal. E.g., reduc-
tion of copper oxide (CuO) to copper metal (Cu) using carbon as a reducing agent.
4. Refining: Purification of metal through processes like electrolytic refining. E.g., refining of copper
through electrolysis.

Hydrometallurgy
• Hydrometallurgy is the process of extracting metals from ores by using aqueous solutions.
• Processes involved:
1. Leaching: Dissolving the metal from the ore using a solvent (acid, base, or water). E.g., leaching of
gold using cyanide solutions.
2. Solvent Extraction: Separation of a desired metal from a solution using a solvent. E.g., separation
of copper from a leach solution.
3. Precipitation: The process where metals are precipitated out of solution by adding a chemical re-
agent. E.g., precipitation of silver from a solution using sodium chloride.

Electrometallurgy
• Electrometallurgy is the process of using electrical energy to extract metals from their ores.
• Electrolysis: Using electrical current to reduce metal ions from an electrolyte solution. E.g., electrolytic
extraction of aluminium from bauxite.

Refining of Metals
• Once metals are extracted, they need to be purified or refined to remove impurities. Various techniques
are used for metal refining.

Electrolytic Refining
• Electrolytic refining is the purification of metals through electrolysis, where impure metal is used as
the anode and pure metal is deposited at the cathode. E.g., copper refining, where impure copper is
dissolved in an electrolyte, and pure copper is deposited at the cathode.

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Zone Refining
• Zone refining is a technique used to purify metals by passing them through a molten zone that PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
moves along the metal. E.g., purification of semiconductors like silicon and germanium.

Distillation
• Distillation is the process of separation based on differences in boiling points. It is often used for re-
fining metals with volatile impurities. E.g., distillation of zinc to separate it from impurities.

Alloying and Heat Treatment

• Once metals are purified, they are often alloyed to enhance their properties and heat treatment pro-
cesses are applied to alter their physical characteristics.

Alloying
• Alloying is the process of combining two or more metals to form an alloy with improved properties
(strength, corrosion resistance, etc.). E.g., steel (iron + carbon), bronze (copper + tin), and brass (copper
+ zinc).

Heat Treatment
• Heat treatment involves heating and cooling metals to change their structure and improve properties
like hardness, toughness, and strength.
• Processes involved:
1. Annealing: Heating the metal to a specific temperature and then slowly cooling it to relieve in-
ternal stresses.
2. Quenching: Rapidly cooling a heated metal (usually in water or oil) to increase hardness.
3. Tempering: Reheating a quenched metal to reduce brittleness and improve toughness.

Shaping and Forming

• Once the metal has been extracted, refined, and alloyed, it is shaped into usable forms using various
forming processes.

Casting
• Casting is the pouring of molten metal into a mould to solidify it into a desired shape.
• Processes involved:
1. Sand Casting: A mould is made from sand to cast metals.
2. Die Casting: Metal is injected into a mould under high pressure.

Forging
• Forging is the process of shaping metal by applying compressive force, typically using hammers or

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presses. E.g., forging of steel for use in tools and machinery.

Rolling
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness of a metal by passing it through rollers. E.g., rolling of
aluminium into thin sheets used for packaging.

Extrusion
• Extrusion involves forcing molten metal through a die to create objects with a fixed cross-sectional
profile. E.g., the production of aluminium profiles for window frames.

Drawing
• Drawing is the process of pulling metal through a die to reduce its diameter and increase its length.
E.g., drawing of copper wire.

Metal Forming Techniques

• Other techniques used to further shape or modify metals for specific applications include:
1. Welding: It is the joining of two metal pieces by melting their edges and fusing them together.
2. Stamping: It is the using of a press to shape or cut metal sheets into specific forms.
3. Machining: It uses tools to remove material from a metal workpiece to achieve the desired shape.

6. Corrosion Protection
• Once metals are processed and shaped, protection from corrosion is often necessary. Methods to pre-
vent corrosion include:
1. Coating: Applying a protective layer such as paint, zinc (galvanisation), or chromium plating.
2. Alloying: Using metals like chromium or nickel to enhance the corrosion resistance of alloys (e.g.,
stainless steel).

5.5. Alloys

• Alloys are materials composed of two or more elements, typically metals, which are combined to
achieve specific properties that are different from those of the individual components.

Types of Alloys
1. Binary Alloys: These are alloys made from two elements, typically a base metal and a smaller amount
of another element. E.g., brass (copper + zinc), bronze (copper + tin).
2. Ternary Alloys: Alloys are composed of three elements. E.g., stainless steel (iron + carbon + chromium).
3. High-Performance Alloys: Alloys are designed for extreme conditions, such as high temperatures or
highly corrosive environments. E.g., Inconel (nickel + chromium + iron) used in jet engines and turbines.

Common Types of Alloys and Their Applications

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Steel
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
• Composition: Mainly iron (Fe) with varying amounts of carbon (C) and other elements.
• Types:
1. Carbon Steel: Iron with carbon; used in construction and manufacturing.
2. Stainless Steel: Iron with chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and sometimes molybdenum (Mo); resistant
to corrosion, used in kitchen utensils, surgical instruments, and construction.
3. Alloy Steel: Steel combined with elements such as manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr), and vanadi-
um (V) to improve its properties; used in tools, machinery, and automotive parts.
Bronze
• Composition: Primarily copper (Cu) with tin (Sn) as the main alloying element.
• Properties: Known for its hardness and corrosion resistance. Used in coins and sculptures.

Brass
• Composition: Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn).
• Properties: Known for its malleability, corrosion resistance, and good electrical conductivity. Used in
coins, locks, and plumbing fittings.

Aluminium Alloys
• Composition: Primarily aluminium (Al) with other elements like copper (Cu), magnesium (Mg), and
zinc (Zn).
• Properties: Lightweight, strong, and corrosion-resistant. Used in the aerospace industry, automotive
parts, and beverage cans.

Solder
• Composition: A mixture of tin (Sn) and lead (Pb), although lead-free versions with tin and copper
(Cu) are now common.
• Properties: Low melting point. Used to join metal parts in electrical and plumbing work.

Titanium Alloys
• Composition: Titanium (Ti) combined with aluminium (Al) and vanadium (V).
• Properties: Excellent strength-to-weight ratio and high resistance to corrosion. Used in aerospace, mili-
tary, and medical applications.

Nickel Alloys
• Composition: Nickel (Ni) combined with elements such as chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), and molyb-
denum (Mo).

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• Properties: Strong, durable, and resistant to heat and corrosion. Used in turbine engines, electronics,
and chemical industries. PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

White Gold
• Composition: Gold (Au) mixed with other metals like palladium (Pd) or nickel (Ni).
• Properties: Durable and has a white colour. Often used in jewellery.

Lead Alloys:
• Composition: Primarily lead (Pb) with small amounts of other elements like tin (Sn) or antimony (Sb).
• Properties: Heavy, malleable, and resistant to corrosion. Used in batteries, radiation shielding, and
plumbing.

Benefits of Alloys
• Improved Strength: Adding elements like carbon, chromium, or nickel can significantly increase the
strength of a metal, making alloys stronger than the base metal alone.
• Enhanced Corrosion Resistance: Elements like chromium in stainless steel help improve resistance to
rust and corrosion, making alloys ideal for harsh environments.
• Increased Durability: Alloys such as brass or bronze are more durable than pure metals and are less
likely to corrode or degrade over time.
• Versatility: By adjusting the proportion of different elements, alloys can be designed to meet specific
needs, such as low weight (aluminium alloys), high strength (steel alloys), or high temperature re-
sistance (titanium alloys)

5.6. Non-Metals

• Non-metals are elements that generally lack metallic properties. They are located on the right side of
the periodic table (except hydrogen, which is on the left).

Properties of Non-Metals
Physical Properties of Non-Metals
1. State: Non-metals exist in all three states at room temperature:
i) Gases: Oxygen (O₂), nitrogen (N₂), chlorine (Cl₂)
ii) Liquids: Bromine (Br₂)
iii) Solids: Carbon (C), sulfur (S), phosphorus (P)
2. Appearance: They are generally dull and non-lustrous (except iodine, which has a shiny appearance).
3. Conductivity: They are poor conductors of heat and electricity (except graphite, a form of carbon).
4. Density: They usually have lower densities compared to metals.

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5. Hardness: They are brittle in solid form and break easily (e.g., sulfur).
6. Melting and Boiling Points: Their melting and boiling points are generally lower compared to metals PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

(except for carbon in the diamond form).

Chemical Properties of Non-Metals

1. Electron Affinity: Non-metals tend to gain electrons during chemical reactions, forming anions.
2. Oxides: They form acidic or neutral oxides (e.g., CO₂, SO₂).
3. Reactivity:
i) They react with metals to form ionic compounds (e.g., NaCl).
 ii) They react with other non-metals to form covalent compounds (e.g., H₂O, CH₄).
4. Electronegativity: They have high electronegativity compared to metals.
5. Corrosive Nature: Some non-metals (e.g., chlorine) are highly reactive and corrosive.

5.7. Classification of Non-Metals

• Non-metals can be classified into three types based on their chemical property and reactivity.

Reactive Non-Metals
• Reactive non-metals are highly reactive non-metals that actively participate in chemical reactions. It
includes halogens and other reactive non-metals (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus).
• Halogens (Group 17) of the periodic table are highly reactive non-metals that readily combine with
metals to form salts.

Properties of Non-Metals
1. Reactive non-metals have high reactivity with metals and non-metals.
2. They form compounds like acids, salts, and oxides.
3. They usually exist as diatomic or polyatomic molecules (e.g., O₂, S₈).

Examples of Non-Metals
• Hydrogen (H): Combines with oxygen to form water and is a major component of organic molecules.
• Oxygen (O): Essential for respiration and combustion.
• Chlorine (Cl): Used as a disinfectant and in the production of plastics.
• Fluorine (F): Found in toothpaste and used in Teflon production.
• Sulfur (S): Used in sulfuric acid production and vulcanisation of rubber.

Noble Gases (Inert Gases)

• Noble gases are non-reactive or inert due to their stable electron configurations (full valence shells).

Properties of Noble Gases

1. Noble gases are colourless, odourless, and tasteless gases. 62
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
2. They have extremely low chemical reactivity.
3. They exist as monatomic gases under normal conditions.

Examples of Noble Gases

• Helium (He): Used in balloons and as a coolant.
• Neon (Ne): Used in neon signs.
• Argon (Ar): Provides an inert atmosphere for welding.
• Krypton (Kr) and Xenon (Xe): Used in lighting and laser applications.
Other Non-Metals
• Other non-metals include a range of elements that exhibit diverse chemical and physical properties dis-
tinct from reactive non-metals and noble gases..

Properties of Other Non-Metals

• They can be solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature.
• They have moderate to low reactivity depending on the element.
• They form a wide range of compounds with both metals and other non-metals.

Examples of Other Non-Metals

• Carbon (C): Found in various forms like graphite, diamond, and fullerenes.
• Nitrogen (N): Used in fertilizers and as an inert gas.
• Phosphorus (P): Found in matches, fertilisers, and detergents.
• Bromine (Br): The only liquid non-metal at room temperature, used in flame retardants.
Classification of Non-Metals
Type Examples Key Properties
Reactive Non-Metals Oxygen, sulfur, chlorine Highly reactive, form compounds
Noble Gases Helium, neon, argon Inert, stable electron configuration
Other Non-Metals Carbon, phosphorus, bromine Diverse properties and reactivity

5.8. Metalloids

• Metalloids are elements that are intermediate between metals and non-metals. They can exhibit me-
tallic or non-metallic behaviour depending on the conditions and the reactions they participate in.

Properties of Metalloids
• Appearance: Metalloids are typically shiny like metals but brittle like non-metals.
• Electrical Conductivity: They are semiconductors; that conduct electricity better than non-metals but

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not as well as metals.
• Reactivity: Their reactivity depends on the element they are interacting with. They can behave like met- PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
als or non-metals.
• Chemical Properties: They tend to form amphoteric oxides.

