Science

Standard
5–7
Notes

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Compiled by:

Kevin Thabo Chabaesele

18/04/2025

These notes are made to address the shortage of materials needed to meet the needs of
standard 5, 6 and 7 students across the country.

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 Contents
Standard 5 ..........................................................................................................................................................................................11
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE ........................................................................................................................................................12
THE ENVIRONMENT ...................................................................................................................................................................15
PLANTS ............................................................................................................................................................................................18
ANIMALS .........................................................................................................................................................................................22
AIR .....................................................................................................................................................................................................24
WATER .............................................................................................................................................................................................27
WEATHER .......................................................................................................................................................................................29
THE SOLAR SYSTEM .....................................................................................................................................................................32
MATTER ...........................................................................................................................................................................................35
ENERGY ...........................................................................................................................................................................................38
HEAT .................................................................................................................................................................................................43
LIGHT ...............................................................................................................................................................................................46
SOUND .............................................................................................................................................................................................49
FORCE ...............................................................................................................................................................................................51
ELECTRICITY .................................................................................................................................................................................54
MAGNETISM ..................................................................................................................................................................................58
FOOD AND NUTRITION ..............................................................................................................................................................61
DISEASES ........................................................................................................................................................................................63
SAFETY .............................................................................................................................................................................................65
HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................................................................68
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................................................................................72
Standard 6 ..........................................................................................................................................................................................75
SCIENCE AND SCIENTISTS ........................................................................................................................................................76
THE ENVIRONMENT ...................................................................................................................................................................82
NATURE CONSERVATION..........................................................................................................................................................86
POLLUTION ....................................................................................................................................................................................89
SUBSTANCES DISSOLVING IN WATER .................................................................................................................................94
HARD AND SOFT WATER ...........................................................................................................................................................95
WEATHER AND CLIMATE .........................................................................................................................................................97
THE SUN, THE MOON AND THE EARTH ...............................................................................................................................99
CHANGING THE STATES OF MATTER ................................................................................................................................. 101
ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES ..................................................................................................................... 104
ENERGY SOURCES AND CONVERSION .............................................................................................................................. 108
HEAT TRANSFER ....................................................................................................................................................................... 111
LIGHT ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 113
SOUND .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 116
ACIDS AND ALKALIS ............................................................................................................................................................... 117
THE FORCE OF FRICTION ....................................................................................................................................................... 120
LEVERS ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 123
STATIC ELECTRICITY AND LIGHTNING ............................................................................................................................ 125

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CURRENT ELECTRICITY.......................................................................................................................................................... 128
MAGNETS AND ELECTROMAGNETISM ............................................................................................................................. 132
DISEASES ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 137
ROAD SAFETY IN BOTSWANA ............................................................................................................................................... 140
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................................................ 141
SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH ..................................................................................................................................... 144
PROPER CHILDCARE ................................................................................................................................................................ 147
FAMILY PLANNING AND TEENAGE PREGNANCY ........................................................................................................ 149
Standard 7 ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 151
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE ..................................................................................................................................................... 152
TECHNOLOGY IN SCIENCE ..................................................................................................................................................... 154
THE ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................................................................................ 158
PLANTS ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 162
ADAPTATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS ......................................................................................................................... 167
WATER .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 170
THE SOLAR SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................................. 174
HEAT LOSS ................................................................................................................................................................................... 177
RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY .................................................................................................................................. 179
HEAT TRANSFER ....................................................................................................................................................................... 181
LIGHT AND THE EYE ............................................................................................................................................................... 186
THE EAR AND HEARING ........................................................................................................................................................ 191
CHEMICAL REACTIONS ........................................................................................................................................................... 193
SIMPLE MACHINES .................................................................................................................................................................. 195
LIGHTNING PROTECTION....................................................................................................................................................... 197
HANDLING MAIN ELECTRICITY.......................................................................................................................................... 200
MAGNETS AND ELECTROMAGNETISM ............................................................................................................................. 204
FOOD AND NUTRITION ........................................................................................................................................................... 206
ALCOHOL AND DRUGS ABUSE ............................................................................................................................................. 209
THE SKELETAL AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS ........................................................................................................................ 212
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES ................................................................................................................................ 217
HIV AND AIDS ............................................................................................................................................................................ 220

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 STANDARD 5
MODULE 1: SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
TOPIC OBJECTIVES
1.1 The nature of 1.1.1.1 Demonstrate the following scientific processes: observing, communicating, comparing,
Science organising, relating, inferring, predicting, analysing and applying
1.1.1.2 Demonstrate how science is an ongoing process of gathering and evaluating information.
1.1.2.1 Identify a human or environmental problem.
1.1.2.2 Propose a solution to address the problem
1.1.2.3 Design a solution or product to address the problem taking into account the human and
environmental factors.
MODULE 2: NATURE AND THE UNIVERSE
2.1 The 2.1.1.1 Describe the interaction among living and non-living components in a given environment.
Environment 2.1.1.2 Explain how the ability of an environment to provide food, water, space and essential nutrients
affect its carrying capacity.
2.2 Plants 2.2.1.1 Investigate conditions necessary for photosynthesis.
2.2.1.2 Explain the importance of photosynthesis to plants and animals.
2.3 Animals 2.3.1.1 State the characteristics of a vertebrate.
2.3.1.2 State the characteristics of invertebrates.
2.3.1.3 Identify classes of vertebrates.
2.3.1.4 Classify animals as vertebrates and invertebrates.
2.4 Air 2.4.2.1 Demonstrate that a mixture of air and water causes rusting.
2.4.2.2 Demonstrate ways of preventing rusting
2.5 Water 2.5.1.1 Discuss the distribution of water on the earth surface, underground and in the atmosphere.
2.5.1.2 Explain the water cycle.
2.5.1.3 Discuss ways of collecting rainwater.
2.5.1.4 Suggest ways of conserving water.
2.5.1.5 Discuss the social and economic effects of limited water on the lives of people.
2.6 Weather 2.6.1.1 Construct a simple weather station.
2.6.1.2 Measure weather conditions.
2.6.1.3 Interpret changes in weather conditions
2.6.1.4 Interpret symbols used on a weather chart.
2.6.1.5 Record weather conditions using conventional symbols.
2.7 The Solar System 2.7.1.1 Define “universe”.
2.7.1.2 Describe common bodies in the solar system.
2.7.1.3 Identify the sun as the nearest star to the earth.
2.7.1.4 Explain why the earth is the only planet capable of supporting life.
MODULE 3: MATTER AND ENERGY
3.1 Matter 3.1.1.1 Describe the three states of matter in terms of volume and shape.
3.1.2.1 Classify solids as metals or non-metals.
3.1.2.2 Compare the common physical properties of metals and non-metals.
3.1.2.3 Relate the physical properties of common metals to their uses.
3.1.2.4 Relate the physical properties of non-metals to their uses.
3.1.3.1 List common household chemicals.
3.1.3.2 Classify household chemicals into solids, liquids or gases.
3.1.3.3 State the uses of given household chemicals.
3.2 Energy 3.2.1.1 Define energy.
3.2.1.2 List the different forms of energy.
3.2.1.3 Identify various types of energy sources.
3.2.1.4 Classify energy resources as renewable and non-renewable.
3.2.1.5 Describe how organisms obtain their energy.

3.2.2.1 Identify different sources of heat.

3.2.2.2 State the different uses of heat.
3.2.2.3 Demonstrate the effects of heat on the temperature and volume of a substance
(expansion/contraction).
3.2.3.1 Identify sources of light
3.2.3.2 Classify sources of light into natural and artificial.
3.2.3.3 Distinguish between luminous and non-luminous objects.
3.2.3.4 Demonstrate how light is reflected from different surfaces.

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 3.2.4.1 Identify different sources of sound.
3.2.4.2 Demonstrate that sound is a result of vibrations.
3.2.4.3 Explain why a material medium is required for sound to travel.
3.2.4.4 Construct a simple musical instrument.
3.2.4.5 Demonstrate how to change the pitch and loudness of sound produced by a vibrating object.
MODULE 4: FORCE AND MOTION
4.1 Force 4.1.1.1 Describe force as a pull or a push.
4.1.1.2 Identify different kinds of forces.
4.1.1.3 Use a spring balance/force meter to measure force on a variety of objects
4.1.1.4 Describe the effects of force on an object.
MODULE 5: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
5.1 Static Electricity 5.1.1.1 Describe static electricity.
5.1.1.2 Demonstrate how to produce static electricity.
5.2 Current Electricity 5.2.1.1 Separate materials into electric conductors and insulators.
5.2.1.2 Describe current electricity.
5.2.1.3 Construct simple series circuits comprising of a battery/power supply and a switch to make
electrical devices work.
5.2.1.4 Demonstrate that electricity only flows in a complete (closed) circuit.
5.2.1.5 Demonstrate the effect of changing the number of cells in a series circuit on the brightness of
the bulb(s).
5.2.1.6 Demonstrate the effect of changing the number of bulbs in a series circuit on the brightness of
the bulbs.
5.3 Magnets 5.3.1.1 Investigate the properties of magnets.
5.3.1.2 Classify materials as magnetic or non-magnetic.
5.3.1.3 Demonstrate proper care for magnets.
5.4 Electromagnetism 5.4.1.1 Construct a simple electromagnet.
5.4.1.2 Demonstrate ways of increasing the strength of the electromagnet.
5.4.1.3 List the uses of electromagnets.
5.4.1.4 Explain the advantages of electromagnets over permanent magnets.

MODULE 6: HEALTH AND SAFETY

6.1 Food and 6.1.1.1 Identify the main food groups as bodybuilding, energy giving, protective and supplementary.
Nutrition 6.1.1.2 Demonstrate proper handling of food.

6.2 Diseases 6.2.1.1 Explain “disease”.

6.2.1.2 Classify diseases as communicable and non-communicable.
6.2.1.3 Identify communicable diseases in Botswana.
6.3 Safety 6.3.1.1 Explain the importance of safety rules.
6.3.1.2 Develop safety rules for a given situation.
6.3.1.3 Interpret safety symbols.
6.3.1.4 Demonstrate proper ways of putting out different fires.

6.3.2.1 Discuss the importance of traffic rules.

6.3.2.2 Explain why it is important to wear a safety belt.
6.3.3.1 Explain the importance of First Aid.
6.3.3.2 List the major items that should go into a First Aid kit.

MODULE 7: BODY SYSTEMS

7.1 Human Body 7.1.1.1 Explain “a system”.
Systems 7.1.1.2 Name the systems found in the human body.
7.1.1.3 State the function(s) of the digestive system, circulatory system and the reproductive system.

MODULE 8: SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

8.1 Physical 8.1.1.1 Discuss the physical differences between a boy and a girl.
Development 8.1.1.2 Explain puberty.
8.1.1.3 Describe signs of puberty in both boys and girls.
8.1.1.4 Describe menstruation.
8.1.1.5 Investigate gender differences in society.

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 STANDARD 6
MODULE 1: SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
1.2 History of 1.2.1.1 Identify traditional scientific practices in use in Botswana, e.g. making clay pots.
Science 1.2.2.1 Describe at least three major scientific innovations around the world.
1.2.2.2 Name two scientists and explain how they contributed to scientific knowledge.
1.2.2.3 Discuss how the invention of the wheel has impacted on the transport system.
1.2.3.1 Identify careers that require the application of science and technology.
1.2.3.2 Explain how scientific knowledge and skills are integral to a variety of careers.
1.2.3.3 Discuss the gender dimensions of science careers.
MODULE 2: NATURE AND THE UNIVERSE
2.1 The Environment 2.1.1.1 Explain the terms: habitat, population and community.
2.1.1.2 Describe different kinds of habitats found in their locality.
2.1.1.3 Show the relationship between producers and consumers in a food chain and food web.
2.1.1.4 Predict how a change in an environmental factor can affect the number of organisms in a
population.
2.1.2.1 Describe traditional and modern ways of conserving wild animals and plants in Botswana.
2.1.2.2 Identify protected animal and plant species in Botswana.
2.1.2.3 Discuss the social, economic and environmental benefits of conservation to Botswana.
2.1.2.4 Discuss how communities around protected areas can benefit from tourism.
2.1.3.1 Identify human activities that may lead to pollution of air, land and water.
2.1.3.2 Investigate the effects of pollution on the environment and on people’s lives.
2.5 Water 2.5.1.1 Classify substances as soluble or insoluble in water.
2.5.1.2 Investigate the effect of temperature, particle size and stirring on dissolving.
2.5.1.3 Describe a saturated solution.
2.5.1.4 Describe a suspension.
2.5.2.1 Distinguish between hard and soft water.
2.5.2.2 Describe the effects of hard water on household utensils, water pipes and drip irrigation pipes
etc.
2.5.2.3 Demonstrate ways of softening hard water.
2.6 Weather 2.6.1.1 Describe the difference between weather and climate.
2.6.1.2 Define basic terms associated with weather systems.
2.7 The Solar System 2.7.1.1 Explain the phases of the moon (apparent shape and size).
2.7.1.2 Explain the occurrence of a lunar eclipse.
2.7.1.3 Explain the occurrence of a solar eclipse.
2.7.1.4 Demonstrate proper ways of observing a solar eclipse
MODULE 3: MATTER AND ENERGY
3.1 Matter 3.1.1.1 Demonstrate the changes of state in matter using different substances.
3.1.1.2 Measure the boiling point and melting/freezing point of water.
3.1.1.3 Demonstrate how impurities affect the boiling point and melting point of water.
3.1.1.4 Distinguish between boiling and evaporation.
3.1.2.1 Classify substance as elements, compounds or mixtures.
3.1.2.2 List common chemical elements and their symbols.
3.1.2.3 Separate mixtures using their physical properties.
3.2 Energy 3.2.1.1 Demonstrate that energy is converted from one form to another when work is done.
3.2.1.2 Describe energy changes for a given situation.
3.2.1.3 State the principle of conservation of energy.
3.2.2.1 Describe the three methods of heat transfer.
3.2.2.2 Demonstrate heat transfer by conduction.
3.2.2.3 Compare conduction in the solids, liquids and gases.
3.2.2.4 Demonstrate heat transfer by convection.
3.2.2.5 Demonstrate heat transfer by radiation.
3.2.3.1 Describe the characteristics of images formed by a plane mirror.
3.2.3.2 Discuss some applications of reflection.
3.2.3.3 Classify objects as opaque, translucent and transparent.
3.2.3.4 Describe refraction.
3.2.3.5 Demonstrate refraction of light.
3.2.3.6 Explain a mirage.
3.2.3.7 Identify instruments which use refraction of light (e.g. lenses, camera, telescope, binoculars
etc.).

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 3.2.4.1 Compare qualitatively the speed of sound between solids, liquids and gases.
3.3 Chemistry 3.3.1.1 Describe acid and alkali.
3.3.1.2 Use litmus paper to identify acids and bases.
3.3.1.3 Use litmus paper to determine whether a household chemical is acidic, alkaline or neutral.
3.3.1.4 Classify acids and alkalis as strong and weak.
3.3.1.5 Demonstrate proper care when handling strong acids.
MODULE 4:FORCE AND MOTION
4.1 Force 4.1.1.1 Recognise that friction is a force.
4.1.1.2 Demonstrate friction.
4.1.1.3 Investigate the applications of friction in daily life situations.
4.1.1.4 Demonstrate ways of reducing friction (i.e. oiling, ball bearings, streamlining, rollers and
polishing.
4.1.1.5 Give examples of streamlined designs.
4.2 Levers 4.2.1.1 List different types of levers.
4.2.1.2 Identify the pivot, effort and load on a given lever.
4.2.1.3 Use a lever to do a task.
MODULE 5:ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
5.1 Static Electricity 5.1.1.1 Describe lighting as a natural phenomenon of static electricity.
5.1.1.2 Explain the hazards associated with lightning.
5.1.1.3 Identify factors that increase the risk of lightning strikes.
5.1.14 Take precautions necessary for protection from lightning.
5.2 Current 5.2.1.1 Construct simple parallel circuits containing cells/ (power supply), two switches and two bulbs.
Electricity 5.2.1.2 State the advantages of a parallel circuit connection over a series circuit.
5.2.1.3 Describe the type of circuit connection used in homes.
5.2.1.4 Represent simple series circuits by drawings and conventional symbols.
5.2.1.5 Consider the power rating when buying an electrical appliance.
5.3 Magnets 5.3.1.1 Show that a magnet is strongest at the poles.
5.3.1.2 State the law of magnetism.
5.4 Electromagnetism 5.4.1.1 Describe the different ways of generating electricity.
5.4.1.2 Demonstrate electricity generation using a bicycle dynamo.
5.4.1.3 Compare a hydroelectric power station to a thermal power station.
5.4.1.4 Discuss the advantages of a hydroelectric power station over a thermal power station.
5.4.1.5 Describe how electricity is transmitted from the power station to consumers.
MODULE 6:HEALTH AND SAFETY
6.2 Diseases 6.2.1.1 Explain the difference between contagious and non-contagious diseases.
6.2.1.2 Classify diseases as contagious and non-contagious.
6.2.1.3 Discuss the cause, transmission, signs and symptoms, treatment, and prevention of tuberculosis
(TB).
6.3 Safety 6.3.1.1 Carry out an investigation to determine the major cause(s) of road accidents in Botswana.
6.3.1.2 Discuss the socio-economic effects of road accidents on Botswana.
6.3.1.3 Explain why it is important to wear white clothes, or shoes with reflectors at night.
MODULE 7:BODY SYSTEMS
7.1 Human body 7.1.1.1 Identify the organs of the digestive system.
systems 7.2.1.2 Describe the functions of the major organs of the digestive system (i.e. liver, pancreas, and
stomach, large and small intestines).
MODULE 8:SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
8.1 Human 8.2.1.1 Correctly label the reproductive systems of the male and the female.
Reproductive 8.2.1.2 State the functions of the male reproductive system.
System 8.2.1.3 State the functions of the female reproductive system.