Metalloids and Their Uses

• In the modern periodic table, there are six metalloids which are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, an-
timony and tellurium.
Metalloids
 Element Uses
Boron (B) Used in borosilicate glass, detergents, and as a dopant in semiconductors.
Silicon (Si) Crucial for electronics (chips, solar panels) and in construction materials like con-
crete.
Germanium (Ge) Used in fibre optics, infrared optics, and semiconductors.
Arsenic (As) Used in pesticides, wood preservatives, and semiconductors.
Antimony (Sb) Used in flame retardants, alloys, and batteries.
Tellurium (Te) Used in thermoelectric devices and solar panels.

Applications of Metalloids
• Semiconductor Industry: Metalloids like silicon and germanium are the backbone of electronics and
computing.
• Alloys: Antimony and arsenic improve the strength and properties of metals.
• Glass and Ceramics: Boron and silicon are essential in the production of heat-resistant glass.
• Medical Use: Arsenic compounds are used in some cancer treatments.
• Energy: Tellurium is used in thermoelectric devices and advanced solar panels.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

64
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
 6. Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions

65
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
6.1. Solution

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which the solute is uniformly
distributed within the solvent. Solutions can exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous forms.

Components of a Solution
• Solvent: The substance that is dissolved in the solvent. It is present in a smaller amount. E.g., water in
saltwater.
• Solute: The substance in which the solute dissolves. It is present in a larger amount. E.g., salt in saltwa-
ter.

Properties of Solution
1. Homogeneous nature: The composition is uniform throughout.
2. Particle size: The solute particles are very small (less than 1nm in diameter).
3. Transparent: True solutions are transparent because their particles are too small to scatter light.
4. Stability: Solute particles do not settle over time.
5. Separation: The solute and solvent cannot be separated by filtration.
6. Tyndall effect: Solutions do not exhibit the Tyndall effect (no scattering of light).
7. Colligative properties: These properties of solutions depend on the number of solute particles pre-
sent in the solution, not on the nature of the solute particles themselves. It includes boiling point
elevation, freezing point depression, vapour pressure lowering, and osmotic pressure.
8. Electrical conductivity: Electrolyte solutions (e.g., saltwater) conduct electricity. Nonelectrolyte solu-
tions (e.g., sugar water) do not conduct electricity.

Types of Solution
Based on the Physical State
1. Solid Solution: E.g., alloys like brass.
2. Liquid Solution: E.g., saltwater and vinegar.
3. Gaseous Solution: E.g., air (oxygen and nitrogen mixture).
Types of Solutions Based on the State of the Solute and Solvent
Solvent Phase Solute Phase Example
Solid Solid Alloys (e.g., brass)
Solid Liquid Mercury in gold (amalgam)
Solid Gas Hydrogen in palladium
Liquid Solid Sugar in water

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Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water
Liquid Gas Carbonated water PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

Gas Solid Camphor in air

Gas Liquid Water vapour in the air
Gas Gas Air (mixture of gases)

Based on Concentration
1. Dilute Solution: It has a low solute concentration.
2. Concentrated Solution: It has a high solute concentration.
3. Saturated Solution: In this solution, the maximum amount of solute dissolved at a given tempera-
ture.
4. Unsaturated Solution: In this solution, more solute can still dissolve at a given temperature.
5. Supersaturated Solution: It contains more solute than can typically dissolve at a given temperature
(achieved under specific conditions).

Concentration of Solution
• The concentration of a solution indicates the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of sol-
vent or solution. It helps quantify how "strong" or "weak" a solution is.

Methods of Expressing Concentration

Molarity
• Molarity is the number of moles of solute per litre of solution.
• The formula is: Molarity = Moles of solute / Volume of solution
• Its unit is moles per litre (mol/L).

Molality
• Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
• The formula is: Molality = Moles of solute / Mass of solvent in kilogram
• Its unit is moles per kilogram (mol/kg).

Normality
• Normality is the number of gram equivalents of solute per litre of solution.
• The formula is: Normality =Gram equivalents of solute / Volume of solution in litres
• Its unit is equivalents per litre.

Mass Percent
• Mass percent is the mass of solute as a percentage of the total mass of the solution.
The formula is: 𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 =
𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬

67
• × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬

Volume Percent PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• Volume percent is the volume of solute as a percentage of the total volume of the solution.
The formula is: 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 =
𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬
• × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬

Mass-Volume Percent
• Mass-volume percent is the mass of solute (in grams) per 100 mL of solution.
The formula is: 𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 − 𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 =
𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬
• × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕𝐕 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬
Parts Per Million (ppm)
• Parts per million is the amount of solute per million parts of the solution.
The formula is: 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 =
𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬
• × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔
𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌𝐌 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬

Mole Fraction
• Mole fraction is the ratio of moles of a component to the total moles in the solution.
• The formula is: Mole fraction = Moles of solutes / Total number of moles of the solutes and the solvent

6.2. Colloids

• A colloid is a heterogeneous mixture where one substance is dispersed evenly throughout another
substance. The particles are larger than those in a solution but smaller than those in a suspension. Col-
loidal particles remain suspended without settling & exhibit unique properties like the Tyndall effect.

Components of Colloids
• Dispersed Phase: The dispersed substance (similar to the solute in a solution).
• Dispersion Medium: The substance in which the dispersed phase is distributed (similar to the solvent
in a solution).

Properties of Colloids
• Heterogeneous mixture: Colloids appear homogeneous to the naked eye but are heterogeneous at
the microscopic level.
• Particle size: The particle size ranges from 1nm to 1000nm.
• Tyndall effect: Colloids scatter light, making the light beam visible as it passes through.
• Stability: Particles do not settle on standing due to Brownian motion.
• Non-filterable: Particles cannot be separated by filtration but can be separated by ultrafiltration or
centrifugation.
• Brownian motion: Random zigzag movement of particles due to collisions with the molecules of the

68
dispersion medium.

Types of Colloids
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

Based on Physical States

Dispersed Phase Dispersion Medium Colloid Type Example
Solid Solid Solid Sol Ruby glass, gemstones
Solid Liquid Sol Paints, muddy water
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust in the air
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, mayonnaise
Liquid Gas Aerosol Mist, fog, clouds
Gas Solid Solid Foam Pumice stone, foam rubber
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream, whipped cream

Based on the Nature of Interaction

1. Lyophilic Colloids (Liquid-loving): The dispersed phase has a strong affinity for the dispersion me-
dium. These colloids are stable and can be easily prepared. E.g., gelatin, starch, and gum in water.
2. Lyophobic Colloids (Liquid-hating): The dispersed phase has little or no affinity for the dispersion
medium. These colloids are less stable and require stabilising agents. E.g., gold sol and Fe(OH)₃ sol.

Based on Particle Size

1. Multimolecular Colloids: They are formed by the aggregation of a large number of small mole-
cules. E.g., sulfur sol, and gold sol.
2. Macromolecular Colloids: They are formed by dispersing macromolecules in a suitable medium. E.g.,
proteins, starch, and cellulose.
3. Associated Colloids: They are formed by substances that behave as normal electrolytes at low concen-
trations but form micelles at higher concentrations. E.g., soap solution and detergent solution.

Emulsions
• An emulsion is a type of colloid where two immiscible liquids (liquids that do not mix) are combined
such that one liquid is dispersed as tiny droplets in the other.

Emulsifiers
• Emulsifiers stabilise emulsions by reducing the surface tension between the two immiscible liquids.
This prevents the dispersed droplets from coalescing (merging).
• Common emulsifiers include:
1. Natural Emulsifiers: Lecithin (found in egg yolk) and proteins.

69
2. Artificial Emulsifiers: Detergents and soaps.

Types of Emulsions
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

1. Oil-in-Water: Oil droplets are dispersed in water. E.g., milk (fat droplets in water) and mayonnaise.
2. Water-in-Oil: Water droplets are dispersed in oil. E.g., butter and cream.

Examples of Emulsions
• Milk: Fat droplets dispersed in water.
• Butter: Water droplets dispersed in fat.
• Mayonnaise: Oil dispersed in vinegar and stabilised with egg yolk.
• Cosmetic lotions: Oil and water mixture stabilised with emulsifiers.
• Paints: Water and oil emulsion for even application.

Uses of Emulsions
• Food industry: It is used in products like mayonnaise, ice cream, and salad dressings.
• Pharmaceuticals: It is used as a medium for drug delivery (e.g., cod liver oil).
• Cosmetics: It is used in creams, lotions, and makeup products.
• Paints and coatings: It is added in paints for uniform application.
• Photography: In photographic films, emulsions are used to coat film surfaces.

6.3. Suspension

• A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture where solid particles are dispersed in a liquid or gas. The
particles are large enough to settle out over time if left undisturbed. Unlike solutions or colloids, the
particles in a suspension are visible to the naked eye and can be separated by filtration.

Characteristics of Suspensions
• Heterogeneous mixture: The components are not uniformly distributed.
• Particle size: The particle size is greater than 1000nm, making the particles visible.
• Settling: Particles settle at the bottom of the container when left undisturbed.
• Non-transparent: Suspensions are usually opaque or cloudy due to the large particle size.
• Filterable: Particles can be separated easily using filtration techniques.
• No Tyndall effect: Particles in suspensions do not scatter light effectively.
• Visible particles: The particles are large enough to be seen without a microscope.
• Instability: Suspensions are unstable, and the particles settle over time.

Types of Suspension
Based on Particle Size

70
1. Coarse Suspension: They have large particles, often visible to the naked eye and particles settle rap-
idly. E.g., sand and in water. PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
2. Fine Suspension: They have smaller particles, visible under a microscope and particles settle slowly.
E.g., chalk powder in water.

Based on Stability
1. Stable Suspension: The particles of this suspension remain dispersed for an extended period with-
out settling. It may use stabilisers or surfactants. E.g., blood (with natural stabilisers).
2. Unstable Suspension: The particles of this suspension settle quickly due to gravity. It requires fre-
quent shaking to redisperse. E.g., freshly mixed clay in water.
Based on Particle Behaviour
1. Flocculated Suspension: The particles form loose aggregates or clumps (flocs) and settle quickly. It
is easy to redisperse upon shaking. E.g., sewage treatment sludge.
2. Deflocculated Suspension: The particles remain dispersed individually, settling slowly to form a
compact sediment. It is difficult to redisperse after settling. E.g., paints or ink.

Based on Medium
1. Aqueous Suspension: Water is the dispersion medium of the suspension. E.g., muddy water.
2. Non-Aqueous Suspension: Medium is a liquid other than water, such as oil or organic solvents. E.g.,
pigments in oil-based paints.

Based on Concentration
1. Dilute Suspension: It contains a low concentration of dispersed particles. E.g., lightly muddy water.
2. Concentrated Suspension: It contains a high concentration of dispersed particles. E.g., cement slurry
or thick paints.

6.4. Differences Between Suspensions, Colloids, and Solutions

Feature Suspension Colloid Solution

Particle Size > 1000 nm 1nm−1000nm < 1nm
Visibility of Particles Visible Visible under microscope Not visible
Settling of Particles Settles on standing Does not settle Does not settle
Filtration of Particles Can be filtered Cannot be filtered Cannot be filtered
Tyndall Effect No Yes No

---------- End of Chapter ----------

71
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
 7. Organic Compounds

• Organic compounds primarily contain carbon atoms bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sul-
fur, phosphorus, or halogens. These compounds are the basis of all living organisms and include
both natural and synthetic substances.
• Organic compounds have a diverse range of structures and functions, and they can exist as simple mol-
ecules like methane (CH₄) or complex molecules like proteins and DNA.

7.1. Characteristics of Organic Compounds

1. Carbon-Centred Bonds: Organic compounds typically involve carbon atoms that are bonded to other
carbon atoms and to other elements such as hydrogen and oxygen.
2. Covalent Bonds: The bonds between atoms in organic compounds are usually covalent, meaning at-
oms share electrons.
3. Variety of Structures: Organic compounds can form chains, rings, and more complex three-
dimensional structures.
4. Presence of Functional Groups: Organic molecules often have functional groups (e.g., -OH, -COOH)
that determine their chemical reactivity and properties.
5. Low to High Molecular Weight: Organic compounds can range from simple molecules (e.g., methane,
CH₄) to large macromolecules (e.g., proteins, DNA).

7.2. Organic Compounds vs Inorganic Compounds

Feature Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds

Definition Compounds primarily made of car- Compounds that do not primarily contain
bon and hydrogen, often with oxygen, carbon-hydrogen bonds
nitrogen, sulfur, etc.

72
Examples Methane (CH₄), Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), Pro- Sodium chloride (NaCl), Water (H₂O), Am-
teins, and DNA monia (NH₃), and Carbonates (CO₃²⁻).
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Occurrence Found in living organisms (biological Found as minerals in the earth's crust, wa-
origin) and synthetically produced ter bodies, and non-living systems
Types of Bonding Covalent bonding is predominant Ionic, covalent, or metallic bonding
Complexity Structures are complex, with chains, Usually simpler structures, though some
rings, and branches are complex (e.g., crystals)
Melting/Boiling Generally lower due to weaker inter- Typically, higher due to stronger ionic or
Points molecular forces (exceptions exist) metallic bonds
Solubility Soluble in organic solvents (e.g., ben- Mostly soluble in water, though some are
zene, ether); some dissolve in water insoluble
Combustibility Mostly combustible due to carbon- Non-combustible (except for some like
hydrogen bonds hydrogen gas)
Electrical Conduc- Poor conductors (except for certain Good conductors when dissolved (electro-
tivity conjugated systems or graphite) lytes) or in molten state
Rate of Reaction Reactions are slower and often require Reactions are usually faster and occur
catalysts (e.g., enzymes) without catalysts

7.3. Important Organic Compounds

Hydrocarbons
• Hydrocarbons are organic compounds composed entirely of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) atoms.
They are the simplest type of organic compounds and form the backbone of organic chemistry.

Important Properties of Hydrocarbons

1. Flammability: Hydrocarbons are excellent fuels, readily burning in the presence of oxygen to release
energy (combustion).
2. Insolubility in Water: They are generally nonpolar and do not dissolve in water.
3. Increasing Boiling/Melting Points: As the hydrocarbon's size (molecular weight) increases, its boiling
and melting points generally increase.

Important Hydrocarbons
• Methane (CH₄): Main component of natural gas; used as a fuel and in hydrogen production.
• Ethylene (C₂H₄): Used in making plastics (polyethene), antifreeze, and as a plant hormone.
• Benzene (C₆H₆): Used as a precursor in the production of chemicals like styrene and phenol.

Alcohols

73
• Alcohols are organic compounds characterised by one or more hydroxyl groups (-OH) attached to a
carbon atom. PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

Important Properties of Alcohols

• Solubility in Water: Lower alcohols (with shorter carbon chains) are generally soluble in water due to
their ability to form hydrogen bonds.
• Higher Boiling Points: Alcohols have significantly higher boiling points compared to similar-sized hy-
drocarbons due to hydrogen bonding between alcohol molecules.

Important Alcohols
• Ethanol (C₂H₅OH): Found in alcoholic beverages, used as a solvent and fuel additive (bioethanol).
• Methanol (CH₃OH): Used in the production of formaldehyde, as a solvent, and in biodiesel produc-
tion.

Carboxylic Acids
• Carboxylic acids are organic compounds containing a carboxyl group (-COOH) as their functional
group.

Important Properties of Carboxylic Acids

• Acidity: Carboxylic acids are weak acids that partially ionise in water to release hydrogen ions (H+).
• Higher Boiling Points: Due to strong hydrogen bonding between molecules, they have significantly
higher boiling points than similar-sized hydrocarbons and alcohols.

Important Carboxylic Acids

• Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH): Found in vinegar; used in food preservation and as a solvent in chemical
industries.
• Oxalic Acid (C₂H₂O₄): Found in some plants (e.g., spinach); used in cleaning rust and bleaching.

Esters
• Esters are organic compounds derived from an acid (usually a carboxylic acid) and an alcohol.
• They are known for their pleasant fragrances and are commonly used in perfumes, flavourings, etc.

Important Carboxylic Acids

• Ethyl Acetate (CH₃COOC₂H₅): Used as a solvent in nail polish removers and glues.
• Isoamyl Acetate: Gives the characteristic aroma of bananas; used in perfumes and flavouring.

Ketones
• Ketones are organic compounds that contain a carbonyl group (C=O).

74
Important Ketones
• Acetone: Used as a solvent in industries, nail polish remover, and paint thinners. PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
• Butanone: Used as a solvent in paint removers, cleaning agents, and coatings.
Organic Compound Use
Methane (CH₄) Component of natural gas; used as fuel for heating, cooking, and electricity
generation. Raw material for methanol, formaldehyde, and hydrogen produc-
tion.
Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) Alcoholic beverages, solvent in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and perfumes.
Fuel additive (biofuel), antiseptic.
Acetone (CH₃COCH₃) Solvent for cleaning, paint removers, and cosmetics (nail polish remover).
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) The energy source for cells, the sweetener in food and beverages, raw material
for ethanol and chemical production.
Acetic Acid Vinegar (4-8%). Used as a food preservative.
(CH₃COOH)
Benzene (C₆H₆) Starting material for plastics, synthetic fibres, rubber production, and phar-
maceuticals. Solvent in chemical processes.
Formaldehyde (CH₂O) Preservative, disinfectant, chemical intermediate for plastics and resins (urea-
formaldehyde).
Toluene (C₆H₅CH₃) Solvent in paints, adhesives, and rubber production.
Nitroglycerin The active ingredient in dynamite. Used as a vasodilator in medicine to treat
(C₃H₅N₃O₉) heart conditions.
Urea (CO(NH₂)₂) Fertiliser, raw material for plastic production, and moisturiser in cosmetics.
Ammonia (NH₃) Fertiliser production (ammonium nitrate), cleaning products, and refrigera-
tion systems.
Chlorine (Cl₂) Water treatment, bleaching agents, and plastics production (PVC).
Ethylene (C₂H₄) Polyethylene production (plastic), plant hormones for ripening fruits, and an-
tifreeze.
Propylene (C₃H₆) Polypropylene production (plastic) and solvent in paints.
Xylene (C₆H₄(CH₃)₂) The solvent in paints, varnishes, and chemical synthesis for aromatic com-
pounds.
Isopropyl Alcohol Disinfectant (rubbing alcohol), solvent in cleaning products, antiseptic.
(C₃H₆OH)
Nylon (Polyamide) Synthetic fibre in clothing, carpets, and industrial products. Engineering plas-
tics in automotive and electrical devices.
Polystyrene (C₈H₈) Disposable items (cups, plates), packaging materials, insulation.
Styrene (C₆H₅CH=CH₂) Polystyrene production, synthetic rubber, and fibres.

75
Lactic Acid (C₃H₆O₃) Food preservatives, cosmetics, and biodegradable plastics (PLA). Produced
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
by lactic acid bacteria during fermentation
Vitamin C (Ascorbic An essential nutrient, antioxidant, food preservative, and supplement
Acid, C₆H₈O₆)

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 8. Chemistry in Everyday Life

8.1. Water

• Water (H₂O) is a vital natural resource and a universal solvent essential for life. It is a compound com-
posed of two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to an oxygen atom. Water is found in three states:
liquid, solid (ice), and gas (steam or vapour).
Type of Water Description Common Uses
Mineral Water Natural water containing minerals and trace ele- Drinking, health benefits, hydra-
ments tion
Distilled Water Water purified by distillation Laboratory use, medical equip-
ment, car batteries
Spring Water Water from natural underground springs, often Drinking, hydration, culinary use
bottled without heavy processing
Purified Water Water that has been filtered or processed to re- Drinking, industrial processes,
move impurities and contaminants medical applications
Alkaline Water Water with a higher pH level, often enhanced with Hydration, believed to balance
minerals to increase alkalinity body pH levels
Hard Water Water containing high levels of dissolved miner- Domestic use (though it can
als (particularly calcium and magnesium) cause limescale), agriculture
Soft Water Water with low levels of dissolved minerals (par- Washing, cleaning, drinking
ticularly calcium and magnesium)
Grey Water Gently used water from sinks, showers, and laundry Irrigation, landscaping, non-
(excluding toilet water) potable uses
Black Water Wastewater containing sewage and organic waste Requires treatment for safe dis-
posal or reuse

76
Deionised Water Water with all ions removed, making it free of min- Laboratories, electronics manu-
erals and salts facturing, car maintenance PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

8.2. Detergent

• Detergents are cleaning agents that reduce surface tension and emulsify dirt and grease. They are
typically synthetic compounds.
Type of Detergent Description Common Uses
Anionic Detergents Contain negatively charged ions, effec- Laundry, dishwashing, household
tive at removing dirt and oils cleaning
Cationic Detergents Contain positively charged ions, often Fabric softening, disinfectants, hair
used as fabric softeners and sanitisers care
Non-ionic Detergents Contain neutral molecules, less likely to Cleaning delicate fabrics, industrial
form foam, good for delicate surfaces use
Amphoteric Deter- Contain both positive and negative Mild soaps, personal care, baby prod-
gents charges, effective in various pH levels ucts
Enzymatic Detergents Contain enzymes that break down or- Stain removal, laundry, industrial
ganic stains cleaning
Green Detergents Made from biodegradable and eco- Environmentally friendly cleaning
friendly ingredients
 Soaps are salts of fatty acids that are commonly used for cleaning, washing, and personal hygiene. They
are produced by a process called saponification, where fats or oils react with an alkali (typically sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide) to produce soap and glycerol (glycerine).

8.3. Dyes

• Dyes are coloured substances used to impart colour to fabrics, paper, and other materials.
Type of Dye Description Common Uses
Natural Dyes Derived from plants, animals, or minerals Textile dyeing, art, cosmetics,
food colouring
Synthetic Dyes Man-made dyes created from chemical compounds Textile industry, food colouring,
cosmetics
Basic Dyes Positively charged, used for dyeing acrylic, paper, Dyeing synthetic fibres, papers,
and leather. and some textiles
Acid Dyes Require an acidic medium to bond with fibres, used Wool, silk, nylon, leather
for protein fibres
Direct Dyes Can be applied directly to fibres without a mordant. Cotton, linen, and rayon

77
Vat Dyes Insoluble in water, requires reduction and oxidation Indigo dye for denim, cotton
to fix to fibres fabrics PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Reactive Dyes Form a covalent bond with fibres, often used for Cotton, wool, silk, and some
bright, long-lasting colours synthetic fibres
Disperse Dyes Used for synthetic fibres, especially polyester Polyester, acetate, nylon
Sulfur Dyes Water-insoluble, used for dark colours, especially Cotton, especially in low-cost
blacks and blues textile production
Anthraquinone Derived from anthraquinone, a group of aromatic Textile, leather, food
Dyes compounds, known for vibrant colours
Food Dyes Used specifically to colour food products Food industry, beverages, con-
fectionery