8.2.2.1 Describe the stages of pregnancy.

8.2.3.1 Describe pre-natal care for the baby.
8.2.3.2 Describe post-natal care for the baby.
8.2.3.3 Use data to plot a baby’s weight on a health card.
8.2.3.4 Explain immunisation.
8.2.3.5 Explain the importance of an immunisation programme.
8.2.3.6 Identify immunisable diseases in Botswana.
8.2.3.7 Interpret an immunisation schedule.

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 STANDARD 7
MODULE 1:SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
1.1 The Nature of 1.1.1.1 Identify characteristics of scientific ways of thinking.
Science 1.1.1.2 Describe a variety of ways scientists generate ideas.
1.1.1.3 Distinguish between a question and a hypothesis.
1.3 Technology in 1.3.1.1 Describe technology as the application of scientific knowledge and discoveries.
Science 1.3.1.2 Classify objects as natural or man-made (artificial).
1.3.1.3 Demonstrate proper use of simple technology such as watch, telephone, camera etc.
1.3.1.4 Explain the impact of technology on agriculture, medicine and space science.
1.3.1.5 Describe how technology contributes to solving problems.
1.3.1.6 Identify problems caused by technology.
MODULE 2:NATURE AND THE UNIVERSE
2.1 The Environment 2.1.1.1 Discuss the importance of decomposers in a food chain
2.1.1.2 Give examples of decomposers
2.1.1.3 Describe the feeding habits of scavengers
2.1.1.4 Discuss the importance of scavengers in a food chain/web
2.1.1.5 Give examples of scavengers
2.2 Plants 2.2.1.1 Describe seed germination.
2.2.1.2 Investigate conditions necessary for seed germination.
2.2.2.1 Define seed dispersal.
2.2.2.2 Describe the different modes of seed dispersal.
2.2.2.3 Identify seeds and fruits according to their modes of dispersal.
2.2.3.1 Define adaptation.
2.2.3.2 Describe ways by which different plants are adapted to their environment.
2.2.3.3 Explain how these adaptations help the plants to survive.
2.3 Animals 2.3.1.1 Describe ways in which different animals are adapted to their environment.
2.3.1.2 Explain how birds are adapted to flying, and fish to living in water.
2.5 Water 2.5.1.1 Describe the process of water purification in towns.
2.5.1.2 Demonstrate ways of making water safe to drink.
2.5.1.3 Discuss the importance of decontaminating water.
2.7 The Solar System 2.7.1.1 Distinguish between rotation and revolution of the earth.
2.7.1.2 Explain day and night in terms of the earth’s rotation on its axis.
2.7.1.3 Describe the motion of the earth around the sun.
2.7.1.4 Discuss seasons in relation to the motion of the earth around the sun.
MODULE 3:MATTER AND ENERGY
3.1 Matter 3.1.1.1 Investigate the effects of cooling on the physical properties of a substance.
3.1.1.2 Demonstrate the cooling effect of evaporation.
3.2 Energy 3.2.1.1 Identify renewable energy resources in Botswana.
3.2.1.2 Discuss uses for such energy resources.
3.2.1.3 Discuss the social and economic benefits of harnessing solar energy, biomass and wind energy.
3.2.1.4 Harness solar energy in whatever way to heat water.
3.2.2.1 Distinguish between heat conductors and insulators.
3.2.2.2 Identify building materials that are conductors.
3.2.2.3 Identify building materials that are insulators.
3.2.2.4 Construct a heat retainer using locally available material.
3.2.2.5 Describe good radiators and good absorbers of heat.
3.2.2.6 Identify good radiators and poor radiators of heat.
3.2.2.7 Demonstrate that heat can be reflected.
3.2.2.8 Identify applications of heat reflection.
3.2.3.1 Show that light is needed for one to see.
3.2.3.2 Correctly label the eye.
3.2.3.3 State the functions of the parts of the eye (i.e. pupil, iris, lens, cornea, retina, optic nerve, and
eyelids).
3.2.3.4 Describe the appearance of the pupil in response to different amounts of light.
3.2.3.5 Discuss factors that may cause visual impairment
3.2.4.1 List the main parts of the ear.
3.2.4.2 State the functions of the main parts of the ear.
3.2.4.3 Appreciate that different animals can detect different audibility.
3.2.4.4 State the average audibility frequency range for humans.

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 3.2.5.1 Demonstrate good care for ears.
3.2.5.2 Discuss factors that can cause hearing impairment.
3.3 Chemistry 3.3.1.1 Describe a chemical reaction.
3.3.1.2 Recognise a chemical reaction.
3.3.1.3 Demonstrate a chemical reaction.
3.3.1.4 Identify reactants and products in a given chemical reaction.
3.3.1.5 Describe observable signs of evidence of a chemical reaction.
3.3.1.6 Investigate factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction.

MODULE 4:FORCE AND MOTION

4.3 Simple machines 4.3.1.1 Describe a machine as a device that is used to make work easier.
4.3.1.2 List examples of simple machines used in daily life (e.g. pulley, inclined plane, gear and wheel
etc).
4.3.1.3 Demonstrate how machines can be used to make work easier.

MODULE 5:ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

5.1 Static Electricity 5.1.1.1 Describe how a lighting conductor works.
5.1.1.2 Construct a simple lightning conductor.

5.2 Current 5.2.1.1 Identify and explain the functions of a fuse, an earth wire and a trip switch.
Electricity 5.2.1.2 Describe a short circuit and how it can be prevented.
5.2.1.3 Demonstrate proper handling of electricity in the home.
5.2.1.4 Demonstrate ways of conserving electricity in the home.

5.3 Magnets 5.3.1.1 Use a compass to find the direction North-South of the earth.
5.3.1.2 Demonstrate that a magnet has two poles.
5.4 Electro 5.4.1.1 Make a simple electric motor.
magnetism 5.4.1.2 List the uses of motors.
MODULE 6:HEALTH AND SAFETY
6.1 Food and 6.1.1.1 List some common food deficiency diseases and their causes.
Nutrition 6.1.1.2 Discuss deficiency diseases common in Botswana
6.1.1.3 List illnesses associated with unhealthy eating, e.g. obesity, goitre, high blood pressure etc.
6.2 Alcohol and 6.2.1.1 Discuss the dangers of alcohol and drug abuse.
drug abuse 6.2.1.2 Describe addiction.
6.2.1.3 List the signs of alcohol addiction.
6.2.1.4 Discuss the problems associated with alcohol abuse.
6.2.1.5 Discuss the problems associated with drug abuse.
6.2.1.6 Interpret and analyse data on drug and alcohol abuse and relate it to sexually transmitted
infections (STIs) prevalence.
6.2.1.7 Describe the dangers of smoking to both the smoker and the non-smoker (active and passive
smoking).
6.2.1.8 Suggest ways of controlling alcohol and drug abuse.
MODULE 7:BODY SYSTEMS
7.1 Human Body 7.1.1.1 Identify the major parts of the skeletal system.
Systems 7.1.1.2 Describe how the skeletal system works.
7.1.1.3 Identify the major organs of the nervous system.
7.1.1.4 Describe how the nervous system works.
7.1.1.5 Identify the central nervous system (CNS).
7.1.1.6 Describe the difference between a reflex action and a voluntary action.
MODULE 8 SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
8.3 Sexually 8.3.1.1 List common STIs in Botswana.
Transmitted 8.3.1.2 Describe how sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) increase the risk of contracting HIV and
Diseases AIDS.
8.3.1.3 Identify diseases that are closely associated with HIV and AIDS infections.
8.4 HIV and AIDS 8.4.1.1 Discuss the different ways in which HIV and AIDS can be transmitted.
8.4.1.2 Identify the major mode of transmission of HIV and AIDS in Botswana.
8.4.1.3 Discuss stereotypes that exist in their communities about HIV and AIDS.
8.4.1.4 Discuss the social, economic and cultural factors that expose women to a high risk of HIV and
AIDS infection.

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 8.4.1.5 Explain the economic and social impacts of HIV/AIDS on the, individual, family and the nation.
8.4.2.1 Discuss ways of preventing infection by HIV and AIDS
8.4.2.2 Describe the proper use and disposal of a condom.
8.4.2.3 Explain the advantages of using a condom.
8.4.2.4 State the advantages of prevention over cure.
8.4.2.5 Discuss the importance of testing for HIV and AIDS.

Standard 5

Topics

1. The nature of Science

2. The Environment
3. Plants
4. Animals
5. Air
6. Water
7. Weather
8. The solar system
9. Matter
10. Energy
11. Force
12. Current electricity
13. Magnets
14. Electromagnetism
15. Food and nutrition
16. Diseases
17. Safety
18. Human body systems
19. Physical development

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 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
OBJECTIVES
1.1.1.1 Demonstrate the following scientific processes: observing, communicating,
comparing, organizing, relating, inferring, predicting, analysing and applying
1.1.1.2 Demonstrate how science is an ongoing process of gathering and evaluating
information

THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

Introduction
Definition 1 - Science is the study of everything in our environment.
Scientific processes occur naturally, spontaneously in our minds. By logically
breaking down the steps in our thinking, we can utilize the scientific process to
figure out how to respond to our questions concerning how the world function.
Science process is not just useful in science, but in any situation that requires
critical thinking.
Science process skills include observation, measuring quantities,
sorting/classifying, inferring, predicting, experimenting, and communicating.
How do scientists work? What do they think? How do they find out things?

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HOW DO SCIENTISTS FIND OUT THINGS
All good scientists work in the same way. It is called the scientific way.
A good scientist;
a) Should always be curious when they notice things. He/she must be observant.
b) Should always ask questions about what he/she has noticed.
c) Should be accurate in describing things or measuring things.
d) Should talk to people and listen to them but should not believe
e) Everything he/she is told. It is always better to find out things for yourself.
f) Should always think of new ideas and possibilities. He/she must try to think of possible
answers to the questions.
g) Should not give up, even if people laugh at his/her ideas.
h) Should be careful not to hurt people or damage things around him/her.
HOW DO SCIENTISTS GET NEW IDEAS?

They collect details about the things they notice.

They think about what they have noticed.
They ask questions.
They analyse what they have observed.
They compare different observations.
They think of possible answers and explanations for what
they have observed. This is called a theory or a hypothesis.
They predict what they think is going to happen
They carry out experiments.
They tell other scientists what they have found out.
(Communication)

OBSERVATION
“Observing means using our various senses to obtain information (or data) about objects or
events attended”. Scientists use five senses (sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch) during
observation which help them become good observers.
SENSES SENSE ORGANS STIMULI
Hearing Ear Sound
Sight Eye Light
Smelling Nose Odours/chemicals
Touching Skin Temperature, pain or pressure
Tasting Tongue Food

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Observations has following characteristics:
 Observations focuses on “what” and “how” and not on “why”.
 Observation is based on facts not opinions.
QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS
A question is what the scientist asks when he/she notices something.
 What is happening here?
 Why has it happened?
 What is the reason for it happening?
A hypothesis is a possible answer to a scientific question.

HOW DOES SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE INCREASE?

All scientific discoveries happen in the same way. The basic steps are:
 People observe things. Actively paying attention to something
 They ask questions.
 They think up theories or hypotheses.
 They carry out experiments to test their theories.
If their theories are proved to be correct, they are added to our knowledge.

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 THE ENVIRONMENT
OBJECTIVES
2.1.1.1 Describe the interaction among living and non-living components in a given
environment.
2.1.1.2 Explain how the ability of an environment to provide food, water, space and essential
nutrients affect its carrying capacity.

By the end of this lessons you should be able

to
1. Define the terms; environment
2. Differentiate between living and non-
living things
3. Explain carrying capacity
4. Explain interaction between living and
non-living things.

What is the environment?

The environment is everything around us. All our
surroundings including the air, soil, water, plants, and
animals make up the environment. The surroundings
we are living in is made up of so many living and
non-living things. They are called the components of
the environment.

LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS

Soil, water, air and sunlight are non-living components of the environment. The animals and
plants are all living components.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
1. Growth – the increase in size of a living thing due to the increase in cell numbers. (Small
to big)
2. Reproduction – the production of new ones from one or more parents. No living thing can
live forever.
3. Respiration – getting energy from food in the presence of oxygen.
4. Sensitivity – how living things respond to their surroundings or environment/react to
changes around them.
5. Nutrition - the feeding of organisms to provide energy.
6. Movement - the ability of an organism to move.
7. Excretion - the removal of waste products from the body or living thing

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The living things in an environment are also called a community or the living environment.
Living things Nonliving things
Person Stone
Ant Paper
Goats Metal
Grass Clothes
Tree Pen
Spider Bottle
Cow Pill

INTERACTION BETWEEN LIVING AND NON-LIVING THINGS

We say there is an interaction between the living and non-living components of an
environment. This means that they affect or influence one another.
Soil
Plants cannot live without soil. If there is no soil, plants cannot grow. Without plants there
could be no animals or people, because there would be no food to eat. Many small animals
also live in the soil.
Water (Rain)
Nothing can live without water. Without water there would be no plants or animals.
Air
Plants, animals and people all need air. People and animals breathe in air and use oxygen to
live.
Sunlight
All the energy on earth comes from the sun. Plants use the sun's energy in photosynthesis to
produce plant food. Animals and people eat plants to live. Many animals use the sun to keep
their bodies warm.
FURTHER INTERACTIONS
We have now seen how the non-living components interact or affect the living components of
an environment. Do you think living things can also affect non-living ones?
a) Dead animals and plants will decay or rot and become humus that will mix with the soil
and make it richer or more fertile. Plants and animals contain organic matter and this is
changed into plant nutrients.
b) Animal dung also makes the soil richer in organic matter and more fertile.
c) Plant roots hold the soil together and stop it from being washed away by water or blown
away by the wind.
d) Animals help to distribute plant seeds. Some seeds stick to animals and are carried away
so that new plants grow. Some animals eat fruit and then drop the seeds in their dung or
droppings. These seeds can then grow in new places.
e) Animals such as bees, beetles and others carry pollen from one flower to another. This is
called pollination. It produces new seeds to grow new plants.

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THE CARRYING CAPACITY OF AN ENVIRONMENT
What is carrying capacity?
The carrying capacity of an environment means how many living things (plants and animals)
can live in an environment without damaging it.
Factors that affect carrying capacity
The carrying capacity of an environment does not stay the same. It can change from one
month to the next and from one season to the next. There are many factors which affect the
carrying capacity of a place.
 Water
 Plant food (nutrients)
 Space
The ability of an environment to provide water, space and plant nutrients affects its
carrying capacity.

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 PLANTS
OBJECTIVES
2.2.1.1 Investigate conditions necessary for photosynthesis.
2.2.1.2 Explain the importance of photosynthesis to plants and animals.

By the end of this topic everyone should be able to explain

the process of photosynthesis.
Let us look at the diagram below

Mrs Seitsiro, I
don’t
understand the
difference
between starch
and glucose

Teacher, how do
we write the word
equation for
photosynthesis?

Students in Miss Seitshiro’s class are learning about the process of photosynthesis.

By the end of this topic you should be able to answer their questions

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Plants and plant food
Living things cannot live without food. Animals and people can eat plants and other animals.
Plants make their own food
Plants are the only living things that can make their own food.
They do this through a process called photosynthesis.
What is photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants take up water from the soil and carbon
dioxide from the air and use the energy from sunlight to make plant food (starch).
Photosynthesis takes place in the leaves of the plant. Photosynthesis is a process
whereby plants make their own
_________. Plants us carbon
dioxide and ________ to produce
oxygen and ______.
What is needed for photosynthesis?
Plants need the following to make food:
 Energy from sunlight
 Carbon dioxide from the air
 Water from the soil
 Chlorophyll (the green material in leaves)
 The water and the carbon dioxide combine in a chemical reaction.
 The energy for this reaction comes from the sun.
 The chlorophyll collects the sun's energy and uses it for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis produces starch (plant’s food). There is a test that shows that the plant has
produced starch and photosynthesis has taken place. The test is called the iodine test.
Add iodine solution (brown) to the leaf from the dropper bottle. Make sure the leaf is
completely covered with iodine. Watch for a few minutes to see if a blue-black colour
develops in any part of the leaf. When the iodine solution turns blue-black colour it indicates
that starch is present. When the iodine solution remains brown it means there is no starch.
What happens in photosynthesis?
Water is taken up from the soil through the plant roots. It moves through
This means tiny tubes in the stem to the leaves.
photosynthesis
Carbon dioxide is taken up by the leaves from the air.
help to reduce
carbon dioxide in The chlorophyll collects energy from the sun during daylight.
the atmosphere? The energy is used to turn the carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrates (starch).
Oxygen is produced by the plant as a result of this process.