8.4. Drug

• A drug is any substance that, when administered to the body, can alter its normal physiological
functions or mental state. Drugs can have therapeutic, diagnostic, or recreational effects, and they
are typically used to treat, prevent, or manage diseases, symptoms, or conditions.
Type of Drug Description Common Uses
Analgesics (Painkill- Drugs that relieve pain by blocking Pain relief (e.g., paracetamol, ibuprofen)
ers) pain signals
Antibiotics Drugs that kill or inhibit the growth of Treat bacterial infections (e.g., penicillin,
bacteria amoxicillin)
Antivirals Drugs used to treat viral infections by Treatment of viral infections (e.g., osel-
inhibiting the development of the virus tamivir for flu, acyclovir for herpes)
Antifungals Drugs that treat fungal infections by Treatment of fungal infections (e.g., flu-
killing or inhibiting the growth of fungi conazole, clotrimazole)
Antipyretics Drugs used to reduce fever by lower- Fever reduction (e.g., paracetamol, ibu-
ing the body temperature profen)
Antihistamines Drugs that block the action of hista- Allergy relief (e.g., loratadine, cetirizine)
mine, reducing allergy symptoms
Anxiolytics Drugs that relieve anxiety by affecting Anxiety treatment (e.g., diazepam, lo-
the brain's neurotransmitters razepam)
Antidepressants Drugs used to treat depression by bal- Depression, anxiety disorders (e.g.,
ancing neurotransmitters in the brain fluoxetine, sertraline)
Antipsychotics Drugs that treat psychotic disorders by Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder (e.g.,
altering the effects of neurotransmitters risperidone, olanzapine)

78
Steroids (Cortico- Drugs that mimic the effects of hor- Inflammation, immune system disorders
steroids) mones produced by the adrenal glands (e.g., hydrocortisone, prednisolone) PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
Diuretics Drugs that promote the removal of Treat high blood pressure, fluid retention
excess salt and water through urina- (e.g., furosemide, spironolactone)
tion
Bronchodilators Drugs that relax and widen the air pas- Asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary
sages in the lungs disease (COPD) (e.g., salbutamol,
ipratropium)
Antacids Drugs that neutralise stomach acid to Heartburn, acid reflux (e.g., ranitidine,
 relieve indigestion and heartburn omeprazole)
Vitamins and Sup- Organic compounds essential for Vitamin deficiency, general health (e.g.,
plements health, often in supplement form vitamin D, iron supplements)

8.5. Glass

• Glass is an amorphous solid (lacking a definite crystalline structure) that is primarily composed of sil-
ica (silicon dioxide).
Type of Glass Description Common Uses
Soda-Lime Glass The most common type of glass, made from Windowpanes, glass containers,
sodium carbonate, lime, and silica bottles
Borosilicate Glass Contains boron trioxide, making it resistant to Laboratory glassware, kitchenware
thermal shock (e.g., Pyrex), telescopes
Lead Glass (Crys- Contains lead oxide, which increases its re- Fine glassware, decorative objects,
tal) fractive index and density jewellery
Toughened or Glass that has been heat-treated to increase Car windows, safety glass, shower
Tempered Glass its strength and safety doors
Laminated Glass Consists of two or more layers of glass with a Windshields, skylights, safety glass.
plastic layer in between.
Frosted Glass Glass with a matte finish, achieved through Privacy windows, shower screens,
sandblasting or acid etching decorative panels
Tinted Glass Glass that has been coloured or shaded to re- Windows, car windows, skylights,
duce glare or improve aesthetics architectural design
Low-E Glass Glass coated with a thin layer of metallic ox- Energy-efficient windows, insula-
ide to reflect infrared light tion in buildings
Smart Glass Glass that can change its properties (e.g., Privacy windows, energy-efficient
transparency) with an electrical current buildings, automotive windows

79
Glass Fibre Made from fine strands of glass, used to cre- Insulation, construction materials,
ate materials with a high strength-to-weight boats, and automobiles PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry
ratio

8.6. Plastic

• Plastics are a group of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that can be moulded to any shape. Plas-
tics are primarily composed of polymers.
Type of Plastic Description Common Uses
Polyethylene (PE) The most common plastic, made from Plastic bags, bottles, toys, con-
 polymerising ethylene tainers, packaging
Polypropylene (PP) A durable, heat-resistant plastic made Food containers, ropes, auto-
from propylene monomer motive parts, textiles
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) A versatile plastic made from polymerising Pipes, flooring, medical tubing,
vinyl chloride window frames.
Polystyrene (PS) A brittle, clear plastic made from poly- Disposable cutlery, CD cases,
merising styrene packaging materials
Polyethylene Tereph- A strong, lightweight plastic often used Soft drink bottles, food contain-
thalate (PET or PETE) for bottles and containers ers, textiles (e.g., polyester)
Acrylonitrile Butadiene A tough, impact-resistant plastic known for LEGO bricks, automotive parts,
Styrene (ABS) its strength and durability electronics casings
Polycarbonate (PC) A strong, transparent plastic with high- Eyeglass lenses, optical discs
impact resistance (e.g., CDs), windows
Polyamide (Nylon) A strong, flexible plastic known for its abra- Clothing (e.g., stockings), ropes,
sion resistance and toughness automotive parts.
Polylactic Acid (PLA) A biodegradable plastic made from re- Packaging, biodegradable cut-
newable resources like corn starch. lery, 3D printing
Polyurethane (PU) A versatile plastic with elastic properties, Furniture cushions, mattresses,
available in foam, solid, and coating forms coatings, adhesives
Expanded Polystyrene A form of polystyrene that is foamed to Packaging, insulation, food con-
(EPS) create a lightweight, insulating material tainers (e.g., coffee cups)
High-Density Polyeth- A denser, stronger form of polyethylene Milk jugs, detergent bottles,
ylene (HDPE) with excellent chemical resistance trash cans, pipes
Low-Density Polyeth- A more flexible form of polyethylene with Plastic bags, squeezable bottles,
ylene (LDPE) lower strength but high elasticity food wraps
Ethylene Vinyl Acetate A flexible plastic often used in foam and Shoes, foam packaging, sports
(EVA) films equipment

8.7. Rubber 80
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

• Rubber is a highly elastic material, either natural or synthetic, that can be stretched and then returned
to its original shape.
Type of Rubber Description Common Uses
Natural Rubber (NR) Derived from the latex of rubber trees, Tires, footwear, industrial
known for its elasticity and flexibility products, medical supplies
Synthetic Rubber Man-made rubber produced through the Tires, seals, gaskets, footwear,
 polymerisation of monomers like styrene, industrial applications
butadiene, or isoprene
Styrene-Butadiene Rub- A synthetic rubber made from styrene and Automotive tires, belts, hoses,
ber (SBR) butadiene, known for its good abrasion re- flooring
sistance
Butyl Rubber (IIR) Made from isobutene and isoprene, known Inner tubes, seals, adhesives,
for its excellent air and water impermeabil- automotive parts
ity
Neoprene (CR) A synthetic rubber made from chloroprene, Wetsuits, gaskets, electrical
known for its chemical and weather re- insulation, automotive seals
sistance
Ethylene Propylene A synthetic rubber made from ethylene, pro- Roofing membranes, seals,
Diene Monomer (EPDM) pylene, and diene, resistant to heat, ozone, automotive weatherstripping
and weathering
Nitrile Rubber (NBR) Made from butadiene and acrylonitrile, O-rings, fuel hoses, gloves,
known for its resistance to oils and fuels gaskets
Silicone Rubber Made from silicon, oxygen, carbon, and hy- Cookware, seals, medical de-
drogen, known for its high heat resistance vices, automotive applications
and flexibility
Vulcanised Rubber Rubber treated with sulfur to improve its Tires, industrial belts, rubber
strength, elasticity, and durability bands, footwear
Fluoroelastomer (FKM) A high-performance synthetic rubber known Aerospace, automotive fuel
for its resistance to high temperatures and systems, seals, gaskets
chemicals
Polyurethane Rubber A synthetic rubber known for its high wear Wheels, gaskets, seals, medi-
resistance and toughness cal devices
Chloroprene Rubber (CR) A synthetic rubber similar to Neoprene, Gaskets, seals, hoses, adhe-

81
known for its resistance to oils and chemi- sives
cals
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

8.8. Fibre

• Fibres are long, thin structures that are essential in various industrial, textile, and biological applications.
Type of Fibre Description Common Uses
Natural Fibres Derived from plant, animal, or mineral Clothing, textiles, ropes, paper, insula-
sources. tion
Plant Fibres (Cellu- Fibres obtained from plants, primarily made Cotton, linen, jute, hemp, coir.
lose) of cellulose
Animal Fibres (Pro- Fibres obtained from animals, mainly pro- Wool, silk, cashmere, alpaca, mohair.
tein) teins like keratin or fibroin
Mineral Fibres Fibres derived from minerals like asbestos Insulation, construction materials
(though its use is now limited) (e.g., asbestos before its hazards were
known)
Synthetic Fibres Man-made fibres produced by chemical Clothing, industrial textiles, uphol-
processes stery
Polyester A synthetic fibre made from petroleum- Clothing, bedding, upholstery, indus-
based products. trial fabrics.
Nylon (Polyamide) A synthetic fibre known for its strength and Clothing, ropes, carpets, industrial
elasticity uses
Acrylic A synthetic fibre made from polymerised Sweaters, blankets, upholstery, car-
acrylonitrile pets
Polypropylene A lightweight, durable synthetic fibre made Carpets, upholstery, ropes, packaging
from polymerised propylene
Spandex (Ly- A highly elastic synthetic fibre known for its Activewear, swimwear, leggings, per-
cra/Elastane) stretchability formance fabrics
Acetate A synthetic fibre made from wood pulp or Linings, formal wear, drapery.
cotton waste, treated with acetic acid.
Rayon (Viscose) A semi-synthetic fibre made from regener- Clothing, home textiles, medical
ated cellulose, often from wood pulp. products.
Modal A type of rayon with enhanced softness and Clothing, bed linens, towels.
durability.
Tencel (Lyocell) A sustainable, biodegradable fibre made Eco-friendly clothing, bed linens,
from wood pulp, processed in a closed-loop towels.

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system.
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

8.9. Artificial sweeteners

• Artificial sweeteners are substances used as substitutes for natural sugar (sucrose). They generally
consist of fewer calories.
Type of Artificial Description Common Uses
Sweetener
Aspartame A low-calorie sweetener made from aspartic acid and Diet sodas, sugar-free
 phenylalanine, with a sweetness about 200 times that of gum, desserts, yo-
sugar ghurts
Sucralose A non-caloric sweetener made from sugar but modified Baked goods, bever-
to be calorie-free, about 600 times sweeter than sugar ages, sugar-free syr-
ups, candy
Saccharin Synthesised from toluene or its derivatives, about 300- Soft drinks, table-top
400 times sweeter than sugar sweeteners, canned
foods
Acesulfame Potassi- A calorie-free sweetener about 200 times sweeter than Beverages, baked
um (Ace-K) sugar, made from sulfamic acid, an amine, and diketenes goods, desserts,
chewing gum
Stevia (Steviol Gly- Derived from the leaves of the Stevia plant and up to 300 Teas, coffees, health
cosides) times sweeter than sugar drinks, yoghurts, des-
serts
Neotame A high-intensity sweetener derived from aspartame but Low-calorie foods,
much sweeter (about 7,000-13,000 times sweeter than beverages, baked
sugar) goods.
Advantame The sweetest artificial sweetener, about 20,000 times Soft drinks, confec-
sweeter than sugar, derived from aspartame tions, low-calorie
products
Cyclamate A low-calorie sweetener about 30-50 times sweeter than Table-top sweeteners,
sugar, synthesised from cyclohexylamine and sulfur di- beverages, canned
oxide, banned in some countries but still used in others fruits
Monk Fruit Extract A natural sweetener derived from monk fruit, about 150- Drinks, desserts, yo-
(Luo Han Guo) 200 times sweeter than sugar, often considered a "natural" ghurts, protein pow-
alternative ders
Sugar Alcohols (e.g., Naturally occurring compounds that are less sweet than Sugar-free candies,

83
Xylitol, Erythritol, sugar and lower in calories. gums, chocolates,
Sorbitol) toothpaste
PMF IAS – Science – Chemistry

---------- End of Chapter ----------

 PMF IAS

Astronomy
 1. The Universe and The Big Bang Theory

Basic Terms
 Cosmos: Another word for universe.
 Cosmic: Relating to the universe or cosmos.
 Cosmic rays: highly energetic atomic nucleus or other particle travelling through space at a speed ap-
proaching that of light. Direct exposure to cosmic rays can cause gene mutations resulting in cancer.
 Cosmology: the scientific study of the large-scale properties of the universe.
 Cosmological: relating to the origin and development of the universe.
 Astronomy: the scientific study of celestial objects (stars, planets, comets, etc.) and phenomena that origi-
nate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the solar wind, gravitational waves, etc.).
• The Universe is all existing matter & space. It is incomprehensively large (beyond mental grasp). It con-
sists of both physical (subatomic particles like electrons, protons to galactic super-clusters) and non-
physical (light, gravitation, space etc.) components.
• The universe, at present, is said to possess about 100 billion galaxies, each comprising an average of
100 billion stars. In comparison, the Milky Way Galaxy is believed to possess 100 billion to 400 bil-
lion stars. (1,000,000 = 1 Million = 10 Lakhs; 1,000,000,000 = 1 Billion = 100 Crore; 1,000,000,000,000 =
1 Trillion

1.1. The Big Bang of Theory

1
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

The Expanding Universe

• The Big Bang Theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe’s birth. It states that,
13.8 billion years ago, all of space was contained in a single point of very high-density and high-
temperature state from which the universe has been expanding in all directions ever since.