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There are small pores under the leaf which open and close to allow carbon dioxide to get
inside the leaf. The pores also open to allow oxygen to leave the leaf. These pores are called
stomata.

The importance of photosynthesis

a) There can be no life on earth without photosynthesis. Plants make food by the process of
photosynthesis. This food is used by the plants themselves, but also provides food for
animals and people. Plants are the only living things that can make their own food. All
plants and animals need food for energy.
b) During photosynthesis plants release oxygen. People and animals breathe in oxygen.
The more green plants there are, the more oxygen there will be in the air.
c) Photosynthesis removes some carbon dioxide from the air. It keeps the air healthy for
people and animals.
Light is essential for photosynthesis
Process
 Take a potted plant.
 Destarch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for about 48 hours.
 Test one of it leaves for starch, to check that is does not contain any.
 Fix a leaf of this plant in between two strips of a thick paper on leaf.
 Place the plant in light for a few days.
 Remove the cover from the leaf and test it for starch.
Observations
Positive starch test will be obtained only in the portion of the leaf exposed to light and
negative test in parts with paper strip.
Conclusion
Light is necessary for photosynthesis.

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Carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis
 Take two destarched potted plants.
 Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them as A and B.
 Inside Set-up A, keep NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate). It produces CO2.
 Inside Set-up B, keep NaOH (Sodium hydroxide). It absorbs CO2.
 Keep both the set-ups in the sunlight for at least 6 hours.
 Perform the starch test on both of the plants.

Observations
Leaf from the plant in which NaHCO3 has been placed gives positive test.
Leaf from the plant in which NaOH has been kept give negative test.
Conclusion
Plant in Set up A gets CO2 whereas plant in Set-up B does not get CO2.
It means CO2 is must for photosynthesis.

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 ANIMALS
OBJECTIVES
2.3.1.1 State the characteristics of a vertebrate.
2.3.1.2 State the characteristics of invertebrates.
2.3.1.3 Identify classes of vertebrates.
2.3.1.4 Classify animals as vertebrates and invertebrates.

Classifying animals
If we want to study animals we need some way of putting them into different groups. This is
called a classification system. Animals are classified into vertebrates and invertebrates.
All the animals in a group or class will be similar in some way or another.
VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES
Vertebrate animals are all those that have a backbone or spine while invertebrates are
those without a backbone or spine.
Characteristics of vertebrates
 Every vertebrate has a skeleton inside its body. (It is called an endoskeleton).
 Its backbone can bend and it protects the spinal cord that runs through it.
 A vertebrate has a skull and a brain.
 Vertebrates have a heart and a blood system.
 All vertebrates have pairs of eyes.

Classes of vertebrates
All vertebrates have a backbone, but they are still very different.
Vertebrates can be further divided into five groups or classes, namely:
Fishes Reptiles Birds Amphibians Mammals
 Fishes
Fish lives in the water all the time. They breathe through gills that take oxygen from the
water. Fish are ‘cold-blooded’. Fish lay eggs in water. Fish have fins and a tail for
swimming. They do not have legs.

 Amphibians
Young amphibians can only live in water. The adults can live on land. Young amphibians
usually have gills so that they can breathe under water. Adults usually have lungs and they
breathe air through lungs when they are on land. Amphibians are ‘cold-blooded’ They lay
eggs in water.

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 Reptiles
Reptiles have lungs and cannot breathe under water.
Reptiles are ‘cold-blooded’. Their bodies are covered with a hard shell or scales. They lay
eggs. Snakes and tortoises are examples of reptiles. Some live only on land. Some live on
land and also in water.
 Birds
Birds have warm blood and they breathe air. Their bodies are covered with feathers. Most
birds can fly but a few cannot. Some birds can swim
but they have lungs so they cannot breathe under water.
They lay eggs. Birds are ‘warm-blooded’ which
means they can stay at the same temperature even
when they are in a cold place.

 Mammals
Mammals have warm blood and they breathe air. Some have bodies that are covered with
hair, others have very little hair. Their babies are born alive and they drink milk from their
mothers. Cattle and goats are examples of mammals.

INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS
Invertebrates have no backbone. Most of the animals in the world are invertebrates (about
97%). Invertebrates have the following features:
 Some have an outside skeleton (also called an exoskeleton).
 Some have no hard parts at all.
 Some invertebrate animals are too small to see without a microscope. They are called
microbes and they are found all over the world: in water, the oceans, soil, air and even in
our bodies.
There are many more groups of invertebrates. The biggest group is the insect group. There
are at least 1 million different kinds of insects in the world.

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 AIR
OBJECTIVES
2.4.2.1 Demonstrate that a mixture of air and water causes rusting.
2.4.2.2 Demonstrate ways of preventing rusting

What is air?
Air is a mixture of different gases.
THE COMPONENTS OF AIR
Air is made up of the following gases:
1. Nitrogen is a little less than 80%,
2. Oxygen about 20%,
3. Carbon dioxide - less than 1% in normal fresh air.
4. Water vapour - the amount depends on how dry or moist the air is.
5. Dust and pollen (very little) comes from the soil and from plants.
6. A very small percentage of rare gases. They are not important.
Oxygen is very important because all people and animals need to breathe oxygen to live.
USES OF OXYGEN
 It is used as a fuel.
 It is also used in respiratory machines
 It is used in purifying steel
 It is used in welding when mixed with another gas called acetylene. It produces a hot
flame which can melt or join metals.
Carbon dioxide is also very important because plants use carbon dioxide.
PROPERTIES OF CARBON DIOXIDE
 It is colorless, tasteless and odourless
 It is heavier than air
 It does not support burning, it will put out burning substances.
It is used in photosynthesis to produce food in their leaves and seeds.
Water vapour is necessary to form clouds that will bring rain.
AIR SUPPORTS BURNING
Cover the burning candle with a glass jar. After a few minutes the candle is extinguished
(stop burning). As the supply of air is stopped due to the glass jar the burning of candles is
also stopped. This experiment proves that air supports burning.

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When the candle is not covered, it has access to oxygen (oxygen supports burning), it will
keep burning. When the candle is covered, it will stop burning because carbon dioxide will be
inside the gas jar (carbon dioxide does not support burning).
THE PROPERTIES OF AIR
The properties of air are the things that tell us what it is like. They tell us how air behaves and
what it does.
 Air is a colourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It has no colour, smell or taste. Because
it has no colour one cannot see air - we say it is invisible.
 Air occupies space. It takes up room. If a bottle is full of air, nothing else will go into the
bottle until the air is let out.
 Air can be compressed. If some air in a closed container is put under pressure, the
volume of air becomes smaller. It is said to be compressed.
 When air is heated it expands. When it is cooled it contracts.
 When air is heated it rises.
 Air supports combustion. Things can burn in air until all the oxygen is used up.
 Air has mass. One can weigh air although it is very light. A balloon that is filled with air
will be slightly heavier than an empty one.
 Air exerts pressure because it has mass.

AIR AND RUSTING

What is rust?
Rust is caused by air and water
If one leaves a clean, shiny piece of iron outside in the rain, it will soon be covered with
reddish-brown spots. After a longer time the whole metal surface will be covered with a thin
layer of a reddish-brown substance. This is called rust. The rust can be rubbed or sanded off
to get back to the shiny metal surface. Rust can cause great damage. If rusting is not stopped,
all the metal can rust away and change into a powder. Thin metal sheets are badly affected by
rust.

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 The nail in test tube B does not rust
because the nail was exposed only to
water and no air was present in it. In
the same way the nail in test tube C
does not rust because in this tube air is
dry and water is not present. But the
nail present in test tube A rusts
because in test tube A the nail was
exposed to both air and water.
This shows that for rusting of iron both
air and water are necessary.

HOW CAN WE STOP METALS RUSTING?

It is very important to stop metals rusting. The roofs of our homes, the bodies of motorcars,
etc. will all be worn away by rusting if it is not stopped.
We have seen that water and air together will cause metals to rust. Perhaps metal won't rust if
we can keep water (moisture) and air away.
PREVENTING RUSTING
 Painting
 Applying oil/grease
 Covering with plastic
 Metal plating-this is when iron /steel is covered with a thin layer of another metal that
does not corrode easily. The thin metal coating is applied to iron /steel by the process of
electroplating which is a type of electrolysis. Metals that are used for electro plating are;
tin, chromium and silver
 Galvanizing-this is covering /coating iron with zinc metal. The surface of zinc metal
oxidizes and forms zinc oxide which is tough and does not let water in. Roofing sheets are
usually galvanized
 Using a sacrificial metal
 Adding other metals to iron /steel

26 | Chabaesele 72118043
 WATER
OBJECTIVES
2.5.1.1 Discuss the distribution of water on the earth surface, underground and in the
atmosphere.
2.5.1.2 Explain the water cycle.
2.5.1.3 Discuss ways of collecting rainwater.
2.5.1.4 Suggest ways of conserving water.
2.5.1.5 Discuss the social and economic effects of limited water on the lives of people.

The properties of water

Water is the most important liquid in the world. Nothing can live without water. Without
water plants, animals and people will all die.
Water has these properties:
 Water is usually a liquid.
 Water has no colour. It is colourless.
 It has no smell or odour. It is odourless.
 It has no taste. It is tasteless.
 Water can also be a solid (ice) when it is very cold.
 Water can also change to a gas (called water vapour) when it is heated.
When solid ice is heated, it melts and changes to liquid water. When liquid water is heated it
evaporates and changes to an invisible gas called water vapour.
Where is water found?
a) SURFACE WATER
When rain falls on the surface of the earth, most of it stays there. It can also run off and
collect in the following places.
The sea (oceans)
Rivers
Dams
b) Underground water
When it rains, most water flows away, but some water seeps into the soil. There are many
small openings between the grains of soil. The soil acts like a sponge and soaks up water.
The water slowly moves downwards through the soil until it meets a layer of hard rock. The
water cannot pass through the rock and it forms an underground dam. The water can stay in
such a dam for a long time.
C) Water in the atmosphere
When water evaporates it changes from a liquid to a colourless gas called water vapour.
Water vapour is invisible and one cannot see it at all. The water vapour spreads throughout
the atmosphere.

THE WATER CYCLE

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The total quantity of water on earth stays the same. One cannot make water. All that
happens is that the water changes from one form to another and moves from place to place.
The water is used again and again (it is recycled).
There are three processes involved in the water cycle: evaporation, condensation and
precipitation.

Water evaporates from surface sources e.g. oceans, lakes etc to form water vapour in the air.
Water also evaporates from plant leaves by a process called transpiration. As the water
vapour rises into the air, it cools, the process called condensation. The liquid water forms
tiny droplets of water that form clouds. Sometimes when it is cold enough in the air, the
water forms tiny ice particles in the cloud.
Eventually, the tiny droplets of water in the cloud join together and become too large and
heavy that they fall to the ground as rain. This is called precipitation. Precipitation may fall
either as rain, hail or snow.
COLLECTING RAINWATER
Rainwater can be collected in the following ways:
a) Dams
b) Reservoirs
c) Tanks
Rainwater that falls on the roof of a building can be collected in a tank next to the building.
WATER CONSERVATION
Water is very scarce in Botswana because we get so little rain. As our population grows, we
need more water. We must not waste any water. What can we do to conserve (save) water?
 Fix leaking taps
 Take a shower rather than a bath.
 Water plants only in the late afternoon because there is less evaporation.
 Do not wash your hands or brush your teeth under a running tap.
 Use a mulch of straw or plastic around the stems of plants. This will slow down
evaporation.

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 WEATHER
OBJECTIVES
2.6.1.1 Construct a simple weather station.
2.6.1.2 Measure weather conditions.
2.6.1.3 Interpret changes in weather conditions
2.6.1.4 Interpret symbols used on a weather chart.
2.6.1.5 Record weather conditions using conventional symbols.

What is weather?
Weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time, describing for
example the degree to which it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.
When we talk about the weather we are really asking these questions:
 Is it hot or cold?
 Is the wind blowing or not?
 Is it raining or not?
 Are there clouds in the sky or is it clear?
 Is the air moist (humid) or dry?
Weather changes from day to day. It may even change in a few hours e.g. it could be sunny in
the morning and then there are thunderstorms in the afternoon.
Measuring weather conditions
If we want to study the weather we must be able to describe it and that means we have to
measure the weather conditions. We need to measure:
 the temperature,
 the wind speed and direction
 the humidity or moisture in the air
 the rainfall
 the air pressure and
 the cloud cover.
Temperature
Temperature is measured with a thermometer. The temperature is
measured in degrees Celsius (°C).

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Wind direction
We use a wind vane to show the direction from which the wind is
blowing (e.g. north, west, south-east, etc.)
A wind vane

Measuring wind speed

We use an anemometer to tell us the speed of the wind in kilometers
per hour (km/h). The wind spins the little buckets of the anemometer.
The stronger the wind, the faster the buckets turn.
This shows the speed of the wind as well as its strength.

Humidity
Humidity shows the quantity of water vapour in the air. It is measured
with a hygrometer. The simplest one is called the wet and dry bulb
hygrometer. One reads the temperatures on both thermometers and the
bigger the difference between the readings, the dryer the air. The
humidity is then read from a table.

Rainfall
The quantity of rain that falls is measured with a rain gauge.
The rain gauge must be placed in the open where it is not
covered by a roof or trees. It must be mounted some distance
above the ground to prevent rainwater splashing into it from the
ground.

Measuring the air pressure

Air pressure (or atmospheric pressure) is very important in studying the weather. A high-
pressure reading shows that the air is dry. If the air pressure drops, it shows that the air is
moist and this could indicate rain.
We use a barometer to measure air pressure. It is measured in millibars.

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INTERPRETING CHANGES IN WEATHER CONDITIONS
There are many factors that can change the weather at any time.
1. If the humidity is high then there is a lot of water vapour in the air. This means that it is
quite likely to rain.
2. A drop in air pressure also means that the air is more humid and rain is more likely.
3. If the difference in the temperature at night and that in the day is less than 100C then rain
is more likely.
4. Wind direction is very important. Winds from the north in Botswana will bring more
moisture and will make rain more likely.
WEATHER CHARTS AND THE SYMBOLS
One can keep a record of weather by making a weather chart that shows the weather
conditions of each day.
Cloud cover Wind direction
Clear North
Partly cloudy South
Cloudy East
Very cloudy West
Overcast

Wind strength Rain

No wind Rain
Light wind Drizzle
Strong wind Shower
Storm Snow
Hail
Mist
Thunderstorm
WEATHER STATION
Weather instruments should be cared for carefully so that they don’t break. They should be
kept in a place where they are protected. These instruments are kept inside a Stevenson
screen. This is a kind of a box on tall legs which keep it off the ground for safety.