The Evolution of The Universe Since the Big Bang

Time T in °C Event
10-43 Sec 1032 The cosmos goes through a superfast “inflation,” expanding
from the size of an atom to that of a grapefruit in a tiny fraction
of a second.

2
10-32 Sec 1027 Post-inflation, the universe is a seething, hot soup of electrons,
quarks, and other particles. PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
10-6 Sec 1013 A cooling cosmos permits quarks to clump into protons & neu-
trons.
3 min 108 Still too hot to form into atoms, charged electrons and protons
prevent light from shining.
3,00,000 years 10 3
Electrons combine with protons & neutrons to form atoms,
mostly hydrogen & helium. Lithium & beryllium were formed
in trace amounts. Light can finally shine.
1 billion years -200 Gravity makes hydrogen and helium (primordial elements)
coalesce to form the giant clouds that will become galaxies;
smaller clumps of gas collapse to form the first stars.
15 billion years -270 As galaxies cluster together under the influence of gravity, the
first stars die and spew heavy elements into space: those will
eventually turn into new stars and planets.

Big Crunch (The Death of The Universe)

• At some point, the universe would reach a maximum size & begin collapsing. The universe would
become denser & hotter again, ending in a state like that in which it started — a single point of very
high density.

Accelerating Expansion of The Universe & Dark Energy

• It is the observation that the expansion of the universe is such that the velocity at which a galaxy is
moving away from the observer is continuously increasing with time (Hubble’s law). It implies that the
universe will get increasingly colder as matter spreads across space.
• The accelerated expansion of the universe is thought to have begun since the universe entered its dark-
energy-dominated era — roughly 5 billion years ago.
 Dark energy is an unknown form of energy that is hypothesised to permeate (spread throughout) all
of space, tending to accelerate the universe’s expansion.

1.2. Evidence for Big Bang Theory

• Physical phenomena such as cosmological redshift and the discovery of cosmic microwave back-
ground radiation and gravitational waves have added weight to the Big Bang Theory.

Doppler-Shift or Redshift and Blueshift

• Redshift and Blueshift describe how light changes as objects in space (such as stars or galaxies)
move closer or farther away from us.

3
• American astronomer Edwin Hubble was the first to describe the redshift phenomenon (galactic red-
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
shift) and tie it to an expanding universe (galaxies are drifting apart).
 Hubble's law: the farther away galaxies are, the faster they are moving away from Earth ― also known
as accelerating the expansion of the universe.

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMD)

• With a traditional optical telescope, the space between stars and galaxies is completely dark. Howev-
er, a sensitive radio telescope shows a faint background glow. This glow is strongest in the microwave
region of the radio spectrum, and hence, it is called a Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).
• CMD, also known as relic radiation (thermal radiation left over from the “Big Bang”), is fundamen-
tal to observational cosmology because it is the oldest light in the Universe and can be found in all

4
directions. Its discovery is considered a landmark proof for the concept of “accelerating expansion of
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
the universe” and the Big Bang Theory.

Gravitational Waves
• Albert Einstein predicted the existence of gravitational waves in 1916 in his general theory of relativi-
ty. Gravitational waves are 'ripples' in the fabric of spacetime caused by some of the most violent
and energetic processes in the Universe.
• Massive accelerating objects (such as neutron stars or black holes orbiting each other) would dis-
rupt spacetime in such a way that 'waves' of distorted space would radiate from the source (like
 the movement of waves away from a stone thrown into a pond). These ripples travel at the speed of
light through the Universe, carrying with them information about their origins.

Spacetime (NASA) & Gravitational Waves (NASA)

• While the processes that generate gravitational waves can be extremely violent and destructive, by the
time the waves reach Earth, they are billions of times smaller. In 2015, the Laser Interferometer Gravi-
tational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), USA, physically sensed the distortions in spacetime caused by
passing gravitational waves generated by two colliding black holes nearly 1.3 billion light-years away!

Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity

• In 1905, Albert Einstein determined that the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating
observers and that the speed of light in a vacuum was independent of the motion of all observers.
As a result, he found that space and time were interwoven into a single continuum known as
spacetime.
• Events that occur at the same time for one observer could occur at different times for another.
This was the theory of special relativity. In 1915, Einstein published his theory of general relativity. In it, he
determined that massive objects distort spacetime, which is felt as gravity. Gravitational lensing and
gravitational waves are strong evidence for Einstein’s theory of general relativity.

Gravitational Lensing
• Light around a massive object, such as a black hole, is bent, causing it to act as a lens for the things

5
that lie behind it.
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
Importance of Gravitational Waves
• The gravitational waves can work as sirens to measure the expansion rate of the universe and to un-
derstand the origin and the future of the universe.
 The Hubble constant is a unit of measurement that describes the rate at which the universe is ex-
panding. Two parameters that are essential to estimating the Hubble constant are the distance of the
stars from Earth and how fast they are moving away from us (their velocity). But to date, the most precise
efforts have landed on very different values of the Hubble constant.
 Scientists have proposed a more accurate and independent way to measure the Hubble constant, using
gravitational waves. A flash of light would give an estimate of the system’s velocity (system: neutron
stars or black holes orbiting each other), or how fast it is moving away from the Earth. The emitted gravi-
tational waves, if detected on Earth, should provide a precise measurement of the system’s distance. By
knowing the system’s velocity and distance, a precise calculation of the Hubble constant is possible (which
will describe the rate at which the universe is expanding).

[UPSC 2012] Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence(s) for
the continued expansion of the universe?
1. Detection of microwaves in space
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space
3. Movement of asteroids in space
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space

Select the correct answer using the codes:

a) 1 and 2
b) 2 only
c) 1, 3 and 4 only
d) None of the above

Explanation

6
• Supernova explosions can also cause gravitational waves. So, points 1, 2 and 4 are correct. So, the
answer is d) None of the above. PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

[UPSC 2019] Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant ‘blackholes’ billions of
light-years away from the earth. What is the significance of this observation?
a) ‘Higgs boson particles’ were detected.
b) ‘Gravitational waves’ were detected.
c) Possibility of intergalactic space travel through ‘wormhole’ was confirmed.
d) It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’.
Explanation
• Merger of giant blackholes causes gravitational waves. Answer: b) ‘Gravitational waves’ were detected.
 A wormhole can act as a bridge or a shortcut between two points in curved spacetime which are well
separated in practical terms to the inhabitants of the universe. The existence of wormholes has been pre-
dicted by Ludwig Flamm, in 1916, soon after Einstein proposed his General Theory of Relativity.

 A singularity (gravitational singularity or (spacetime singularity) is a condition in which gravity is so in-

tense that spacetime ceases to exist and our laws of physics become invalid. Singularities were first
predicated as a result of Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, which resulted in the theoretical existence
of black holes.
 In essence, the theory also predicted that any star reaching beyond a certain point in its mass (aka. the
Schwarzschild Radius) would exert a gravitational force so intense that it would collapse. At this point,
nothing would be capable of escaping its surface, including light. This phenomenon is known as the
Chandrasekhar Limit, named after the Indian astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who pro-
posed it in 1930.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

7
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
 2. Galaxies and Star Formation

2.1. Galaxy

• Galaxy is a system of millions or billions of stars, together with gas and dust, held together by gravita-
tional attraction. They are the major building blocks of the universe. The smallest galaxies contain
about 100,000 stars, while the largest contains up to 3000 billion stars.

• From the billions of galaxies, two basic types have been identified: 1) Regular galaxies, & Irregular gal-
axies (1/10th of all galaxies; the stars are very old).

Regular Galaxies
Spiral Galaxies Elliptical Galaxies
• The Milky Way is an example of a disc-shaped • Star distribution is nonuniform.
spiral galaxy which has a greater concentration
of stars near its centre. They consist of popula-
tions of old stars in the centre, and the youngest
stars located in the arms.
• Spiral galaxies are well supplied with the interstel- • Most of their member stars are very old, and
lar gas in which new bright, young stars form. there is no new star formation in them.
• Smaller and less bright • The brightest galaxies in the universe.

Dark matter 8
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
• The rotation velocity for spiral galaxies depends on the amount of mass contained in them. But the outer
arms of the Milky Way are rotating much too fast to be consistent with the amount of matter that we
know exists in them. Such fast rotation is possible only when there is more mass, and that extra mass is
believed to come from dark matter.
• Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter that accounts for approximately 85% of the matter in the
universe. Most of the dark matter is composed of some as-yet-undiscovered subatomic particles.
• Dark energy plus dark matter constitutes 95.1% of the total content of the universe (the rest in the
 normal matter). In short, we are unsure about what’s there in 95% of the universe!

Why is it Called Dark Matter?

• The name dark matter refers to the fact that it does not interact with electromagnetic radiation, such
as light. It is thus invisible (or 'dark') to the entire electromagnetic spectrum, making it extremely
difficult to detect. It interacts with the rest of the universe only through gravity (that’s how we know it
exists).

Our Galaxy (The Milky Way)

• The Milky Way galaxy hosts our solar system.
• It is shaped like a flat disc with a central bulge. Its diameter is between 1,50,000 and 2,00,000 light-
years. In the nucleus, the thickness reaches 10,000 light years, whereas in the disc it is 500-2,000 light-
years thick.
 A light year is a measure of distance and not of time. Light travels at a speed of 300,000 km/second. Con-
sidering this, the distances the light will travel in one year is taken to be one light year. The mean distance
between the sun and the earth is 149,598,000 km. In terms of light years, it is 8.311 minutes.
• The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100-400 billion stars. The inner stars travel faster than those
further out. A supermassive black hole called Sagittarius A* is at the centre. The Solar System is
located in the Orion Arm, 26,000 light years from the centre (about one-third from the centre) of the
Milky Way.
• Stars like Sun are rare in the Milky Way galaxy, whereas substantially dimmer and cooler stars,
known as red dwarfs, are common.
• The Sun completes one lap of the galaxy about every 220 million years. It revolves around the centre
of the Milky Way with a speed of 285 km per second.
• Andromeda is the closest big galaxy to the Milky Way — being 2 million light years away.

9
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
2.2. Star Formation (Stellar Evolution or Life Cycle of a Star)

• Outlined below are the steps involved in a star’s evolution, from its formation in a nebula, to its death as
a white dwarf or a neutron star.
1. Nebula: A cloud of gas (mostly hydrogen and helium) and dust in space. Nebulae are the birthplaces
of stars.
2. Protostar: An early stage of a star formation where nuclear fusion is yet to begin.
3. T Tauri Star: A young star still undergoing gravitational contraction; it represents an intermediate
stage between a Protostar & a low-mass main sequence star.
4. Main Sequence Star: E.g., Sun – full of life (nuclear fusion at the core is in full swing).
5. Red Giant (in case of a small star) and Red Supergiant (in case of a large star).
6. Planetary Nebula (in case of a small star) and Supernova (in case of a large star).
7. White dwarf (in case of a small star) and Neutron Star or Black Hole (in case of a large star).

Protostar
• A Protostar looks like a star, but its core is not yet hot enough for nuclear fusion. The luminosity
comes exclusively from the heating of the Protostar as it contracts (because of gravity). Protostars are
usually surrounded by dust, which blocks the light that they emit, so they are difficult to observe in
the visible spectrum.
 Nuclear fusion: the fusion of 2 hydrogen atoms into a helium atom with the liberation of a huge
amount of energy. It occurs only when the initial temperatures are very high — a few million degrees
Celsius. That is why nuclear fusion is hard to achieve and control).

Main Sequence Stars

• Main sequence stars fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium in their cores. Most of the stars in the uni-
verse, about 90 per cent of them including the Sun, are main sequence stars.
• Towards the end of its life, stars like the sun swells up into a red giant, before losing their outer lay-
ers as a planetary nebula and finally shrinking to become a white dwarf.

Red Dwarf 10
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
• The faintest (less than 1/1000th the brightness of the Sun) main sequence stars are called the red dwarfs.
• Because of their low luminosity, they are not visible to the naked eye. They are quite small compared to
the sun & have a surface temperature of about 4000 °C.
• According to some estimates, red dwarfs make up three-quarters of the stars in the Milky Way.
• Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun, is a red dwarf.

Red Giant
• Red giants have diameters between 10 and 100 times that of the Sun. They are very bright, although
their surface temperature is lower than the Sun’s.
• A red giant is formed during the later stages of the evolution as it runs out of hydrogen fuel at its
centre. It still fuses hydrogen into helium in a shell surrounding a hot, dense degenerate helium core.
• As the layer surrounding the core contains a bigger volume the fusion of hydrogen to helium around
the core releases far more energy and pushes much harder against gravity and expands the vol-
ume of the star.

• Red giants are hot enough to turn the helium at their core into heavy elements like carbon (this is
how elements were formed one after the other). But most stars are not massive enough to create the
pressures and heat necessary to burn heavy elements, so fusion and heat production stops.

Degenerate Matter
• Fusion in a star's core produces heat and outward pressure, but this pressure is kept in balance by the in-
ward push of gravity generated by a star's mass (gravity is a product of mass). When the hydrogen used as
fuel vanishes, and fusion slows, gravity causes the star to collapse. This creates a degenerate star.
• Great densities (like in a degenerate star) are only possible when electrons are displaced from their
regular shells and pushed closer to the nucleus, allowing atoms to take up less space. The matter in this
state is called degenerate matter.

11
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
Red Supergiant
• As the red giant star condenses, it heats up even further, burning the last of its hydrogen and causing
the star's outer layers to expand outward. At this stage, the star becomes a large red giant. An
enormous red giant is often called Red Supergiant.

Planetary Nebula
• Planetary nebula is an outer layer of gas and dust (no planets involved!) that are lost when the star
changes from a red giant to a white dwarf.
• At the end of its lifetime, the sun will swell up into a red giant, expanding beyond the orbit of Venus.
As it burns through its fuel, it will eventually collapse under gravity. The outer layers will be ejected in a
shell of gas (planetary nebula) that will last a few tens of thousands of years before spreading into the
vastness of space.

White Dwarf
• A white dwarf is a very small, hot star, whose nuclear energy supplies have been used up. It consists
of degenerate matter with a very high density due to gravitational effects, i.e., one spoonful has a
mass of several tonnes. It is the last stage in the life cycle of a star like the Sun.

Nova
• Novae occur on the surface of a white dwarf in a binary system. If the two stars of the system are suffi-
ciently near to one another, material (hydrogen) can be pulled from the companion star's surface onto
the white dwarf. When enough material builds up on the surface of the white dwarf, it triggers a nuclear
fusion (on the white dwarf) which causes a sudden brightening of the star.

12
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

Black dwarf
• The last stage of stellar evolution is a black dwarf. A black dwarf is a white dwarf that has suffi-
ciently cooled and no longer emits significant heat or light. Because the time required for a white
dwarf to reach this state is calculated to be longer than the current age of the universe (13.8 billion
years), no black dwarfs are expected to exist in the universe yet.
Similar Term: Brown Dwarfs
• Brown dwarfs are objects which are too large to be called planets & too small to be stars. They are
thought to form in the same way that stars do – from a collapsing cloud of gas & dust. However, as the
cloud collapses, the core is not dense enough to trigger nuclear fusion.

Supernova
• A supernova is the explosive death of a star and often results in the star obtaining the brightness of
100 million suns for a short time. A great proportion of primary cosmic rays comes from supernovae.
• The extremely bright burst of radiation expels much of the star's material at a great velocity, driving a
shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium. These shock waves trigger condensation in a
nebula paving the way for the birth of a new star ― if a star must be born, a star has to die!
• Supernovae can be triggered in one of two ways:
1. Type I supernova or Type Ia supernova (read as one-a) and
2. Type II supernova.

13
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
Type I supernova or Type Ia supernova (read as one-a)
• Type I supernova occurs when there is a sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion on the surface of a
degenerate white dwarf in a binary system. A degenerate white dwarf may accumulate sufficient ma-
terial from a companion star to raise its core temperature, ignite carbon fusion, and trigger runaway
nuclear fusion, completely disrupting the star.

The Importance of Type Ia Supernovae

• All Type Ia supernovae are thought to have nearly the same maximum brightness when they explode.
Such consistency allows them to be used as beacons to measure the rate of expansion of the uni-
verse. The weaker the light, the farther away the star is (cosmological redshift).

The Difference Between Nova and Type I Supernova

Nova Type I supernova
In a nova, the system can shine up to a million times A supernova is a violent stellar explosion that
brighter than normal. can shine as brightly as an entire galaxy of billions
of normal stars.
As long as it continues to take gas from its compan- If enough gas piles up on the surface of the white
ion star, the white dwarf can produce nova out- dwarf, a runaway thermonuclear explosion
bursts at regular intervals. blasts the star to bits.

Type II supernova
• Type II supernova is a supernova that occurs by the gravitational collapse of the core of a massive
star (mostly made of iron). E.g., Supernova of a red supergiant.

Importance of Supernova: Creating and Dispersing New Elements

• When a star’s core runs out of hydrogen, the star begins to die out. The dying star expands into a red gi-
ant, and this now begins to manufacture carbon by fusing helium atoms.
• More massive stars begin a further series of nuclear burning. The elements formed in these stages range

14
from oxygen to iron.
• During a supernova, the star releases huge amounts of energy as well as neutrons, which allows elements PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

heavier than iron, such as uranium and gold, to be produced.

• In the supernova explosion, all these elements are expelled into space, and new stars are born out of this
matter (recycling of matter in the universe!).

Neutron stars
• Neutron stars are composed mainly of neutrons and are produced after a supernova, forcing the
protons and electrons to combine to produce a neutron star.
• A neutron star is very dense (a mass of three times the Sun can be fit in a sphere of just 20km in di-
ameter). If its mass is any greater, its gravity will be so strong that it will shrink further to become a
black hole.
 Chandrasekhar Limit: It is the maximum mass at which a star near the end of its life cycle can be-
come a white dwarf and above which the star will collapse to form a neutron star or black hole.

Black holes
• Black holes are believed to form from massive stars at the end of their lifetimes. The density of matter
in a black hole cannot be measured (infinite!). The gravitational pull is so great that nothing can es-
cape from it, not even light.
• Black holes distort the space around them and can suck neighbouring matter into them including

15
stars.

2.3. Constellations
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

• The stars forming a group that has a recognisable shape is called a constellation.
• A few famous constellations are Great Bear (the Big Dipper or Saptarshi or Ursa Major), Orion
(hunter), Cassiopeia & Leo Major.
• Ursa Major moves around the Pole Star. In fact, all the stars appear to revolve around the Pole Star.
• The northern constellations like Ursa Major may also not be visible from some points in the southern
hemisphere.
• Orion can be seen during winter in the late evenings. The star Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, is
located close to Orion.
• To locate Sirius, imagine a straight line passing through the three middle stars of Orion. Look along this
line towards the east. This line will lead you to Sirius.
• Cassiopeia is another prominent constellation in the northern sky. It is visible during winter in the early
part of the night. It looks like a distorted letter W/M.

Pole Star

16
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

• A pole star is a star or a star system situated in the direction of the earth’s axis. At present, Polaris or
 North Star (a system of 3 stars) is the earth’s pole star. It is visible only from the northern hemisphere,
and when looked at from earth, it does not appear to move.

[UPSC 2001] If the stars are seen to rise perpendicular to the horizon by an observer,
he is located on the:
a) Equator
b) Tropic of Cancer
c) South Pole
d) North Pole

Explanation:
• The celestial equator is an abstract projection of the terrestrial equator into outer space. All the stars
seem to revolve around the earth in a path that is parallel to the celestial equator (or perpendicular to
the horizon).

2.4. The Sun

• Age: 4.6 billion years; Diameter: 1.39 million km

• Temperature: 6000 °C on the surface and 16 million °C in the core
• Density: 1.41 times that of water (density of water = 999.97 kg/m³; earth’s overall density is 5.5 times
that of water)
• The surface gravity of the Sun is 274 m/s2 (28 times the gravity of the Earth). Comparatively, the sur-
face gravity of the earth and moon are 9.8 m/s2 and 1.62 m/s2 respectively.
• Speed of rotation: 7179.73 km/hrs. Comparatively, earth’s rotational velocity is 1675Km/hrs.
• Period of rotation: 25 days 9 hrs.
• Rotation: counter clockwise (when viewed from a long way above Earth's north pole).
• Mass: equivalent to 3,32,900 Earth masses.
• Composition: 98% of the sun is hydrogen & helium.

17
• Most of the solar system's mass is in the Sun (~99.8%), with most of the remaining mass contained in
Jupiter and Saturn. Although the Sun dominates the system by mass, it accounts for only about 2% of
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
the angular momentum due to the differential rotation within the gaseous Sun.

The Sun’s Internal Structure and Atmosphere

• The solar interior, from the inside out, is made up of the core, radiative zone and convective zone. The
solar atmosphere above that consists of the photosphere, chromosphere, and the corona (solar wind
is an outflow of gas from the corona).

Photosphere
• The photosphere is an extremely uneven bright outer layer of the Sun that emits most of the radia-
tion. The effective temperature on the outer side of the photosphere is 6000°C.

Chromosphere
• Above the photosphere is the chromosphere. It is a thin layer of burning gases. It is a bit cooler —

18
4,320 ֯C.

Sunspot PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

• Sunspots are temporary phenomena on the photosphere of the Sun that appear visibly as dark spots
compared to surrounding regions. They appear as dark areas because they are about 500-1500 °C
cooler than the surrounding chromosphere. They correspond to concentrations of the magnetic field
that inhibit convection & result in reduced surface temperature compared to the surrounding photo-
sphere.
• Sunspot activity cycles about every eleven years. The point of highest sunspot activity during this cy-
cle is known as Solar Maximum, and the point of the lowest activity is Solar Minimum.
• The individual sunspot has a lifetime ranging from a few days to a few months. Each spot has a black
centre or umbra, and a lighter region or penumbra, surrounding it. It has been suggested that the Sun
is 1% cooler when it has no sunspot and that this variation in solar radiation might affect the cli-
mates of the Earth.

Solar Wind
• The solar wind is made of plasma (ionised atoms), a stream of energised, charged particles, primarily
electrons and protons, flowing outward from the Sun at speeds as high as 900 km/s and at a tempera-
ture of 1 million °C.

Plasma
• Plasma is one of the four fundamental states of matter, the others being solid, liquid, and gas. It is ionised
gas (atoms and molecules are converted into ions typically by removing one or more electrons from the
outer shell).
• Lightning and electric sparks are everyday examples of phenomena made from plasma.
• Neon lights could more accurately be called ‘plasma lights’ because the light comes from the plasma in-
side of them.