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 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
2.7.1.1 Define “universe”.
2.7.1.2 Describe common bodies in the solar system.
2.7.1.3 Identify the sun as the nearest star to the earth.
2.7.1.4 Explain why the earth is the only planet capable of supporting life

The Universe
The universe is everything that exists anywhere. The universe is so large that it has no end.
It just goes on and on all around us. The universe contains billions of stars.
A star is a very large ball of very hot gas. Stars are thousands of times as big as the earth.
They give off lots of heat and light.
There are smaller bodies that travel around some stars. They are called planets. They do not
produce their own light. One can only see a planet because the light from a star shines on it
and is reflected from it.
The Solar System
The word "solar" comes from the word solaris that means Sun. The solar system is made up
of the Sun and nine bodies or planets that travel around it.
a) Looking at stars and planets
When one looks up at the night sky on a clear night, one can see the moon and many stars.
Some are brighter than others and some are very faint. The brightest "star" in the sky at night
is often called the evening star. This is really the planet Venus and not a star at all. It does
not produce its own light. We only see it because the light of the Sun is shining on it. There
are a few other "stars" in the sky that are really only planets in our own solar system.
Jupiter is the second brightest object in the night sky. Mars can often be seen as a red body

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b) The bodies in the solar system
This diagram shows the Sun and the nine planets in the solar system.
Heavenly bodies, which do not have their own light and revolve round the sun, are called
planets. There are nine planets in the solar system. They are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.
The four inner planets (closest to the Sun) are:
 Mercury
 Venus
 Earth
 Mars
They are all solid and are made of rocky material.
The next four planets further from the Sun are:
 Jupiter
 Saturn
 Uranus
 Neptune
They are made of gas. They are called the gas giants because they are very much larger than
the inner planets. The furthest planet from the Sun is called Pluto. It is a small solid planet (it
is smaller than our moon).
Four inner planets

1. Mercury
 It is the smallest of the four inner planets.
 It is very close to the sun.
 It is very hot.
 It takes about 59 days to complete one rotation on its axis
 It has no atmosphere.
 It has no water and therefore no life

2. Venus (evening star)

 It is further from the sun than Mercury
 It is very bright in the sky at night
 It takes about 243 days to complete its one rotation on its axis
 It does not produce its own light (non-luminous)
 It is the same size as the Earth
 It is always covered by dense cloud of poisonous gases
3. Earth
 It is 150 million km from the sun
 It is not too hot or too cold
 It has water
 It takes about 24 hour for a rotation
 It has the atmosphere
 It provides enough oxygen for living organisms
 It takes 365 days to go around the sun (one year)
 It has one moon

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4. Mars
 Its surface temperature is very low (230C) that if there is any water it will be ice
 It is smaller than the Earth
 Its surface is often covered by very thick dust storms due to very strong winds

Five outer planets (the 5 outer planets are also called gas giants because they are made
primarily of gases and liquids rather than solid matter.)
1. Jupiter
 It is the largest planet in the solar system
 It is extremely cold
 It takes about ten hours to complete a rotation
 It takes 12 years to go around the Sun once
 It has 16 moons

2. Saturn
It is smaller than Jupiter
It has a series of bright rings around it
It takes about 10 hours and 30 minutes to complete one rotation
It has 18 moons
It takes 29 years to go around the Sun once

3. Uranus
 It is smaller than Jupiter and Saturn
 It has 20 moons

4. Neptune
 It is blue
 It is the same size as Uranus
 It has 15 moons

5. Pluto
 It is a small, solid and rocky planet
 It is the smallest planet in the solar system
 It has one moon
The Sun
The Sun is a star. It is the nearest star to the earth. It is the center of the solar system. It is a
very large ball of flaming gas.
We can feel its heat although it is 150 million kilometres away. All the heat and energy that
reach the earth comes from the Sun. All the plants that grew millions of years ago have now
turned into coal, oil and gas. These plants grew because of the energy of the Sun.
The earth is the only planet that supports life because;
- It has enough water
- It has suitable temperature
- It has enough oxygen for people and animals
- It has an atmosphere
- Plants can grow well on the ground

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 MATTER
OBJECTIVES
3.1.1.1 Describe the three states of matter in terms of volume and shape.
3.1.2.1 Classify solids as metals or non-metals.
3.1.2.2 Compare the common physical properties of metals and non-metals.
3.1.2.3 Relate the physical properties of common metals to their uses.
3.1.2.4 Relate the physical properties of non-metals to their uses.
3.1.3.1 List common household chemicals.
3.1.3.2 Classify household chemicals into solids, liquids or gases.
3.1.3.3 State the uses of given household chemicals.

What is matter?
Matter is everything that has mass and occupies space (takes up room).
Wood, water, iron, air and paper are all matter. Even things that are so light that we cannot
weigh them, are still matter.
Many gases are invisible and we cannot see them. They are still matter.
STATES OF MATTER

 When we heat solid ice, it melts. It changes to a liquid - water

 If the liquid water is heated, it boils. It changes to a gas – water vapour.
 If the gas - water vapour - is cooled, it changes back to liquid water.
 If the liquid water is cooled enough, it changes to a solid - ice.
All three of these are water. They are different states of water. It is easy to change it from
one state to another.
PROPERTIES OF THE DIFFERENT STATES
 A solid is hard. It keeps its shape. It cannot move around or flow.
 A liquid does not keep its shape. Its size stays the same. It flows from one place to
another.
 A gas has no shape or size. It will fill all the space in a container.

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THE PARTICLES OF MATTER
Matter is made up of molecules. They are very small particles that are too small to see.
When molecules are very close together, they attract one another very strongly. When they
are further apart, the attraction is weaker.
These molecules are moving all the time. We say they are vibrating. The hotter they are, the
stronger the vibration.
SOLID
The molecules are very close together. They attract one another very strongly. They cannot
move around. This makes a solid hard and gives it a fixed shape and size.
LIQUID
The molecules have moved a little further apart. They attract less strongly. They can move
around much more. The liquid can change its shape. It will take up the shape of the
container.
GAS
The molecules move as far apart as they can. The gas fills the whole container. A gas has no
fixed shape and no fixed volume.
CHANGES IN STATE OF MATTER

METALS AND NON-METALS

Solids can be divided into two main groups, namely metals and non- metals. Iron is a metal.
Wood is a non-metal.
Copper is a metal. Diamond is a non-metal (it is made of carbon).
Aluminium is a metal. Coal is a non-metal (it is also made of carbon). Other important
metals are gold, lead, zinc, chrome and tungsten. Important non-metals are sulphur and
phosphorus.
THE PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NON-METALS
 Metals are usually hard but lead and gold are quite soft.
 Non-metals are usually soft but a diamond (a non-metal) is the hardest substance in the
world.
 Metals are mostly shiny but lead has a dull colour.

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One can summaries the main properties of metals and non-metals.
The uses of metals
o Metals are strong. They are used to build things that must carry heavy weights such as
bridges and metal beams.
o Metals are shiny. They are used for jewellery. They are also used for the shiny parts of
motorcars.
o Metals are hard. They are used to make knives for cutting or for the sharp ends of tools
used for digging.
o Metals do not melt easily. Tungsten is used for the thin wire inside an electric light bulb.
This becomes white hot.
o Metals conduct electricity well. Copper and aluminium are used for electric cables.
The uses of non-metals
o Many non-metals can burn. Many non-metals like coal and wood are used to produce
heat.
o Phosphorus and sulphur also burn. They are used to make the heads of matches.
o Diamond is the hardest substance in the world. It is used to make drills that can cut
through the hardest rock.
Household chemicals
Household chemicals are the substances which we use at our homes. These household
chemicals can be divided into two, solid chemicals, liquid chemicals and gas chemicals.
Solid Liquid Gas
Salt Vinegar Insect sprays
Sugar Oil Bottled gas
Baking powder Liquid soap

Guidelines for Using Chemicals Safely

 Read and follow instructions carefully.
 Don’t remove product labels.
 Don’t store household chemicals within the reach of children.
 Don’t store household chemicals in shelves normally used for food.
 Don’t store household chemicals in containers commonly used for food and drinks.
 Store all hazardous products out of the sun in tightly sealed containers.
 Never mix household chemicals. Doing so can be dangerous as toxic fumes can be made.
 Don’t store incompatible products together. For example, acids should not be stored with
alkalis and flammables should never be stored with corrosives.

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 ENERGY
OBJECTIVES
3.2.1.1 Define energy.
3.2.1.2 List the different forms of energy.
3.2.1.3 Identify various types of energy sources.
3.2.1.4 Classify energy resources as renewable and non-renewable.
3.2.1.5 Describe how organisms obtain their energy.

What is energy?
Energy is the ability to do work.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can only be changed from one form into another.
The more work is done, the more energy is converted. We need energy in our everyday
activities. Our bodies need energy to keep us alive and make us grow.

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FORMS OF ENERGY
 Kinetic energy, also known as movement energy or the energy of motion, observable as
the movement of an object, particle, or set of particles. Any object in motion is using
kinetic energy.

 Potential energy refers to stored energy. This is the energy a body has due to its position,
or its shape or its chemical composition.

 Gravitational (potential) energy refers to the energy stored in a body due to its position
above the ground. The amount of the potential energy stored in a raised body depends on
its mass. A body with a large mass will have more gravitational potential energy. The
higher a body is raised, the more potential energy is gained.

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 Chemical (potential) energy is the energy stored in food, fuels and batteries and is
released as a different form of energy during chemical reactions. The chemical energy in
batteries is changed into electrical energy in the wires that lights up the bulb. The energy
from wood can be used to provide light and heat for cooking when wood is burning.

 Light energy is a form of energy needed for us to see things and for plants to make food.
Most of the light energy on Earth comes directly from the Sun as solar energy. Other
natural sources of light include the stars, lightning and fire.

 Heat energy is the energy given out by hot bodies. It flows from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature. The Sun is our major source of heat energy.

 Sound energy is the energy produced when an object vibrates. People and other animals
use sound energy to communicate. When we speak our vocal chords vibrate to produce
sound. Musical instruments produce sound when they are caused to vibrate. High-energy
sound can be used to break objects. Loud sound can damage your ears. Therefore you
should avoid playing music too loud.
Guitar tuning is controlled by the tuning pegs on
the headstock of the guitar. Turning the pegs
changes the pitch of the strings up or down.
Tightening the strings makes the pitch go up;
loosening the strings makes the pitch go down.

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 Electrical energy is the energy produced by charged objects or the flow of current. It can
be transmitted over long distances through cables. It can be produced by chemicals or
generators.

SOURCES OF ENERGY
"Source" means "where it comes from". Energy can come from many different sources.
a) Fuels
A fuel is anything that can produce energy - usually when it burns. We can get heat energy
from burning wood, coal, paraffin, petrol, etc. Gas that is stored in special cylinders is
another useful fuel.
b) Electricity
Electricity provides energy for lights, electric motors, pumps, machines, heating and cooking,
electric trains and many other things. Electricity is generated in power stations.
c) Wind
Wind has energy because it can turn a windmill to pump water. They turn large generators to
produce electricity.
d) The sun
All the energy on the earth comes from the sun. It made plants grow. When the plants died
they were squeezed deep below the earth. The dead plants changed to coal, oil and gas. The
sun is the source of the energy in the fuels we use today.
RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES.
A non-renewable energy source is one that can be used up so that there is none left. After it is
used up it cannot be renewed. Coal, oil and gas are non-renewable energy sources. Once they
are used up they cannot be replaced.
A renewable energy source is one that can be used without using it up. Examples of
renewable energy sources are;
Solar power – power from the sun.
Wind power – the energy from wind

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Hydroelectric power – this is the energy from water stored in large dams. When the water
flows out of the dam, it turns large turbines that generate electricity.
The table below shows some renewable and non- renewable energy sources
Renewable energy sources Non renewable energy sources
 Biomass (wood , dung etc)  Oil
 The sun ( solar energy )  Coal
 Moving water ( hydroelectric energy )  Gas
 Wind energy  Energy from radioactive material ( nuclear
 The heat of the earth ( geothermal energy ) energy )

ENERGY SOURCES FOR ORGANISMS

Any living thing or organism needs energy to live. Where does this energy come from?
The human body. Our bodies store carbohydrates and fat. They combine with the oxygen
that we breathe in. It is a chemical reaction just like burning wood. This is called respiration.
The reaction produces heat and energy for the body to use. Carbon dioxide and water are also
produced. The carbon dioxide is breathed out through the lungs and the water is removed by
the kidneys.
Plants. Plants use the starch and sugar that is stored as plant food. In to chemical reaction
(respiration) the food is broken down. Energy is produced for the plant. Water vapour and
carbon dioxide are produced and passed out through the leaves at night.
Germs and bacteria. The bacteria that live on something like food or sugar also break up the
food in a chemical reaction (respiration). This produces energy for the bacteria. To variety of
other products is formed.

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 HEAT
OBJECTIVES
3.2.2.1 Identify different sources of heat.
3.2.2.2 State the different uses of heat.
3.2.2.3 Demonstrate the effects of heat on the temperature and volume of a substance
(expansion/contraction).

What is heat?
Heat is a form of energy. It is the energy that makes the molecules in an object vibrate.
When something is heated, its molecules vibrate faster and more strongly.
Sources of heat.
Heat can be produced or generated in many ways as we have seen in the previous chapter.
 From burning fuels such as wood, coal, oil or gas.
 From an electric current such as from a stove or a heater.
 From the energy of sunlight.
 From friction when things are rubbed against one another.
 One can make a fire by rubbing two sticks together.
Uses of heat
Heat is one of the most important things in our lives. Without heat it would be difficult to
live.
We use heat to:
Cook food. We need heat from a fire to cook food to eat.
Keep our homes and bodies warm. It is very uncomfortable to live in a place where it is
very cold. Some places are so cold that people will die there without heating.
Produce steam. Steam contains a lot of energy. When water is boiled in a boiler, steam is
produced. This steam can drive machines like locomotives and electrical generators.
Bend or weld metals. When metals are heated, they become softer and can be bent into
new shapes. If two pieces of iron are touching and they are very strongly heated, they will
melt and the two parts will become one. This is called welding.
Dry things. We hang out wet washing in the sun so that the heat can dry it.
Relieve pain. Putting heat on a sore part of one's body helps to lessen pain.

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EFFECTS OF HEAT
When something is heated, it changes in two main ways:
- It becomes hotter. We say that its temperature increases.

- It becomes larger. We say that it expands.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

Expansion is the increase in size of a substance as a result of an increase in temperature.
Contraction is a decrease in the size of a substance as a result of a decrease in temperature.
Expansion and contraction occur in all three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN SOLIDS

The ball and ring experiment

Explanation
The result shows that the ball expanded on heating and this can no longer pass through the
ring.

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EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN LIQIUDS
The particles in liquid are not held together as tightly as in solids because they can move past
one another. This means that if a liquid is heated, the particles should move apart more easily
than those of a solid.

EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION IN GASES

When the flask is heated, the balloon increases in size, this happens because the air inside
expands. When air inside is cooled, the balloon decreases in size because the air inside
contracts.

Air does expand when it

is heated because of the
fact that the molecules in
the air start vibrating and
moving around more
faster and the distance
between the molecules
increases so as a result
the air expands.

• The particles in solids are close together.

• When a solid is heated it expands the distance between its particles
become larger.
• When the solid is cooled it contracts and the particles move back
close to each other.

• When a liquid is heated the distance between its particles become

larger and it expands.

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 LIGHT
OBJECTIVES
3.2.3.1 Identify sources of light
3.2.3.2 Classify sources of light into natural and artificial.
3.2.3.3 Distinguish between luminous and non-luminous objects.
3.2.3.4 Demonstrate how light is reflected from different surfaces.

By the end of this lesson you should be able;

 Give at least 5 sources of light
 Differentiate between luminous and non-luminous objects
 Explain how light is being reflected in our eyes

What is light?
Light is a form of energy.
It travels in straight lines which we call rays.
When light rays enter the eye, they produce a sensation that we
call light.

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SOURCES OF LIGHT
Light can come from many sources.
a) The sun
The light that reaches the earth comes from the sun.
b) The moon and stars
At night the moon shines reflected sunlight on the earth. The moonlight can be quite bright.
c) Fires and flames
A burning fire, a burning candle or a burning paraffin or gas flame produce light and heat.
d) Lightning
Lightning flashes produce a very strong light that only lasts a very short time.
e) Fireflies
Fireflies are small insects that fly around at night.
KINDS OF LIGHT
There are two kinds of light. Light that is produced naturally and light that is produced
artificially.
a) Natural light
Natural light is light that is produced without people
having anything to do with it. Here are examples of
natural light sources.
The sun. The sun produces light and heat.
Lightning. Lightning is a very large electric spark in the sky. It lasts for a very short time.
Fireflies. They produce a flashing light from the back part of their bodies.
b) Artificial light
This is light that is produced from sources that people have made.
Fire and other flames. Anything that burns produces light and heat. A wood fire, a gas fire, a
burning candle or a burning paraffin lamp all produce light.
Electric light. In electric lights an electric current heats up a thin metal wire. This glows so
brightly that it produces light and heat. The electric current can come from a battery or from
the electric current in a wall plug. There are some kinds of light that do not give off heat. This
comes from glass tubes that can be straight or curved and are called fluorescent lights.
LUMINOUS AND NON-LUMINOUS BODIES
A luminous body or object is one that produces light.
The sun is a luminous body. A fire, a burning lamp and an
electric light bulbs are also luminous bodies because they give off light.

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A non-luminous body or object is one that does not produce light.
One can only see it because light from another light source falls on it. The moon is a non-
luminous body because it does not produce light (it is extremely cold). One can only see it
because the light from the sun falls on it.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
When light falls on any surface, it seems to bounce off that surface - almost like a ball will
bounce off a wall. This is called reflection.

The reflection of light is the same.

When a light beam falls on a very smooth surface like a mirror, it is bounced or reflected
back in such a way that it strikes some other place as a round spot of light. All the light was
reflected and stayed together.
When the light shines on a rough surface like a sheet of white paper it is reflected in different
directions and it seems to spread or scatter throughout the room.
Regular reflection and scattering of light
When light falls on a very smooth surface, like a mirror, it is reflected in the same way. The
light rays stay together. We call this regular reflection.
When light rays fall on a rough surface, they are also reflected but they do not stay close
together. They are scattered. This is called the scattering of light. If you can imagine the
surface very much enlarged, then it is easy to understand why this happens.

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 SOUND
OBJECTIVES
3.2.4.1 Identify different sources of sound.
3.2.4.2 Demonstrate that sound is a result of vibrations.
3.2.4.3 Explain why a material medium is required for sound to travel.
3.2.4.4 Construct a simple musical instrument.
3.2.4.5 Demonstrate how to change the pitch and loudness of sound produced by a vibrating
object.

Sound is a type of energy made by vibrations.

When an object vibrates, it causes movement in
surrounding air molecules.

An echo is a sound caused by the

reflection of sound waves from a
surface back to the listener.

What is sound?
Sound is a form of energy. It enters the ears and produces a sensation that we call sound.
Sources of sound
Where do sounds come from? Here are examples of sounds we hear every day.
 People talking or shouting.
 A bell ringing.
 A car hooting.
 The sound of thunder.
 The soccer referee blowing a whistle.
 A trumpet playing.
 A tin can falling off the shelf.

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Some of these sounds are pleasant and clear. These sounds are called musical sounds.
Other sounds are unpleasant and harsh. These sounds are called noise.
What causes sound?
Sound is caused by vibration
How does sound move?
When something makes a sound, it moves through the air until it passes into our ears. The
sound travels through the air.
Sound cannot travel in a vacuum. Sound can only travel through a material medium (air,
wood, steel, water, glass etc). Sound travels better through a solid than through air.
CHANGING A SOUND
When the rubber band is pulled tighter, it produces a higher note. We say the note has a
higher pitch. When the rubber band is stretched less it produces a note with a lower pitch.
The pitch of a musical note tells us how high or low the note is.
The lighter the rubber band is plucked, the softer the sound and the harder it is plucked the
louder the sound.

We can change the pitch of the sound from a vibrating object by making it vibrate faster or
slower. The faster the vibration, the higher the pitch. The slower the vibration the lower the
pitch of the note it produces. We can change the loudness of a note based on the strength of
the vibration. With a stronger vibration, the sound is louder. With weaker vibration the
sound is softer.

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 FORCE
OBJECTIVES
4.1.1.1 Describe force as a pull or a push.
4.1.1.2 Identify different kinds of forces.
4.1.1.3 Use a spring balance/force meter to measure force on a variety of objects
4.1.1.4 Describe the effects of force on an object.

What is force?
A force is a push or pull exerted by one object on another.

KINDS OF FORCES
There are many different kinds of forces.
Muscular forces
These are forces that are exerted by people and animals on an object. They use their muscles
to push or pull.

When you push a table across the room, you apply a force that acts when it
comes in contact with another object. For you to push the table you use
your muscles. Strong muscles will push will push the object far or faster.

Mechanical forces
These forces are exerted by machines. Some kind of engine or motor is used to push or pull.

Electric motors involve rotating coils of wire which are

driven by the magnetic force exerted by a magnetic
field on an electric current. They transform electrical
energy into mechanical energy.

Electric forces
Certain things can become electrically charged if they are rubbed. These charges can exert a
force that we call electric force.

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Magnetic forces
The force between the poles of different magnets is called a magnetic force. The magnets do
not have to touch because magnetic forces act over a distance.

Elastic forces
Certain things can be stretched or squeezed. We call them elastic materials. When they are
stretched or squeezed they pull or push back. This is called an elastic force.

1. It is a type of restoring force by which an object retains

its shape after the removal of a force. For example, when
rubber is stretched by applying a force then a restoring
force starts to act on it,
2. When the applied force is removed the rubber regains its
shape due to the restoring force acting.
3. This restoring force is called elastic force.

Gravitational force
When an object is tied to a spring, the spring stretches and becomes longer. This shows that
something is pulling the object downward just like something was holding the heavy object
to the floor. This is caused by a force called gravity.

Gravity is the force that attracts a body towards the center of the earth
or any other body which has mass.

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THE EFFECTS OF A FORCE
A force can cause two main changes to an object.

 It can change the shape of the object.

 It can change the movement or motion of the object.
 Changing the shape of an object
MEASURING A FORCE.
One can measure a force by using something that stretches when it is pulled, like a spring
scale or even a rubber band. One can measure the size of the force by how much it stretched.
The larger the force, the more the spring or rubber band stretches.

A spring scale, sometimes called a spring balance, is a device used to measure

the weight of an object. It hangs from above and consists of a spring with a
hook at the bottom where you can attach an object. Notice that we said a
spring scale measures the weight of an object, not its mass.

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 ELECTRICITY
OBJECTIVES
5.1.1.1 Describe static electricity.
5.1.1.2 Demonstrate how to produce static electricity.
5.2.1.1 Separate materials into electric conductors and insulators.
5.2.1.2 Describe current electricity.
5.2.1.3 Construct simple series circuits comprising of a battery/power supply and a switch to
make electrical devices work.
5.2.1.4 Demonstrate that electricity only flows in a complete (closed) circuit.
5.2.1.5 Demonstrate the effect of changing the number of cells in a series circuit on the
brightness of the bulb(s).
5.2.1.6 Demonstrate the effect of changing the number of bulbs in a series circuit on the
brightness of the bulbs.

STATIC ELECTRICITY
What is static electricity?
The word "static" means "not moving". Static electricity is electricity or an electric charge
that does not move - it stays in one place.
Producing static electricity
All static electricity is produced by rubbing something. The ruler became charged with
static electricity when it was rubbed with a cloth.
If you bring the ruler slowly towards the paper you can even
get it to jump up. The second thing you will see is that some
of the paper will fly off the ruler after being attracted. For
any piece of paper that does this, you will no longer be able
to pick it up with the plastic.

Like charges (charges that are the same) repel one another.
Unlike charges (opposite charges) attract one another.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric current
An electric current is a flow or current of electric charges from one place to another along a
conductor.
The electric current is produced by a cell or a battery. Some cells have one little raised button
on top. That is the positive terminal (always marked as a (+)
The bottom of the battery is the negative (marked (-).

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A battery

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIRECT CURRENT (DC) AND ALTERNATING

CURRENT (AC)
DIRECT CURRENT (DC)
The electric current flows from positive to negative (+ to -). This is called direct current
(DC) because it flows in one direction.

Direct Current is one type of

electric current that flows in only
one direction. It does not change
direction and flows in only one
direction, due to this gives its name
DC or Direct current. Electric
current flows in a conductor due
to the movement of electric charge.
So, in other words, we can say that
when the electric charge flows in
one direction inside the conductor,
then this type of current is called
DC or Direct Current.

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

The electricity used in homes and shops is a different kind. It has no positive or negative
terminals. This is called alternating current (AC) because it changes direction many times
each second. Alternating Current (AC) is a type of electrical current, in which the direction of
the flow of electrons switches back and forth at regular intervals or cycles. Current flowing
in power lines and normal household electricity that comes from a wall outlet is alternating
current.

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MAKING A CIRCUIT
To make a simple circuit, you need a:
1. Bulb
2. Conductor (make sure the cables are well insulated)
3. Battery (source of power with positive and negative sides)
4. Switch

When the switch is open we say it is an open circuit. When the switch is closed we call it a
closed circuit.

 On open circuit the lamp does not light. This means that there is no current flowing
through the circuit.
 On a closed circuit the current flows and the lamp lights up.
 An electric current can only flow through a closed circuit.

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

CONDUCTORS
A conductor is a material that will carry or conduct electricity from one place to another.
Metals like copper, iron, gold, aluminum, and silver are the best materials for conducting
electricity.

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Good conductors of electricity are materials that allow an electric current to flow through
them. Materials that do not easily allow an electric current to flow through them, are poor
conductors of electricity. Metals such as copper and aluminum are good conductors of
electricity because they can carry electricity. Rubber, plastic, and wood are poor conductors
of electricity as they cannot carry electricity through.
Why are you advised not to touch electricity or electric appliances with wet hands?

As shown below two circuits are shown, where one has impure water as the tester to
complete while the other has distilled water. It has been observed that the circuit completed
with impure water conducts the electricity and made the bulb glow. However, the other
circuit completed with distilled water does not conduct the electricity and the bulb doesn’t
glow. This is because impure water acts as a good conductor, as it contains impurities,
which help to carry the current through it. Distilled water does not contain anything that can
help to generate electricity through it and hence it is a bad conductor.
INSULATOR
An insulator is a material that will not conduct electricity but will keep it in one place.
Some common insulator materials are glass, plastic, rubber, air and wood.
CURRENTS IN A CIRCUIT
The current in a circuit is affected by
a) the number of cells
b) the number of lamps (globes/light bulbs).
If we increase the number of cells in the circuit, the lamp will shine brighter. This means that
the current is stronger. The strength of an electric current depends on the number of cells
in the circuit.
If we put more bulbs in a circuit, the light on the bulbs will be dimmer. This is because each
bulb uses up the current from the battery and the battery will finish faster.

Like charges attract, unlike charges repel. When charges stay in one place without moving
they produce static electricity.

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 MAGNETISM
OBJECTIVES
5.3.1.1 Investigate the properties of magnets.
5.3.1.2 Classify materials as magnetic or non-magnetic.
5.3.1.3 Demonstrate proper care for magnets.
5.4.1.1 Construct a simple electromagnet.
5.4.1.2 Demonstrate ways of increasing the strength of the electromagnet.
5.4.1.3 List the uses of electromagnets.
5.4.1.4 Explain the advantages of electromagnets over permanent magnets.

MAGNETISM
Magnetite is a rock mineral and one of the main iron ores. In the past people noticed that this
rock can attract bits of metal.

There are two most common magnets, these are bar magnets and horseshoe magnets. They
are called permanent magnets because they don't lose their magnetism.

What do you think will happen to a magnet when it breaks into two parts?
If a bar magnet is cut in half, it is not the case that one half has the north
pole and the other half has the south pole. Instead, each piece has its own
north and south poles

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PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
1. Magnets attract materials

Objects which are attracted to the magnet are those which are made of iron,
steel or nickel. Any material that is attracted by a magnet is called magnetic.
Other objects are not attracted (such as wood, plastic, paper, aluminium, copper
or lead.) Material that is not attracted by a magnet is called non-magnetic.

2. Magnets have poles

The strength of a magnet is concentrated at its ends. The ends of a magnets are called
poles. The North Pole and South Pole.

The magnetic field lines are closer or denser at the poles. So, the
magnetic field is strongest around the poles of the magnet. The
strength of a magnet is weaker in the middle and stronger at its
ends (poles).

3. Magnets show direction

If a bar magnet is freely suspended, it will swing until its one

end points towards the North Pole of the Earth and the other
side points towards the South Pole of the Earth. A freely
suspended magnet always points in the north-south direction.
The N pole of the magnet points to the North. The S pole
points South.

4. Magnets exert a force

Like poles repel and unlike poles attract one another.
When two magnets are placed with their like poles facing each other, the lines of force are
in opposite directions and hence like poles repel each other.

When the unlike poles of a bar magnet face each other the magnetic lines of force are in the
same direction and hence unlike poles attract each other.

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CARING FOR MAGNETS
Magnets are expensive and should be well cared for.
 Magnets must not be dropped or thrown around. Never use a magnet to hit something
else.
 Magnets must never be heated. This will destroy their magnetism.
 Don't try to force two like poles together. This will weaken the magnets.
 Magnets must not be left lying around loose. A piece of soft iron should be placed across
unlike poles. This is called a keeper.
 If two bar magnets are stored they must be side by side. Put a piece of wood between
them to stop them hitting one another.
ELECTROMAGNETISM
When insulated electrical wire is wound round an iron nail and the ends of the wire are
connected to a battery, the nail becomes a magnet. It is able to attract iron filings and paper
clips. This is a simple electromagnet. The nail had been magnetized by the electricity in the
wire. When the wires are disconnected from the battery, the paper clips fall off as the nail
loses most of its magnetism. Thus the nail only works as a magnet when there is electricity
flowing along the insulated wire. If there is a switch, this type of magnet can be switched on
and off. The more the number of turns around the nail, the stronger the magnet. The strength
of the magnet also increases when the electricity is increased.
Electromagnets are good in that they could be used to make strong temporary magnets that
can be switched on and off. Electromagnets are used for lifting car bodies in scrapyards and
at recycling centers. They are also used in electric bells and buzzers as well as in security
alarms.
 The rod is a magnet only when an electricity current flows in coils around it

 The stronger the current the stronger the magnetism

 The more windings there are around the iron rod, the stronger its magnetism.

 Uses of electromagnets are; used in earpiece of telephones

used in loud speakers used to pick heavy loads used in electric bells
 Advantages of electromagnets are; they can be switched off when they are not being
used
they can be made stronger or weaker they are much smaller and lighter

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 FOOD AND NUTRITION
OBJECTIVES
6.1.1.1 Identify the main food groups as bodybuilding, energy giving, protective and
supplementary.
6.1.1.2 Demonstrate proper handling of food.

What are food and nutrition?

Food is any solid (such as meat or potatoes) or liquid (such as milk) which we eat or drink to
provide energy for our bodies.
Nutrition is the process of digesting the food we eat so that it can be
broken down into simpler substances that our bodies can use.
Nearly all the food that we eat has to be digested (broken down into
simpler substances). Then our bodies can take it up to produce energy
or to grow. If one eats too much food one will get fat. If one eats too
little one will lose weight and become thinner.
Why do we eat food?
Food is the fuel for our bodies. We need food for many reasons, such as:
 to give us energy to work and play
 to build our bodies and make them grow
 to protect us against sickness and
 to help other processes in our bodies.
There are different food groups that do these things for us.
The main food groups
There are four main food groups. These groups are:
a) Energy-giving food (carbohydrates)
This kind of food gives our bodies energy to do work. Energy is also needed to keep the body
warm. The normal body temperature is 37°C
 Energy-giving foods contain fats and carbohydrates.
 These are digested and stored in the body and are then used to produce energy.
 Most of the food we eat is energy-giving.

b) Body building food (protein)

These foods produce muscles and bone. This makes the body grow. When muscles and other
tissues are worn away, they are replaced with new tissues. This also helps wounds to heal.

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c) Food to provide protection
This group of foods helps to protect the body against diseases and helps to keep the body
healthy.
Bodybuilding foods contain mainly protein and minerals.
Examples: Meat, fish, beans, peas, milk, etc.
d) Supplementary or other food
These foods contain minerals and vitamins. Examples: Fruit and fresh raw vegetables.
These are foods that help the body. processes to work better, Certain foods (such as fibre)
help to give better digestion, Water is necessary for transport in the body through the blood,
to remove waste material and also to keep the body cool through perspiration.
Examples: Cereals such as oats, whole wheat bread, fruit and vegetables, milk, water, etc.
THE PROPER HANDLING OF FOOD
We need food to live but there are also dangers in food.
Food may contain disease germs that could make us very sick.
There are many germs all around us. If food is not handled carefully and properly these
germs may multiply and become dangerous.
One can fall sick with food poisoning or diarrhea from eating unsafe food.
SAFETY MEASURES FOR PEOPLE WHO HANDLE FOOD.
a) People who handle food should:
 wear clean clothes,
 have clean hands with clean, short-cut nails,
 have no sores,
 if possible, wear gloves and
 be healthy
b) Food must always be covered with a lid or a sheet of gauze or a cloth.
c) The kitchen must be clean and tidy. Keep animals away from food.
The kitchen equipment (knives, bowls, etc.) must also be clean.
d) Keep all flies away from food and kill them. Flies carry lots of germs and spread diseases.
e) Once food has been cooked or prepared it should be eaten as soon as possible. If it must
be kept for some time, it should be kept as cold as possible. If possible it should be put in a
refrigerator or in an icebox.
f) One should not handle food with bare hands. One's hands always carry lots of germs that
can spoil the food. Rather use a fork, a spoon, tongs, etc.
g) Food, especially meat, must be cooked properly. This will kill germs that may be on the
food. It will also kill dangerous parasites like worm eggs. Warm food must be eaten quickly
because germs increase very quickly in warm food.

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 DISEASES
OBJECTIVES
6.2.1.1 Explain “disease”.
6.2.1.2 Classify diseases as communicable and non-communicable.
6.2.1.3 Identify communicable diseases in Botswana.

A disease is a condition that makes the body not to function properly and
makes a person sick. This normally happens if a person gets an infection from germs and the
body is not able to fight it. Some diseases can be passed from one person to another while
others cannot. Diseases can be spread by; droplets in air, eating contaminated food or
drinking contaminated water, bites from animals and contact with people who are sick.
Diseases that can be passed from one person to another are called contagious diseases.
A disease:
 makes a person feel sick or unwell,
 may cause pain, tiredness or weakness,
 often causes a rise in body temperature (make the person feel hot) and
 may even cause the sick person to die.
Sometimes people have discomfort or pain that is not caused by disease. A stomach pain is
not a disease. Headache is also not a disease and it will usually go away.
WHAT CAUSES A DISEASE?
Diseases are mainly caused by very small organisms called germs. They are so small that
they can only be seen under a powerful microscope. The most common causes are viruses,
bacteria, fungi and parasites.
There are different kinds of germs such as bacteria and viruses - but it is easier to call them
all germs.