Aurora

19
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

• An aurora is a natural light display in the sky, predominantly seen in the high latitude (Arctic and Antarc-
tic) regions (due to magnetic field lines of earth and solar wind).
• Auroras are caused by charged particles, mainly electrons and protons, entering the atmosphere from
above causing ionisation and excitation of atmospheric constituents, and consequent optical emissions.

Solar Flares
• Solar are magnetic storms which appear to be very bright spots with a gaseous surface eruption. As
solar flares are pushed through the corona, they heat its gas to anywhere from 10 to 20 million °C.

Solar Prominence
• An arc of gas that erupts from the surface of the Sun is called solar prominence. Prominences can
loop hundreds of thousands of miles into space. They are held above the Sun's surface by strong mag-
netic fields and can last for many months.

Corona
• A corona is a distinctive atmosphere of plasma that surrounds the Sun and other celestial bodies. The
Sun's corona extends millions of kilometres into space and is most easily seen during a total solar
eclipse.

2.5. Planets

• A celestial body moving in an elliptical orbit around a star is known as a planet. The planets of our solar

20
system are divisible in two groups:
1. the planets of the inner circle (as they lie between the sun and the belt of asteroids) or the inner
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
planets or the ‘terrestrial planets’ (meaning earth-like as they are made up of rock and metals, and
have relatively high densities) and
2. the planets of the outer circle or outer planets or the ‘gas giant planets’ or the Jovian planets –
meaning Jupiter-like or more like the sun.
• The inner circle consists of four planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) having smaller and denser
bodies. The outer circle comprises four planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) having a larger
size and less dense materials and a thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and hydrogen.
• All eight planets in the Solar System orbit (revolve) the Sun in the direction of the Sun's rotation, which
is counter-clockwise when viewed from above the Sun's north pole.
• Six of the eight planets also rotate about their axis in this same direction (counter-clockwise). Venus
and Uranus have a strange retrograde rotation (clockwise), i.e., opposite of the sun’s rotation.
An Astronomical Unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the Sun, which is about 150 million
km.

[UPSC 1998] Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer by using the codes
given below the lists:
List-I List-II
(Special characteristic) (Planet)
A. Smallest planet 1. Earth
B. Largest planet in the solar system 2. Venus
C. Planet second from the sun in the solar system 3. Jupiter
D. Planet nearest to the Sun in the solar system 4. Mercury

Codes:
a) A-2; B-3; C-5; D-1
b) A-3; B-5; C-1; D-2
c) A-4; B-1; C-2; D-3
d) A-4; B-3; C-2; D-1

[UPSC 2002] Which one of the following statements is correct with reference to our
solar system?
a) The earth is the densest of all the planets in our solar system
b) The predominant element in the composition of earth is silicon
c) The sun contains 75 percent of the mass of the solar system
d) The diameter of the sun is 190 times that of the earth

21
[UPSC 2003] Among the following which planet takes maximum time for one revolu-
tion around the Sun? PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

a) Earth
b) Jupiter
c) Mars
d) Venus

[UPSC 2008] In order of their distances from the Sun, which of the following planets
lie between Mars and Uranus?
 a) Earth and Jupiter
b) Jupiter and Saturn
c) Saturn and Earth
d) Saturn and Neptune

[UPSC 2009] Which one of the following planets has largest number of natural satel-
lites or moons?
a) Jupiter
b) Mars
c) Saturn
d) Venus

Inner Planets
• The four inner or terrestrial planets are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates,
which form their crusts and mantles, and metals, such as iron and nickel, which form their cores.
• Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth, and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to gen-
erate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes.
The term inner planet should not be confused with the inferior planet, which designates those planets that
are closer to the Sun than Earth (i.e., Mercury & Venus).

Mercury
• Mercury's surface appears heavily cratered and is similar in appearance to the Moon's, indicating that it
has been geologically inactive for billions of years (because there is no atmosphere on Mercury).
• When viewed from Earth, the planet can only be seen near the western or eastern horizon during the
early evening or early morning. It may appear as a bright star-like object but is less bright than Venus.
• Having almost no atmosphere to retain heat, it has surface temperatures that vary diurnally more
than on any other planet in the Solar System (−173 °C at night to 427 °C during the day).
• Mercury is smaller than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede (largest moon of

22
Jupiter) & Titan (largest moon of Saturn). However, Mercury is massive (has more mass) than Gany-
mede & Titan. PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

• Images obtained by MESSENGER spacecraft in 2004 have revealed evidence for pyroclastic flows (vul-
canicity) and water ice at Mercury’s poles.

Venus
• Venus is the brightest planet in the solar system and is the third brightest object visible from the earth
after the sun and the moon. In ancient literature, Venus was often referred to as the morning & even-
ing star.
• It is the brightest among planets because it has the highest albedo due to the highly reflective sulfu-
ric acid that covers its atmosphere. It is sometimes visible to the naked eye in broad daylight.
• Venus is sometimes called Earth's sister planet or Earth's twin because of their similar size, mass, prox-
imity to the Sun, bulk composition and presence of similar physical features such as high plateaus, fold-
ed mountain belts, and numerous volcanoes, etc.
• It is radically different from Earth in other respects. The surface of Venus is totally obscured by a thick
atmosphere composed of about 96% carbon dioxide, covered with clouds of highly reflective sulfu-
ric acid.
• It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets. The atmospheric pressure at the
planet's surface is 92 times that of Earth, or roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth.
• Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System, even though Mercury is closer to the Sun. This is
because of the greenhouse effect arising from high concentrations of CO2 and a thick atmosphere.
• A day on Venus is equivalent to 243 earth days and lasts longer than its year (224 days). It rotates in
the opposite direction (clockwise) to most other planets.
[UPSC 2005] Assertion & Reasoning
 Assertion (A): Existence of human life on Venus is highly improbable.
 Reason (R): Venus has extremely high level of carbon dioxide in its atmosphere.
a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false
d) A is false but R is true

Moon
• The diameter of the moon is only one-quarter that of the earth and it is about 3,84,400 km away.
• The moon is tidally locked (the object's orbital period matches its rotational period) to the earth,
meaning that the moon revolves around the earth in about 27 days which is the same time it takes to
complete one spin. As a result of tidal locking, only one side of the moon is visible to us on the

23
earth.
• The moon is a significant stabiliser of Earth's orbital axis. Without it, Earth's tilt could vary as much as PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
85° (at present the Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted at an angle of 23.5° relative to the orbital plane).

Formation of the Moon

• It is now generally believed that the formation of the moon, as a satellite of the earth, is an outcome of
a ‘giant impact’ or what is described as ‘the big splat’.
• A body of the size of one to three times that of mars collided with the earth sometime shortly after the
earth was formed. It blasted a large part of the earth into space. This portion of blasted material then
 continued to orbit the earth and eventually formed into the present moon about 4.44 billion years
ago.
• Scientists estimate that a day in the life of early Earth was only about 6 hours long and the Moon
formed much closer to Earth than it is today.

Effects on Earth
• As Earth rotates, the Moon's gravity causes the oceans to seem to rise and fall. There is a little bit of fric-
tion between the tides & the turning Earth, causing the earth’s rotation to slow down just a little (1.4
milliseconds in 100 years). As Earth slows, it lets the Moon move away by a little (four cm per year).

Colonizing the Moon

• Exploration of the lunar surface by spacecraft began in 1959 with the Soviet Union's Luna program.
• Luna 2 made a hard landing (impact) on its surface and became the first artificial object on the moon.
• Crewed exploration of the lunar surface began in 1968 when the Apollo 8 spacecraft orbited the Moon.
• Neil Armstrong was the first, and Buzz Aldrin was the second to step on the surface of the moon on 29

24
July 1969 (Apollo 11 mission). To date, only Twelve astronauts walked on the Moon's surface.
• Discovery of lunar water at the lunar poles by Chandrayaan-1 in 2009 has renewed interest in the PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

Moon. The Chandrayaan probe discovered that the lunar soil contains 0.1% water by weight.

Advantages of Colonising the Moon

• A lunar base could be a site for launching rockets with locally manufactured fuel to distant planets.

There are Several Disadvantages to the Moon as a Colony Site

• The long lunar nights (350+ hours) would impede reliance on solar power. However, the lunar poles avoid
the problem of long lunar nights.
• The Moon is highly depleted in carbon and volatile elements, such as nitrogen and hydrogen.
• The low gravity on the Moon will have adverse effects on human health in the long term.
• The lack of a substantial atmosphere results in temperature extremes, harmful radiation reaching the
surface and increased chances of the colony's being hit by meteors.
• Growing crops on the Moon is difficult due to the long lunar night, extreme variation in surface tem-
perature, exposure to solar flares, nitrogen-poor soil, and lack of insects for pollination.

Mars
• Mars is often referred to as the "Red Planet" because of the reddish iron oxide prevalent on its surface.
It can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye.
• Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, possibly because of numerous asteroid strikes, so the
solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, lowering the atmospheric density.
• The atmosphere of Mars consists of about 96% carbon dioxide, 1.93% argon and 1.89% nitrogen
along with traces of oxygen, methane, and water.
• Methane can exist in the Martian atmosphere for only a limited period before it is destroyed by the
solar wind. Its presence despite its short lifetime indicates that an active gas source must be present.
Geological means such as serpentinization (reactions in rocks), volcanic activity, cometary impacts,
and the presence of methanogenic microbial life forms are among possible sources.
• Of all the planets in the Solar System, the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like, due to the similar
tilts of the two planets' rotational axes.
• The lack of a magnetosphere and the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars is a challenge: the planet has
little heat transfer across its surface and poor insulation against the bombardment of the solar wind.
• Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that the atmosphere was once thick and dense and liquid
water existed on the planet's surface. However, now, liquid water can no longer exist on the surface of
Mars due to low atmospheric pressure (less than 1% of the Earth's). Whatever water is left is locked
in the two polar ice caps.
• Mars has surface features like impact craters, valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps. It is the site of Olym-

25
pus Mons (shield volcano), the largest volcano and the highest known mountain (24 km) in the So-
lar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System. PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
• Mars is nearly geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has stopped the recycling of chemicals and
minerals between the surface and interior of the planet.
• Mars has two irregularly shaped moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are thought to be captured aster-
oids.

Mars Compared to Earth

• 53% of the diameter of Earth
• 10% of the mass of Earth
• Surface gravity on Mars is only 38% of Earth’s gravity.
• A day on Mars lasts 1.03 Earth days.
• Axial tilt on Mars is 25.19° (close to Earth’s 23.5° tilt).
• A year on Mars lasts about twice as long as an Earth year; the seasons are twice as long.
• The atmosphere of Mars (95% carbon dioxide) is less than 1% the thickness of Earth’s atmosphere.

[UPSC 1997] Which one of the following conditions is most relevant for the presence
of life on Mars?
a) Atmospheric composition
b) Thermal conditions
c) Occurrence of ice caps and frozen water
d) Occurrence of ozone
• Hint: on earth, prokaryotes (their cells lack a nucleus) were the earliest life forms. They fed on carbon
compounds that were accumulating in Earth's early oceans.

[UPSC 2006] Assertion & Reasoning

 Assertion (A): To orbit around the Sun the planet Mars takes lesser time than the time taken by
the earth.
 Reason (R): The diameter of the planet Mars is less than that of earth.
a) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are individually true and ‘R’ is the correct explanation of ‘A’.
b) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are individually true but ‘R’ is not the correct explanation of ‘A’.
c) ‘A’ is true but ‘R’ is false.
d) ‘A’ is false but ‘R’ is true.

Outer Planets
• Outer Planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the dwarf planet – Pluto. The four outer plan-
ets, called the gas giants, collectively make up 99% of the mass known to orbit the Sun. They are com-
posed mainly of hydrogen & helium & lack a solid surface. Their moons are, however, solid.