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 EFFECTS OF DISEASES ON PEOPLE
 Causes pain
 Causes a fever
 Affect people’s lungs
 Can lead to death

Of the contagious diseases there are those that can be easily passed on and these are called
communicable diseases e.g. polio, chicken pox, tuberculosis (TB), mumps, measles, SARS,
influenza (flu) etc. Communicable diseases are mainly passed on in crowded places. While
some diseases are contagious, there are not necessarily communicable e.g. AIDS, tetanus,
meningitis etc.

COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
Communicable diseases are diseases that can be passed from a sick person to a healthy
person. They are also known as infectious diseases or transmissible diseases. They are
illnesses that result from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic (capable of causing
disease) biologic agents in an individual human or other animal host.
Examples of communicable diseases includes;
o Coronavirus
o Ebola
o Flu
o Hepatitis B
o HIV/AIDS
o Sexually Transmitted Disease
o Tuberculosis
o Measles

NONCOMMUNICABLE DISEASES
A non-communicable disease is a disease that is not transmissible directly from one person
to another. Non-communicable diseases include;
o Strokes
o Heart diseases
o Cancers
o Diabetes
o Chronic kidney disease
o Osteoarthritis
o Osteoporosis

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 SAFETY
OBJECTIVES
6.3.1.1 Explain the importance of safety rules.
6.3.1.2 Develop safety rules for a given situation.
6.3.1.3 Interpret safety symbols.
6.3.1.4 Demonstrate proper ways of putting out different fires.
6.3.2.1 Discuss the importance of traffic rules.
6.3.2.2 Explain why it is important to wear a safety belt.
6.3.3.1 Explain the importance of First Aid.
6.3.3.2 List the major items that should go into a First Aid kit.

SAFETY
What is safety?
Safety can be defined as freedom from those conditions that can cause death, injury,
occupational illness, or damage to or loss of equipment or property.
Safety rules are principles that controls people’s actions with the intention to lower the
occurrence or risk of injury, loss and danger to persons, property or the environment.
Accidents can occur whether one is at home, at school, in the playground and most
importantly at work. Safety is a major component of learning and doing science. For every
task that is done the element of safety must be considered. This is so because safety is
preventative by its nature. It prevents accidents before they can happen. In some cases when
safety procedures are not observed lives may be lost or permanent injuries might occur.
Many accidents can be prevented if we learn about:
 The dangers which are around us and
 The safety rules that can stop accidents from happening.
The most important safety rule is: Always play or work in a place where you are safe.
Normally in work places and science laboratories there are some symbols that are used to
direct and warn people on the possible dangers present in the area. In science laboratories
learners are expected to follow the safety rules for their own safety as well as the safety of
others.
The warning signs that we find on containers and around some places are safety symbols.
We need to understand them in order to respond appropriately.

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Safety rules
 Make a fire only in a protected place where there is no strong wind.
 Children should not play around fire.
 Close windows when fire is burning in a room.
 Label petrol containers and store it in a safe place.

SAFETY SYMBOLS
Safety symbols are required to warn and inform you of the possible risks that can cause
serious health issues or injuries. A safety or health sign informs and instructs the workers
using boards, illuminated signs, colours, acoustic signals, and hand and verbal signals.
To warn against dangerous and prohibited actions in a certain area. To highlight safeguards
and procedures that must be followed, or equipment that must be worn. To draw attention to a
nearby hazard or potentially dangerous situation. To direct people towards essential safety
gear and fire safety equipment.

Putting out fire

Fire will only continue burning if there is, fuel, heat and oxygen.
The only way to stop fire is by removing the heat, fuel and oxygen.

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Road safety
In Botswana road accidents have claimed many lives. Accidents on the road are normally due
to disobeying traffic rules by drivers and pedestrians. Many traffic rules and instructions are
given to drivers in a form of road signs.

 Do not drink and drive.

 Obey the speed limit.
 Do not use cell phones when driving.
 Ensure the vehicle is in a roadworthy condition.
 Do simple vehicle maintenance and pre-trip inspections.
 Ensure all vehicle occupants wear a seat belt.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SAFETY RULES

Safety rules are important as they make student to;
1. Have aware about the surroundings: There are many students who doesn’t bother about
their surrounding hazards. Once you get to know about the particular hazards that occur at
your school or classroom, then it will help you in reducing the risk and allow you to take the
precautionary steps.
2. Use tools appropriately: Take appropriate precautions while using machinery or any other
tool, instead of taking any shortcuts. Taking shortcuts is one of the biggest reasons behind
school loss. So, it is always recommended to use the correct tools and reduce the opportunity
of classroom injury.
3. Keep crisis exits which are easily accessible: In case there is an emergency, you will
need quick access to the exits. It is also advised to keep clear usage of equipment shutoffs
which might stop you from performing at emergency.
4. Update your teacher about the unsafe conditions: It is important that you keep updating
your teacher about the hazards or risks occur at classroom.
5. Stay alert: There are many students who usually compromise or ignore the alerts of
advance warning and due to this, a number of workplace injuries or fatalities occur.
First-aid is very important in that it can be used to save lives. Accidents often occur in
school, at the playground and at home. Therefore it is very important that one knows what to
do in the event of an accident. People often get cut, fall over, get burnt or scalded, drink
poisonous substances like paraffin, or are stung by insects or bitten by animals. It is very
important that when such accidents occur there is someone who can attend to the problem
before medical assistance is sort. For one to deal with these first-aid problems it is helpful to
have all the necessary equipment handy in a special box called the first-aid kit box.

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 HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVES
7.1.1.1 Explain “a system”.
7.1.1.2 Name the systems found in the human body.
7.1.1.3 State the function(s) of the digestive system, circulatory system and the reproductive
system.

HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS

What is a body system?
Cell

All living things (plants and

animals) are made of
building blocks, called
cells. They are so small that
one can only see them with
a microscope.
Cells in our bodies have
different shapes because
they have different jobs to
do. There are many
different types of cells in
the body including muscle
cells, liver cells, blood cells
and bone cells.

Organ
The human body is made of different
organs e.g. lungs, kidneys, liver, heart,
nose, eyes, bones etc. that work together
to do different functions. Some organs
occur in pairs while others occur in
ones. In some cases the organs work
together to do a common function.

A group of organs working together in this way are called a system. For instance, some
organs work together to carry blood around the body e.g. heart and blood vessels, while
others work together to digest and absorb food e.g. stomach, liver and intestines. However
some organs belong to more than one system e.g. the lungs belong to the circulatory system
and the respiratory system, and the liver belongs to the excretory system and the digestive
system. Systems found in the human body are: skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine,
cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and the reproductive system.

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 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestion is the process by
which: the food we eat is first
broken up into smaller
pieces. The finer food pieces
are further broken down into
very small substances that
can be taken up (absorbed)
and used in the body. The
remaining material not used
is finally passed out of the
body as waste.
The whole process of
digestion takes place in the
digestive system

THE RESPIRATORY/BREATHING SYSTEM

The respiratory system is the

network of organs and tissues
that help you breathe. It
includes your airways, lungs
and blood vessels. The muscles
that power your lungs are also
part of the respiratory system.
These parts work together to
move oxygen throughout the
body and clean out waste gases
like carbon dioxide.

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM It consists of bones and connective

tissue, including cartilage, tendons,
and ligaments. It's also called the
musculoskeletal system.
An adult’s skeleton contains 206
bones.

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 THE CIRCULATORY/BLOOD SYSTEM

The blood circulatory system is a

system of organs that includes the heart,
blood vessels, and blood which is
circulated throughout the entire body of
a human or other vertebrate. It includes
the cardiovascular system, or vascular
system, that consists of the heart and
blood vessels

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

In humans, female
and male
reproductive
systems work
together to
reproduce. There
are two kinds of sex
cells — sperm and
eggs. When a sperm
meets an egg, it can
fertilize it and
create a zygote.
This zygote
eventually becomes
a fetus. Both a
sperm and an egg
are needed for
human
reproduction.

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 SYSTEMS FUNCTION ORGANS INVOLVED
Skeletal The skeletal system provides support for the Bones, cartilage, tendons
body. It protects internal organs and provides and ligaments.
attachment sites for the organs and muscles.
Muscular Provides movement. Muscles work in pairs to Skeletal, muscles
move limbs, it also controls movement of
materials through some organs such as intestines,
and the heart, and the circulatory system.
Circulatory It transports nutrients, gases (such as oxygen), Heart, blood vessels
waste and hormones around the body.
Digestive Is responsible for breaking down the food and Mouth, esophagus,
absorption of nutrients in the body stomach, intestines
Reproductive Produces cells which allows organisms to Animals: ovaries, penis,
reproduce vagina, testes, etc
Plants: pollen anthers,
stamens, etc
Transport Move nutrients and water around the plant Roots, xylem, phloem,
stem
Gas exchange Allows gaseous exchange between the leaves and Leaves
the environment

Exercise
Use the words in the box below to fill in the missing words in the sentences.
Intestine type organ plants jobs body healthy system
In the human body, many cells of the same _____________ join together to form a tissue.
These tissues the join together to form an _____________________. An organ is part of the
_____________ that has one or more important ___________________ to carry out. All of
the organs work together to keep the body ___________________. The bodies of most
animals and _____________________ are made up of organs. Several organs working
together on one large task is called a ___________________________. For example, in the
human body, the mouth, gullet, stomach and ____________________ make up the digestive
system.
Match the following organs with their descriptions
Organ Description
it pumps blood around the body

brain
It helps with digestion of food

heart
It controls the rest of the body

stomach

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 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
OBJECTIVES
8.1.1.1 Discuss the physical differences between a boy and a girl.
8.1.1.2 Explain puberty.
8.1.1.3 Describe signs of puberty in both boys and girls.
8.1.1.4 Describe menstruation.
8.1.1.5 Investigate gender differences in society.

The difference between boys and girls

The main difference between boys and girls is their sexual organs. Boys have penis and girls
have vagina.

When born, boys are heavier than girls

Boys have strong muscles than girls

Puberty
Puberty is the time when your child moves through a series of significant, natural and healthy
changes.

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 These physical, psychological and emotional changes are a sign that the child is moving from
childhood towards adulthood. Before becoming an adult, every child undergoes puberty, a
period of rapid growth with many physical and emotional changes. It is at this point that a
boy begins to develop into a man and a girl begins to develop into a woman. The ability for a
boy to father a child and a girl to conceive a child currently exist. For boys, it typically starts
between the ages of twelve and fourteen, and for girls, between the ages of eleven and
thirteen.
In many ways, puberty is similar for everyone. A person going through puberty will:
 Develop pubic hair in the groin region, along with hair under the armpits
 Notice more body odor
 Probably get pimples on their faces because of changes in sweat and oil glands
 Change body shape – wider hips for females and broader shoulders for males
Boys

Muscles grow bigger and stronger

Start to grow hair in the pubic region

The penis grow large and start to produce

sperm.

Develop a deep voice

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 Girls
Puberty in girls usually begins between the ages of 8 and 13 and lasts for several years. It is
the time where the body develops and matures. Puberty prepares the girl’s body into an adult
who is ready to have a baby.

 Their breasts grow bigger

 Hips wider and rounder
 Grow hair in the pubic region and under the armpits.
 Start having menstruation or a period once every month.

A mature egg is released from the ovary into the fallopian tube to be
fertilized. During this period, the lining of the uterus becomes thick with blood to prepare for
receiving a fertilized egg. When the egg is not fertilized in a day or two, it dies and is expelled
together with the blood from the lining of the uterus from the body. This is usually indicated by the
flow of blood through the vagina. A period can cause some discomfort like cramps.

Gender differences in society

The gender differences between men and women are primarily biological and mainly role
oriented.
Every society assigns certain roles to men and certain roles to women. Women can do roles
that are known to be for men and likewise, men can do roles that are reserved for women.
Often gender roles are attributed to cultural norms and beliefs. Most of the differences
between men and women have been created by society and we learn them as we grow up.
This is why in some societies men do roles that would otherwise be played by women in our
society and vice versa.

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 Standard 6

Topics
1. History of Science
2. The Environment
3. Water
4. Weather
5. The solar system
6. Matter
7. Energy
8. Acids and alkali
9. Force of friction
10. Levers
11. Static electricity
12. Current electricity
13. Magnets
14. Electromagnets
15. Diseases
16. Road accidents in Botswana
17. Digestive system
18. Reproductive system

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 SCIENCE AND SCIENTISTS
OBJECTIVES
1.2.1.1 Identify traditional scientific practices in use in Botswana, e.g. making clay pots.
1.2.2.1 Describe at least three major scientific innovations around the world.
1.2.2.2 Name two scientists and explain how they contributed to scientific knowledge.
1.2.2.3 Discuss how the invention of the wheel has impacted on the transport system.
1.2.3.1 Identify careers that require the application of science and technology.
1.2.3.2 Explain how scientific knowledge and skills are integral to a variety of careers.
1.2.3.3 Discuss the gender dimensions of science careers.

Traditional scientific practices in Botswana

a) Fermentation
This is the process of breaking down substances by bacteria, yeasts, or other
microorganisms. For example, when milk is left outside a refrigerator, it turns sour, we
say the milk has fermented. When milk ferments, the bacteria breaks down the milk sugar
(lactose) into an acid that makes the milk very sour.
Fermentation can also break down substances such as sugar and starch to produce
alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Sugar + starch = carbon dioxide and alcohol
Baking bread – the bacteria in the yeast break down the starch into the meal and the
carbon dioxide causes the bread to rise.
When yeast is added to bread dough, carbon dioxide is released that causes the bread to
rise.
Sugar  carbon dioxide + energy

yeast carbon
dioxide

bread

bread
dough
Making beer – the sugar in grains or grapes is changed into alcohol.

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 b) Distillation
This is the process of purifying (making something
clean) a liquid by heating and cooling. If a solution
such as salt-water is heated, the water will boil and
evaporate to form water vapor. The salt will remain
behind. When the steam or water vapour is cooled, it
will condense and turn back into a liquid to form clean
or purified water. This process is called distillation.

The process of distillation has been used in Botswana to produce traditional beer such
as sekhokho. To make sekhokho, sugar, water and sorghum malt are needed. The
sugar, water and sorghum malt are mixed together and the mixture is left for 2 days
(48 hours) to ferment. The fermented mixture is heated and boiled in a sealed
container with a pipe outlet. The pipe heated passes through a container filled with
cold water. When the fermented mixture is heated, the alcohol in the mixture changes
into vapour. When the vapour passes through the pipe it is cooled by water and the
alcohol condenses. It comes out of the other end of the pipe as liquid alcohol or
sekhokho.

c) Dyeing
A dye is a substance that can change the colour of several material. It is called a
colourant. The dye is fixed to the fibres of the material so that is cannot be removed.
Batswana have used this method of colouring materials for many years.

d) Clay pots
Clay soil is a very fine soil that is made up of very small particles. Clay soil may have
different colours. When clay soil is mixed with water, it forms a very smooth, sticky
substance. Traditionally, Batswana have made pots and other containers out of clay for
many years. When the pots are backed or heated to a very high temperature in a fire, they
become hard and waterproof.

e) Preservation
This is a method that is used to keep food fresh for a longer time. This done by reducing
the number of bacteria or germs that can spoil the food. Preserved food may look or taste
a little different, but it is safe to eat. Batswana have used many preservation methods such
as;
Sun drying – in this process, the food is dried by removing moisture
Belton (segwapa) – this is a process of drying meat under natural temperatures, humidity
and circulation of the air, including direct influence of sun rays, is the oldest method of
meat preservation. It consists of a gradual dehydration of pieces of meat cut to a specific
uniform shape that permits the equal and simultaneous drying of whole batches of meat.

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 Salting – in this process, salt is used to kill the bacteria and keeps the food from spoiling.

f) Selection
This is the process of choosing the best of growing things. In this selection, the bulls or
rams are chosen for breeding cattle, goats and sheep. Selection describes the process of
choosing animals that meet the requirements of the breeding objective and will, in a
breeding enterprise, pass particular traits onto their offspring. If the best male animal
(stud) is chosen to breed with, the young animals born (offspring) will be of better
quality. One can also select and plant the seeds from the best plants to improve the next
crop. Batswana have used this method of improving livestock and crops for many years.

SCIENTIFIC INNOVATIONS
The word innovation means coming up with new discoveries that will help to make life easy.
Examples of innovations include;
1. Vaccination
Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way of protecting you against harmful
diseases, before you come into contact with them. A doctor called Edward Jenner had
found out that people who developed
cowpox (a very mild disease) from working with cows never
became sick with smallpox. He took some pus from cowpox sores
and put it into scratches on a boy’s arm. The boy’s body produced
antibodies against the cowpox and this also protected him against
smallpox. He became immune to smallpox. Dr. Jenner then developed the
system of using weakened disease germs to make a vaccination.

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2. Pasteurization
This is the process that kills microbes and prevents spoilage in beer, milk, and other
goods. The process of pasteurization was discovered by a scientist called Louis Pasteur.

milk  bacteria  fermentation = sour milk

Fresh milk turns sour because of bacteria. That bacteria makes the
milk to ferment and turn sour. Luis Pasteur says that for milk to stay fresh
for a long, we need to kill the bacteria so that the milk does not ferment.
He says for us to kill the bacteria we need to heat the milk and cool it quickly.

3. Antibiotics
Antibiotics are medicines that help stop infections caused by bacteria. They do this by
killing the bacteria. A doctor called Alexander Fleming discovered
penicillin. This discovery led to the introduction of antibiotics that
greatly reduced the number of deaths from infection. Many antibiotics
have been developed to save people from diseases.

When you take an

antibiotic, it enters your
bloodstream and travels
through your body,
killing bacteria but not
human cells.

GREAT SCIENTISTS
a) Thomas Edison (1847 – 1931)
Thomas Edison was an American scientist who invented more useful things such as;

o The electric light bulb in 1879

o The phonograph (a record player) in 1879
o The first “talking picture” or movies
o An electricity generation system for lighting up towns.

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b) Alexander Graham Bell (1847 – 1922)
The telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell. The sound wave
from a person’s voice are changed into electric pulses. These pulses are
carried over an electric wire from the sender to the receiver. At the other
end, the electric pulses are changed back into sounds. People were able to
communicate over a long distance.

c) The wheel
The first wheel was made of solid wood and they were very heavy. The wheel was later
improved by taking out the center and leaving a rim and four spokes. This
made the wheel lighter. After people had leant how to melt and bend iron,
they put iron bands around the edge or rim of the wheel. Later all wheels
were made of iron.

Later people learned how to make rubber or pneumatic tires from the sap of the rubber
tree and they invented rubber tyres.
The wheel has improved all methods of transport in the following ways

 The wheel makes vehicles move faster

 It is easy to turn a light wheel than a heavy wheel
 Vehicles with rubber wheels can be made smaller and lighter
 Rubber tyres last much longer than wooden wheels
 Vehicles with rubber wheels are much quicker

SCIENCE AND CAREERS

Career is a long term paying job that someone is trained for.
Scientific knowledge is very important when it comes to careers. The world today is much
more scientific than it was in the past and most of us need to have some science knowledge to
find good jobs

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CAREERS THAT NEEDS/REQUIRES KNOWLEDGE OF SCIENCE
What is science? The study of everything around us
There are few careers that do not require knowledge of science and technology. Below are
examples of careers that requires knowledge and application of science.

CAREER SUBJECT TO STUDY

Medical doctor Science and Biology
Dentist Science and Biology
Engineer Science
Pharmacist Science and Biology
Veterinarian Science and Biology
Electrical engineer Science
Physiotherapist Science and Biology
Nurse Science and Biology
Optometrist Science and Biology

CAREERS THAT NEEDS/REQUIRES KNOWLEDGE OF TECHNOLOGY

What is technology? The application of scientific knowledge into finding new thing that
makes life easier.
The following are careers that needs one to have application knowledge
1- Motor mechanic
2- Plumber
3- Electrician
4- Computer technician
5- Post office technician
WOMEN IN SCIENCE CAREERS
Most science related careers are dominated by men. There are many people who think that
women should not take up science careers because they think it is a man’s world. This is a
very big mistake. Some of the most important scientific discoveries in the world have been
made by women. Many years ago women were not allowed to take science courses at
university or to work in laboratories.
Yet Marie Curie, who was born in Poland, received two Nobel Prizes (the highest scientific
award in the world) – one for physics and one for Chemistry. Lise Meitner (who was born in
Germany) made some of the most important discoveries in nuclear physics (the study of
atoms and their parts).
There are not enough people in the world who follow scientific careers and it is important
that girls be encouraged to study science subjects and take up scientific or technological
careers. It is obvious that if girls or women had been allowed and encouraged to take up
science careers in the past, we could probably be talking of more scientific innovations or
discoveries.

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 THE ENVIRONMENT
OBJECTIVES
2.1.1.1 Explain the terms: habitat, population and community.
2.1.1.2 Describe different kinds of habitats found in their locality.
2.1.1.3 Show the relationship between producers and consumers in a food chain and food
web.
2.1.1.4 Predict how a change in an environmental factor can affect the number of organisms
in a population

Every living organism on earth depends on and interacts with other living and non-living
things to stay alive. Organisms depend on other organisms for food for example, and also
depend on their environment for protection and a place to stay.
What is the environment?
The environment is everything around us. The environment is made up of both living and
non-living things which interact with one another.
Do you remember the process of photosynthesis?

 Plants needs air (carbon dioxide) and water to produce food. The food (plants) is eaten by
both people and animals.
 People needs oxygen to survive, the oxygen comes from plants. Plants need carbon
dioxide for the process of photosynthesis, and that carbon dioxide comes from people.
 Animals, people and plants needs water to survive, that water comes from the clouds. For
the cloud to be formed, the water on the ground has to be heat by the sun and evaporate.
 Plants needs the soil to grow and for minerals.

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What is a species?
A species is a group of plans or animals that are exactly the same (identical). Species are
groups of organisms which are classified by their ability to mate and give birth to viable
offspring.
What is a population?
A populations is a group of animals or plants of the same species that are found in a certain
place at that time. All Batswana living in Botswana on a particular day are part of a
population.
What is a community?
A community is a group of different species of plants and animals that live together in a
certain area.
What is an ecosystem?
An ecosystem is an arrangement of a community of living things and their non-living
environment. In such arrangement, the living and non-living things depend on one another. If
one factor changes, it will affect all the other.
What is a habitat?
A habitat is the place where plants and animals live. The habitat or living space could be on
land, in water, in the air or under the ground or under rocks. The animals or plants live there
because it suits them.
Different kinds of habitats
Different animals and plants will live in a particular habitat as long as that habitat provides;
 Enough food
 Shelter and protection
 Enough space for it to live

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FOOD CHAIN
What is a food chain?
A food chain is a list which shows how one living organism feed on another. It gives a
picture of how different living organisms depend on one another. A food chain always starts
with a green plant. Green plants are called producers because they produce food through
the process of photosynthesis. Animals can now eat or consume the food that is produced by
the plants. Animals cannot produce their own food and therefore they are called consumers
(users).
Food chains always begin with plants. Animals that eat plants are called HERBIVORES.
Animals that eat other animals are called CARNIVORES. Carnivores are also called
PREDATORS and the animals that they hunt are called the PREY.
A sample food chain
A green plant is the producer
Animals are consumers
Primary consumer is the first animals that eats the plant.
Secondary consumer is the first animal that eat the first animals.

The plant is a producer

The deer is a primary consumer
The lion is a second consumer.

The flower (plant) is a producer

The flies is primary consumer
The frog is a secondary consumer
The snake is a tertiary consumer
The eagle is an apex predator

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A FOOD WEB
A food web is a tool that shows the feeding relationship among species with a specific
habitat.

The members or links in a food chain or food web all depend on one another. Without the
producer, there can be no consumer. If there is no grass, all primary consumers will die, and
this will affect the secondary consumer and the tertiary consumer.
Environmental factors
The environment is everything around us. Each aspect or part of the environment is called an
environmental factor.
Examples of environmental factors include;
 Temperature
 Rainfall
 Type of soil
 Number of plants
 Number of animals
If any of these factors change, the other factors will be affected somehow.

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 NATURE CONSERVATION
OBJECTIVES
2.1.2.1 Describe traditional and modern ways of conserving wild animals and plants in
Botswana.
2.1.2.2 Identify protected animal and plant species in Botswana.
2.1.2.3 Discuss the social, economic and environmental benefits of conservation to Botswana.
2.1.2.4 Discuss how communities around protected areas can benefit from tourism.

Nature is everything that exists in the environment, both living and non-living things
Conservation is the use of natural resources wisely so that they can be used by the future
generation.
THE IMPORTANCE OF NATURE CONSERVATION
A country and its people depend on natural resources such as soil, water, minerals, plants
and animals. These natural resources have to be protected so that the future generation can
also benefit from them.
CONSERVATION IN BOTSWANA
The traditional and moderns ways of conserving animals in Botswana
Traditional ways of conserving animals Modern ways of conserving animals
 Only a few animals would be hunted and killed for food  There are game reserves where
 Only animals were mostly hunted for food animals are protected by the
 Pregnant animals were not hunted Government for conservation.
 Young people were encouraged to conserve the nature  There are laws that governs and
through story telling by their elders. control hunting of animals in and
 Totems (direto) helped to conserve animals because outside the game reserves.
people were not allowed to eat animals which  A heavy sentence is imposed for
symbolized their tribe. illegal killing of a protected animals
 Hunting seasons were important as people were allowed such as giraffe
to hunt and kill small animals at any time but were not  Some animals such as kubu and
allowed to do the same on big animals. impala may be hunted under special
 In the past big predators were only hunted on special conditions.
occasions such as the inauguration of the chief and the  If someone is interested in hunting,
graduation of initiation students. they first apply for a license for
 Big predators were to be hunted only if they were a threat hunting
to people 
 In the past people had believes and taboos which
prevented them from killing animals.

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The traditional and moderns ways of conserving plants in Botswana
Traditional ways of conserving plants Modern ways of conserving
plants
 Many trees and herbs, for example the devil’s claw  There are national parks
(sengaparile), morukujane and many others were used where plants are protected.
as traditional medicine therefore they were not allowed  Primary and secondary
to be cut down unnecessarily and were protected. schools teach students on the
 Only wood from certain trees were used for firewood. importance of conserving
Trees that were not used for firewood were protected. plants
 Indigenous fruit trees, such as morula, morojwa,  People are encouraged to
moretologa and mogoragorwane were very useful and plant more trees than they are
were protected. cutting.

PROTECTED ANIMALS AND PLANTS IN BOTSWANA

A) PROTECTED ANIMALS
There are many animals that are protected by the government. These animals may not be
hunted or killed anytime. If someone is found hunting or killing these animals, a heavy
sentence is imposed on them. These animals include;
 Brown hyena Partially protected animals in Botswana
 Cheetah
▪ Lion
 Giraffe
 Hippopotamus ▪ Leopard
 Rhinoceros ▪ Elephant
 Wild dog ▪ Eland
▪ Sable Antelope
B) PROTECTED PLANTS
▪ Chobe Bushbuck
These plants are protected in the state land;
Timber trees
Pod mahogany
Rhodesian teak (mucus)
Tsaudi
Fruit trees
Baobab (mowana)
Mozinzilla
African Ebony (mokochong)
THE BENEFITS OF CONSERVATION TO BOTSWANA
These are the advantages of benefits of conserving natural resources. The benefits are divided
into; social, economic and environmental
A) Social benefits
 People get pleasure from viewing the natural beauty and wildlife of Botswana
 We are conserving our natural heritage for future generation
 Children can learn about wild animals and plants by watching them in their natural
surroundings.

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B) Economic benefits
 Source of tourism – tourists are attracted by the plants and animals in Botswana. They
visit Botswana to view the fauna and flora of the country.
 Source of income – as people visit the national parks and game reserves, they pay and
the government is able to have money to improve the country.
 Source of employment – people are employed in hotels, safari companies and game
reserves

C) Environmental benefits
 The environment is not damaged
 Rare plants and animal species are able to survive
 Plants help to reduce carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and they produce oxygen.
Plants also help to reduce soil erosion

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 POLLUTION
OBJECTIVES
2.1.3.1 Identify human activities that may lead to pollution of air, land and water.
2.1.3.2 Investigate the effects of pollution on the environment and on people’s lives

Definition; Pollution is the process by which harmful or dangerous substances are put in the
environment. The substances that causes pollution are called pollutants.
Pollution can make the air we breathe and the water we drink very dirty and cause bad
health conditions to people. Pollution can also cause harm to the soil and the plans will not
grow well.
Three kinds of pollution
1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Pollution to the land or soil pollution
AIR POLLUTION
Air is polluted when it contains substances that are harmful to the environment.
These can be;
 harmful or poisonous gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide
 very small particles from volcanic dust that one cannot see
 larger particles

CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

Wood fire – wood is used for cooking and keeping warm. Fire releases smoke of carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide in the air which can be poisonous and harmful to people and
animals. They can also cause the greenhouse effect.
Burning fuels – most of air pollution is caused by burning of fuels such as coal, oil, petrol,
diesel and gas. Burning the fuels releases smoke and harmful gases into the atmosphere.
Dust – dust comes from roads, bare patches of soil bare ploughed land. Deforestation leaves
the soil bare and easy to be blown away by wind and water (soil erosion) and can lead to air
pollution.
Forest or bush fire – during the dry season when the plants are dry, there are many bush
fires which are started deliberately by individuals. These bush fires can contaminate the air
we breathe.
Burning of waste – people burn waste such as paper, plastics, old tyres and cleared grass
from their lands. Burning of these waste materials causes air pollution. People should be
encouraged to recycle

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CONTROLLING AIR POLLUTION
 The emission of gaseous pollution into the air from factories is commonly controlled by
placing substances in chimneys that absorb the gas as it moves up and out of the chimney.
 Using alternative sources of energy such as wind, sunlight, water and biogas instead of
fossil fuels.
 Enforcing regulations to reduce emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
 Using catalytic converters in vehicles to remove sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and
carbon monoxide.
 Using unleaded petrol, so that no lead dioxide is produced.
 Designing vehicle engines that burn petrol at lower temperature.
 Designating smokeless zones, especially in areas with large population such as city
centres.

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a
result of human activities.
Three main causes of water pollution;
 germs
 chemicals
 soil particles
Germs
Dangerous germs can easily get into the water we drink and use. People often let untreated
sewage flow into rivers. When toilets and sewage pipes leak, germs can easily get in rivers,
wells and boreholes. This can cause a serious health hazard.
Chemicals
People throw leftover chemicals in the rivers. The chemicals we use are home for cleaning,
the chemicals we use at the farms such as pesticides and herbicides as well as fertilizers are
thrown in the rivers, wells and boreholes. This can cause water pollution and be dangerous
for plants, animals and people.
Soil particles
If farmers used poor farming methods such as cutting down trees (deforestation) and burning
plants when clearing the crop fields, the soil is left bare. Wind can blow away the top layer
of the soil easily. This causes dust and can pollute the air. Rain can wash away the top soil
into the rivers and streams. It pollutes the water.
CONTROLLING WATER POLLUTION
 Treating sewage in order to remove solids and toxins.
 Using biodegradable fertilisers and detergents that are broken down naturally
 Using compositing toilets that break down bacteria in waste material
 Strengthening the legislation on waste disposal
 Providing waste bins along public rivers and beaches
 Using modernized landfills instead of dumping waste in waterways
 Promoting oil collection and recycling plants
 Intensifying public education about water pollution

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SOIL POLLUTION
The three main causes of soil pollution are;
 waste or rubbish
 chemicals
Waste or rubbish
People throw waste materials every day and it is becoming more and more. Many people
carelessly litter or dump rubbish and waste such as papers, plastics, cans and bottles in the
environment. These litters and dumped waste pollute the environment.
Chemicals
Many farmers and gardeners use special chemicals. These chemicals are used to kill weeds
and insects. Farmer also use fertilizers for their plants to grow well. If these chemicals are not
used well and are exposed to the environment, they can be poisonous to the animals and
plants. This will kill more animals and plants will not grow well.

CONTROLLING LAD POLLUTION

 Recycling solid waste and litter
 Producing and using biodegradable plastics
 Recycling litter to manufacture new products
 Promoting biogas digesters that produce fuel from manure and other waste
 Making modernized landfills that can process waste instead of just burying the waste
 Using organic litter to make compost heaps
EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON PEOPLE’S LIVES AND THE ENVIRONMENT
A) Effects of pollution on people’s lives
 Causes more germs and bacteria in the surrounding and make people more exposes to
diseases
 Polluted air can cause harm to people’s lungs and eyes
 If people breathe the dust from mining activities it cause lung diseases
 Polluted soil can lead to poor or less agriculture production
 Polluted water can cause diseases if people drink it.

B) Effects of pollution on the environment

There are two main effects of pollution on the environment; global warming (caused by
greenhouse effects) and acid rain.

 Global warming (the greenhouse effect)

A greenhouse is a building with glass walls and roof. Plants are kept in the green house. Heat
from the sun shines through the glass and keeps the plant warm so that they grow well. The
heat rays cannot escape from the greenhouse. This keeps the inside of the greenhouse
warm on every cold nights. Farmers and gardeners can grow plants in places where it is
usually too cold for them.