26
• The two outermost planets, Uranus, and Neptune are composed of substances called ices, such as wa-
ter, ammonia and methane, and are often referred to separately as ice giants. PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

• All four gas giants have rings, although only Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth. The
gas giants have a magnetosphere, numerous moons, and significant atmospheric activity.
• Neptune has the strongest wind speed (2,100 km/h) followed by Saturn (1,800 km/h).

Why are the Inner Planets Rocky while the Outer Planets are mostly Gaseous?
• The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the parent star where it was too warm for
gases on the surface to condense to solid particles.
• The solar wind was most intense nearer the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust from the surface of the
terrestrial planets. The terrestrial planets are smaller, and their lower gravity could not hold the escaping
gases. The solar winds were not all that intense to cause similar removal of gases from the Jovian planets.

Jupiter
• It is composed mostly of gas & liquid swirling in complex patterns with no solid surface. Because of its
rapid rotation (once every 10 hours), the planet's shape resembles an oblate spheroid (slight bulge at
the equator).
• Jupiter’s four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) are called the Galilean satellites be-
cause Galileo discovered them. Ganymede is the largest natural satellite (5,268 km in diameter) in this
solar system. It is larger than Mercury, and three times larger than the earth’s Moon (3,474 km in
diameter, the fifth largest moon). The latest probe to visit Jupiter is Juno.

Saturn
• Saturn’s density is even lesser than water. Its rings are probably made up of billions of ice particles
and ice-covered rocks.
• Titan is the second-largest moon in the Solar System, and it is the only satellite in the Solar System
with a substantial atmosphere (nitrogen-rich).

Uranus
• In contrast to all other planets, it is tipped and spins on its sides. Its axis of rotation lies in nearly the
plane of its orbit (the poles of Uranus lie in a plane where equators of other planets lie).

Neptune
• Uranus and Neptune (the ice giants) are called the twins of the outer solar system. They are surrounded
by a thick atmosphere of hydrogen and helium and contain a higher proportion of "ices" such as water,
ammonia, and methane ice giants" to emphasise this distinction.

27
2.6. Other Solar System Objects

Asteroid Belt PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

• Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational
interference of Jupiter. They circle the Sun in a zone lying between Mars and Jupiter. The circular chain
of asteroids is called the asteroid belt. It lies between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun.
• Asteroids (planetoids ― another term for an asteroid) are composed mainly of refractory rocky and
metallic minerals, with some ice. They range in size from hundreds of kilometres across to microscopic.

Ceres
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy 28
• Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid (946 km in diameter), a protoplanet, and a dwarf planet. It has
a mass large enough for its own gravity to pull it into a spherical shape. All asteroids, except Ceres,
are classified as small Solar System bodies.

[UPSC 1997] The group of small pieces of rock revolving round the sun between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter are called:
a) Meteors
b) comets
c) meteorites
d) asteroids

[UPSC 1998] Consider the following statements regarding asteroids:

1. Asteroids are rocky debris of varying size orbiting the sun
2. Most of the asteroids are small, but some have diameters as large and 1000 km
3. The orbit of asteroids lies between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn

Of these statements:
a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
b) 2 and 3 are correct
c) 1 and 2 are correct
d) 1 and 3 are correct

Explanation
• Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid with a diameter of 946 km. Vesta (525 km) is the second larg-
est. So, only statement (1) is correct. Since this question was asked in 1998, the answer was (c) 1 and 2
only.

Kuiper Belt, Pluto, and Charon

• The Kuiper belt is a great ring of debris like the asteroid belt but consists mainly of objects composed

29
primarily of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun.
• Pluto (39 AU) is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt. Charon is Pluto's largest moon. When PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
discovered in 1930, Pluto was considered to be the ninth planet; this changed in 2006 with the adoption
of a formal definition of a planet.
• International Astronomical Union’s definition of a planet: a Planet is an object that:
1. orbits the sun;
2. has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium ― a nearly round shape;
3. is not a satellite (moon) of another object, and
4. has removed debris and small objects from the area around its orbit
• IAU’s definition of Dwarf planet: Dwarf planet is an object that meets planetary criteria except that it
has not cleared debris from its orbital neighbourhood.
• Pluto is a part of the Kuiper belt that contains millions of rocky and icy objects. Also, there are numer-
ous other objects in the Kuiper belt which are of similar size to Pluto. E.g., Eris (diameter: 2,326 km).
• So, if Pluto is considered a plant, then many other objects like Eris will also have to be considered plan-
ets. Hence, Pluto (diameter: 2,377 km) (Kuiper belt) was voted by IAU as a dwarf planet just like Ceres
(asteroid belt) and Eris (diameter: 2,326 km) (Kuiper belt).

Comets
• Comets are icy frozen gases (water, ammonia, methane and carbon dioxide) which hold together small
pieces of rocky and metallic minerals. They have highly elliptical orbits, unlike the planets which have
near-circular orbits.

• Short-period comets, with an orbital period of a few hundred years, originate in the Kuiper belt.

30
Longer period comets, with orbits of thousands of years, come from the more distant Oort Cloud.
 Oort cloud is a giant shell of icy bodies that encircle the solar system occupying space at a distance be-
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
tween 5,000 and 100,000 AU.
• When passing close to the Sun, comets heat up due to the effects of the solar wind upon the nucleus
and begins to outgas, displaying a visible atmosphere or coma, and sometimes also a tail.
• One of the larger comets is Halley's Comet. The orbit of Halley's Comet brings it close to the Earth eve-
ry 76 years. It last visited in 1986.

[UPSC 2011] What is difference between asteroids and comets?

1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by
 rocky and metallic material.
2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly
between Venus and Mercury.
3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

a) 1 and 2 only
b) 1 and 3 only
c) 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3

Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite

• A meteoroid is any solid debris originating from asteroids, comets or other celestial objects and

31
floats through interplanetary space.
• A meteor, popularly termed a shooting star or falling star, is the streak of light that appears in the sky
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
when a meteoroid enters the atmosphere (mesosphere) at about 200 km at high speed and burns up
because of the friction.
• In some cases, the meteoroid does not burn up completely and makes its way to the Earth’s surface.
The surviving chunk is called a meteorite.
• The circular depression created on the earth’s surface after the meteorite’s impact is called a meteorite
crater. Meteorite impacts are common on all planets and moons in the solar system.
• The most conspicuous meteorite craters can be found on the surfaces of the Moon and Mercury (be-
cause they are geologically inactive due to negligible atmosphere).
• Largest Meteor Crater: A meteor crater in Arizona (USA) is 1,300 m deep and is the largest meteor
crater in the world. It was formed over 10,000 years ago.

Chicxulub Crater

• Chicxulub crater (Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula) was caused by a meteor impact that is believed to
have wiped out the dinosaurs (mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous 65 million years ago).

Meteorite Craters in India

 Lonar Lake (a Ramsar Site) (1.8 km in diameter) in Buldhana District of Maharashtra
 Dhala crater (14 km in diameter) in Shivpuri district, Madhya Pradesh and
 Ramgarh crater (3.5 km in diameter) is a potential meteorite crater in the Kota plateau in Rajasthan.

[UPSC 1995] A meteor is:

a) a rapidly moving star
b) a piece of mater which has entered the earth's atmosphere from outer space
c) part of a constellation
d) a comet without a tail

2.7. What’s the Closest Star to the Sun? 32

PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

• Proxima Centauri (4.2 light-years away), a red dwarf, is the closest star to the sun. It is a part of Alpha
Centauri (4.37 lya), a system of three stars — Alpha Centauri A, Alpha Centauri B & Proxima Centauri.
• Proxima Centauri has been the nearest star for about 32,000 years, and it will hold this record for an-
other 33,000 years. After 33,000 years from now, the nearest star will be Ross 248.
• Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B are a binary pair, orbiting a common centre of gravity. Alpha
Centauri A is just a little more massive and brighter than the Sun, and Alpha Centauri B is slightly less
massive than the Sun.
• Alpha Centauri is only visible in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, the closest
visible star is Barnard’s Star (second closest), a red dwarf which is too dim just like Proxima Centauri
to see with the unaided eye.
• The closest star that one can see with the naked eye in the Northern Hemisphere is Sirius (Dog Star).
Sirius is the second brightest star when viewed from the earth, the brightest being the sun.

[UPSC 1997] Which one of the following stars is nearest to the Earth?
a) Polaris
b) Alpha Centauri
c) Sun
d) Sirius

How do Astronomers Measure the Distance to Stars?

• Astronomers use a technique called parallax. They measure the angle to a star when the Earth is on
one side of its orbit. Then wait for six months until the Earth has moved to the opposite side of its orbit,
and then measure the angle to the star compared to some distant reference object.

Parallax Method

2.8. Heliopause — The Boundary?

• What defines the boundary of the solar system? Sun's light? The influence of the Sun's gravity? Or the
influence of the Sun's magnetic field & the solar wind? There is no definite boundary where the light or

33
gravity stops or where they suddenly get weaker. The solar wind is however different from light or gravi-
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
ty. As it streams away from the Sun, it races out against the interstellar medium ― space between the
stars permeated by hydrogen and helium gas).
• Even though the interstellar medium has a low density, it still has a pressure (similar to air pressure).
The solar wind also has pressure. It blows against the interstellar medium and creates a bubble-like re-
gion. This bubble that surrounds the solar system is called the heliosphere (not a sphere in the true
sense).
• Since the Sun is moving relative to the interstellar medium around it, the heliosphere forms a wave or
shock in the interstellar medium like a boat in the ocean. This is called the bow shock or wave.
• The region where the solar wind begins to interact with the interstellar medium and begins to slow
down is called the heliosheath.
• The heliosheath has a few parts: the termination shock (the innermost part of the boundary), the heli-
opause (the outermost part of the boundary) and the part in between the inner and outer boundary.
• The termination shock is the boundary where the solar wind particles slow down so that the particles
are travelling slower than the speed of sound.
• At the heliopause ― the boundary of the heliosphere, the pressure from the interstellar medium is
strong enough to slow down and eventually stop the flow of solar wind.
• Voyager 1 crossed the termination shock at 94 astronomical units (AU) and Voyager 2 crossed at 84 AU.

34
2.9. Distant Artificial Objects Exploring the Solar System PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

• Here are the major artificial objects that have achieved escape velocity that will allow them to leave the
Solar System. Voyagers continue communicating with the Deep Space Network to receive routine
commands & return data.
 The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) is a worldwide network of U.S. spacecraft communication facilities,
located in the California, Madrid, and Canberra, that supports NASA's interplanetary spacecraft mis-
sions.
Space Launch Significant event Objective Current Distance
probe year status from the
Sun in AU
Pioneer 10 1972 Flew past Saturn in Study the asteroid belt, Contact lost ~ 120 AU
1979 the environment around in 2003
Pioneer 11 1973 Flew past Saturn in Jupiter and Saturn, solar Contact lost ~ 90 AU
1979 wind and cosmic rays. in 1995
Voyager 2 Aug 1977 Passed the heliopause Explore all Jovian plan- Active ~ 138 AU
in December 2018 to ets. (as of Jan
enter interstellar space Extended mission of 2025)
(second artificial object both the Voyagers is to
to leave the solar sys- study the outer reaches
tem). of the Solar System.

35
Voyager 1 Sep 1977 Passed the heliopause Explore Jupiter, Saturn, Active ~ 166 AU
in 2012 to enter inter- and Saturn's largest (as of Jan PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy

stellar space (first arti- moon, Titan. 2025)

ficial object to leave
the solar system).
New Hori- 2006 Flew past Pluto in 2015. To perform a study of Active ~ 60 AU
zons It is currently travelling Pluto, and more oth- (as of Jan
through Kuiper belt. er Kuiper belt objects. 2025)
Juno 2011 Entered a polar orbit of Study Jupiter's composi- Active —
Jupiter in 2016 tion, gravitational field,
magnetic field, etc.

---------- End of Chapter ----------

36
PMF IAS – Science – Astronomy
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