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When the sun shines on the earth during the day, it heats up the air and the soil. At night the
heat from the earth is radiated away to the sky and the earth cools down again. But with
serious air pollution this does not happen. Carbon dioxide and other gases produced when
wood and other fuels are burned, collect in the air high above the earth.

They form a blanket and during the night the heat from the earth cannot radiate away. This
will cause the earth to warm up slowly. This is called global warming. Scientists says the
earth has warmed up so much already that huge ice fields in very cold places and high
mountains are melting away.

Water is flowing into the sea and scientists expect the sea to rise so much during the coming
years that many cities near the sea will soon be under water.

Effects of global warming

 The polar ice caps will melt and cause a rise in the sea level. This will result in flooding
of low-lying areas around the world.
 In some places, rainfall could double, whereas other places could become more dry and
desert-like.
 This may lead to the disappearance of some plants and animal species.

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ACID RAIN
Acid rain is called that because certain gases dissolve in the rain and turn it slightly acid.
These gases are produced mainly by smoke from burning coal and engine exhausts.
When the rain falls on the stone and cement on walls and other structures, the weak acid
slowly dissolve (eats away) the stone and cement. In many countries, lovely statues have
been so badly damaged that they cannot be repaired anymore.
Trees and many other animals are also damaged and even killed after some time by acid rain.
Young, tender plants are especially badly affected.
Effects of acid rain
 If the soil becomes too acidic, trees are damaged.
 Damage is done to building, stonework and metal fences.
 Young, tender plants are damaged.

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 SUBSTANCES DISSOLVING IN WATER
OBJECTIVES
2.5.1.1 Classify substances as soluble or insoluble in water.
2.5.1.2 Investigate the effect of temperature, particle size and stirring on dissolving.
2.5.1.3 Describe a saturated solution.
2.5.1.4 Describe a suspension.

What is dissolving?
When you mix sugar and hot water in a container, the sugar will eventually disappear after
shaking the containing. We say the sugar has dissolved in the water.

 Sugar is called a solute

 Water is called a solvent
 The mixture of water and sugar is called a solution.

SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE SUBSTANCES

Substances that dissolve in water are called soluble
Substances that do not dissolve in water are called insoluble.
Sugar and salt are soluble because they can dissolve in water
Sand is insoluble because it cannot dissolve in water

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MAKING SUBSTANCES DISSOLVE FASTER
The following are ways of making solutes to dissolve faster in water.
1. Shaking or stirring the water (shaking of stirring makes substances dissolve faster in
water)
2. Using hot water (substances dissolve faster in hot water than cold water)
3. Using fine sugar (the smaller the particles of a substances the faster it can dissolve)

HOW MUCH SOLUTE CAN DISSOLVE IN WATER?

When you mix sugar and water and shake it, the sugar will disappear. When you keep adding
more and more sugar, the other sugar will not be dissolved and remain at the bottom of the
cup. We say the solution now saturated. This means the water cannot dissolve the sugar
anymore.

A saturated solution is one that cannot dissolve any more solute.

A SUSPENSION
A suspension is milky because very small particles do not dissolve and are suspended in the
water.

HARD AND SOFT WATER

OBJECTIVES
2.5.2.1 Distinguish between hard and soft water.
2.5.2.2 Describe the effects of hard water on household utensils, water pipes and drip
irrigation pipes etc.
2.5.2.3 Demonstrate ways of softening hard water.

What is the difference between hard and soft water?

When we wash our hands or clothes with soap, the soap dissolve in water and make form.
The form is called lather. We say the soap has lathered in water. It is the lather that removed
dirt.
 Water that does not lather with ordinary soap is called hard water
 Water that lather with ordinary soap is called soft water.
The soap solution lathers best in the rainwater or distilled water. We say this is soft water.

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WHAT CAUSES HARD WATER?
Hard water is caused by calcium and magnesium salts that are dissolved in the water.
Most of hard water comes from boreholes or wells. The water comes from underground
spaces in the soil or between the rocks made of limestone (calcium carbonate and
magnesium carbonate).
Rainwater that does not come in contact with the rocks and is very soft. Rain water is
usually quite soft because it comes from rain. Distilled water (used in car batteries) is very
pure and very soft.
PROBLEMS CAUSED BY HARD WATER
 If hard water is used for washing clothes, it forms a dirty scum on the water surface. This
makes clothes sticky
 To make hard water lather one has to use a lot of soap. This waste soap
 When hard water is heated strongly or boiled, some of the salts can break up. They
change to carbonate salts that form a very hard layer inside hot water pipes, kittles,
boilers and even irrigation pipes. This is called scale or fur. It blocks the water pipes.
 The radiator of motorcar engine may become blocked by scale and then the engine will
overheat. This will damage the car engine.

SOFTENING HARD WATER

There are ways to soften hard water before it is used;
a) Use more soap – if one add and uses more soap on hard water, the soap will break some
of the salts and the water will lather.

b) Use washing soda – adding washing soda to hard water breaks up the salts that makes the
water hard and will later lather well.

c) Use special apparatus – one can use a special water softening apparatus. It is connected
to the water tap. Chemicals inside the container removes the salts that causes the hardness
and soft water will flow out of the container.

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 WEATHER AND CLIMATE
OBJECTIVES
2.6.1.1 Describe the difference between weather and climate.
2.6.1.2 Define basic terms associated with weather systems.

What is the difference between weather and climate?

Weather is the condition of the atmosphere over a short period of time.
Climate is the condition of the atmosphere over a long period of time.
People who study weather called meteorologists. They record what the weather is like each
day.
Elements of weather include; (name the instruments uses to measure the following elements
of weather)
1. Temperature __________________________
2. Rainfall __________________________
3. Wind speed __________________________
4. Wind direction __________________________
5. Humidity __________________________
6. Air pressure __________________________
7. Sunshine __________________________
WEATHER SYSTEMS
The earth is surrounded by moving air. Warm air rises into the atmosphere. Cool air sinks
towards the earth’s surface. Air also moves from areas of high pressure towards areas of low
pressure. The movement of air around the earth results in what is known as weather system.
The weather is caused by weather systems.
Basic terms used in weather systems
1. Air mass – air that has the same temperature and amount of moisture and which
covers a huge area of the earth surface
2. Anti-cyclone – an area of high pressure caused by cold air sinking towards the earth’s
surface
3. Front – the boundary between different types of masses of air
4. Cold front – where cold air replaces warm air
5. Warm front – where warm air replaces cold air
6. Depression – an area of low air pressure caused by warm air rising into the
atmosphere. It is also known as a cyclone
7. Hurricane – a large, rotating, severe storm that forms within a low pressure system
over ocean area between the tropics
8. Tornado – a severe storm that occurs when cold and warm air meet and rotate during
thunderstorms.

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EXAMPLES OF WEATHER SYSTEMS
 Depression or cyclone: low pressure weather system
When the sun heats the air close to the ground, it rises into the atmosphere. When the
warm air rises, the air pressure on the earth’s surface decreases because warm air is light.
This creates a low pressure weather system called a cyclone or depression.

Usually cyclones bring rain and thunderstorms because as the warm, moist air rises, it
cools and forms clouds. When the clouds become saturated with water droplets, the water
falls back to earth as rain or snow. Sometimes the thunderstorms are severe and may
cause serious damage on land.

 Hurricanes are large, severe, rotating storms that sometimes forms over warm oceans
between the tropics. Hurricanes are also known as typhoons or tropical cyclones.
Hurricanes bring very heavy rain and strong winds that blow at speed of over 100
kilometers per hour.

 Tornadoes occur within low pressure thunderstorm area. They form when warm, moist
air and cold, dry air meet and the air begins to rotate. As the air rotates, a funnel forms at
the bottom of the huge thunderstorm clouds. If the funnel touches the earth’s surface, it
can move very fast across the ground, destroying everything in its path.

 Anti-cyclone: high pressure weather system

Cool air is heavier than warm air. Cool air in the atmosphere sinks towards the earth’s
surface. As cool air sinks, the air pressure on the earth’s surface increases. This creates a
high pressure weather system called an anti-cyclone
There are summer and winter anti-cyclones weather patterns. An area with high air
pressure usually has calm weather.

Summer anti-cyclone weather Winter anti-cyclone weather

 Hot days  Cold days and even colder nights
 Few or no clouds  Few or no clouds
 Light or gentle wind  Fog and frost forms at night
 Dry

 Warm from weather systems

A warm from is where warm air replaces cold air. When the warm air meets the cold air,
the warm air rises and form clouds in the sky as it cools. The temperatures rise and it
becomes warmer and more humid as the warm air moves over an area.

 Cold from weather system

A cold front is where cold air replaces warm air. The temperature drops and it becomes
cooler as the cool air moves over an area. The cold air moves slowly and pushes the warm
air ahead of it. The warm air then moves rapidly upwards. The warm air forms clouds
which can bring a sudden downpour of heavy rain for a short time.

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 THE SUN, THE MOON AND THE EARTH
OBJECTIVES
2.7.1.1 Explain the phases of the moon (apparent shape and size).
2.7.1.2 Explain the occurrence of a lunar eclipse.
2.7.1.3 Explain the occurrence of a solar eclipse.
2.7.1.4 Demonstrate proper ways of observing a solar eclipse

Phases of the moon

Phases of the moon are different ways the moon looks to us.
 First quarter moon
Half of the moon is bright and the other half is dark
 Secondary(last) quarter moon
Half of the moon is bright and the other half is dark
 Full moon
The whole moon is bright
 New moon
The whole moon is dark
 Crescent moon (waxing moon

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What causes the phases of the moon?
 The moon does not produce its own light like the sun or the stars. The moon is non-
luminous because it does not produce its own light. The sun and stars are luminous
because they produce their own light.
 We can only see the moon because the light from the sun falls on it. The parts that
look bright are in full sunshine. The part that is dark is in the shadow where light
does not fall.
 What we call moonlight does not really come from the moon but it is the light from
the sun being reflected on the moon
 The moon takes about 28 days to go around the earth once.

ECLIPSE
Eclipse is formed when the bodies of sun, earth and the moon are in straight line during the
movement of the earth.
LUNAR AND SOLAR ECLIPSE
The word eclipse means to darken
Lunar means the moon
LUNAR ECLIPSE
A lunar eclipse or an eclipse of the moon means that the moon is being covered by darkness.
A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes into the shadow of the earth. Because the moon
is then on the side of the Earth further from the sun, it only happens at a full moon.

SOLAR ECLIPSE
A solar eclipse happens during daytime when the light from the sun is blocked out by the
moon. When this happens, it becomes nighttime for about an hour. The solar eclipse happens
when the moon passes between the earth and the sun.

Looking at a solar eclipse

1. Never look directly at the sun during the solar eclipse, even when it is dark
2. Never look at the solar eclipse through a telescope or binoculars
3. Never use sunglasses when looking at the solar eclipse
4. Use goggles when looking at the solar eclipse

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 CHANGING THE STATES OF MATTER
OBJECTIVES
3.1.1.1 Demonstrate the changes of state in matter using different substances.
3.1.1.2 Measure the boiling point and melting/freezing point of water.
3.1.1.3 Demonstrate how impurities affect the boiling point and melting point of water.
3.1.1.4 Distinguish between boiling and evaporation

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. All physical objects are composed of
matter, and an easily observed property of matter is its state or phase. The classical states of
matter are solid, liquid and gas.
STATES OF MATTER

 When a solid is heated, it changes into liquid

 When a liquid is heated, it changes into gas
 All the three states are still the same substance even if they look different
CHANGING THE STATES OF MATTER

When solid ice is heated, they melt and change into liquid water
When the liquid water is heated, it boils and change into a gas called steam
When the gas is cooled, it changes back into liquid.
When the liquid is cooled furthermore, it changes and turn solid.

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SOME SUBSTANCES ARE DIFFERENT
This is because not all substances go through the same states of matter as water.
Dry ice – is used to keep ice cream and other things cold while they are being transported. It
is so cold that it will damaged the skin. Dry ice is really solid carbon dioxide. When it
warms up in the air, it does not melt. It changes directly into a gas that looks like smoke.
Iodine – it is a very dark purple solid (almost black). When it is heated, it does not melt but
change directly to a dark purple gas.
Naphthalene – it is a white solid. When it is left in a cupboard it very slowly changes to a
gas (it does not melt) that will kill fish moths that damages clothes.

BOILING AND MELTING POINT OF PURE SUBSTANCES

BOILING POINT – This is a specific temperature at which liquid changes to a gas. At this
point there is no gain nor is loss of energy supplied used to break liquid bonds into gaseous
bonds.
The boiling point of water is the temperature at which water (liquid) changes into a gas
(steam). The boiling point of water is 1000C

MELTING POINT – This is a specific temperature at which solid changes to liquid. At this
point there is no gain nor loss of energy since the heat supplied is used to break bonds of a
solid into liquid bonds.
The freezing point of water is the temperature at which water (liquid) changes into solid (ice)
The freezing point of water is 00C
The melting point of water is 00C
N.B:- Boiling Point and Melting Point are physical properties of matter.
THE EFFECTS OF IMPURITIES
If we add or dissolve any substance in pure water, it will change or affect its boiling, freezing
and melting point. The more substances we dissolve in water, the higher the boiling point of
water. Any dissolved substance will lower the freezing point of water.
Impurities decrease Boiling Point of a compound e.g adding table salt to water increase its
boiling point from 100 0C to 103 0C.

Effects of impurities on melting point of a compound e.g adding salt to ice ( frozen water)
deceases its melting point to below 0 0C ( 0 0C to -3 0C )

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EVAPORATION AND BOILING
a) Evaporation
- Evaporation is the changing of liquid to a gas. The higher the temperature the
faster the evaporation
- Some liquids evaporates faster than others. Methylated spirits evaporates faster
than water
- Evaporation takes place at the surface of the liquid. That is where the liquid meets
the air so that the vapour (gas) can escape

b) Boiling
- Boiling takes place when the liquid changes to a gas at a certain temperature.
This is called the boiling point of that liquid.
- Boiling of a liquid takes place only at a certain temperature called the
boiling point of that liquid.
- The liquid changes to a gas anywhere in the boiling liquid and not just at the
surface.

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 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
OBJECTIVES
3.1.2.1 Classify substance as elements, compounds or mixtures.
3.1.2.2 List common chemical elements and their symbols.
3.1.2.3 Separate mixtures using their physical properties.

COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

A compound is a substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements which are
joined together, e.g. water is a compound made up of atoms (elements) of hydrogen and
oxygen which have been bonded together.
Common compounds and their constituent atoms
If a compound is broken down into its constituent atoms (that is, the atoms of which it is
made) the proportion of the different types of atoms that are produced are always the same.
For example carbon dioxide (CO2), it is made up of 1atom of carbon and 2 atoms of oxygen.
A mixture is a substance that is formed by physically mixing together two or more different
substances. The substances that make up a mixture (the constituents) do not combined
together chemically, e.g. solutions, suspensions, alloys, colloids
Mixture Constituents of mixture
Air Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and various other
gases
Brass Copper, zinc
Milk Oil droplets in water.
Sugar in water Sucrose (solute) and water (solvent)

BOILING AND MELTING POINT OF PURE SUBSTANCES

BOILING POINT – This is a specific temperature at which liquid changes to a gas. At this
point there is no gain nor is loss of energy supplied used to break liquid bonds into gaseous
bonds.
MELTING POINT – This is a specific temperature at which solid changes to liquid. At this
point there is no gain nor loss of energy since the heat supplied is used to break bonds of a
solid into liquid bonds.
N.B:- Boiling Point and Melting Point are physical properties of matter.

EFFECTS OF IMPURITIES ON BOILING POINT

Impurities decrease Boiling Point of a compound e.g adding table salt to water increase its
boiling point from 1000C to 1030C.
Effects of impurities on melting point of a compound e.g adding salt to ice ( frozen water)
deceases its melting point to below 00C ( 00C to -30C )

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ATOMS AND MOLECULES
An atom is the smallest piece of matter that one can find. An atom can combine with one
another to form large particles called molecules.
A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can exist on its own.
Elements
An element is a substance that has only one kind of atom in it. Oxygen is an element. All the
atoms in it are oxygen atoms and there are no other kinds of atoms in it. Hydrogen is an
element because there are only hydrogen atoms in it. There are 92 different elements in
nature and each one is made up of only one kind of atom.
If the atoms of the same kind combine with one another, they form molecules. These
molecules all contain the same kind of atoms – so it is still an element.
Elements are made of atoms
Atom is smallest unit of an element, having properties of that element.
Molecule is group of two or more atoms chemically joined together, e.g. chlorine molecule
has 2 chlorine atoms
Examples of elements;
Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, iron, copper, aluminum, sulphur, nitrogen, sodium and chlorine.
Compounds
When different kinds of atoms combine, they for a compound. This a new substance. Its
molecules are made up of two or more different kinds of atoms. A compound is therefore a
substance made up of two or more different elements.
Compound is substance containing 2 or more elements chemically joined together e.g.
Magnesium is an element; oxygen is an element – they can only be burnt to form magnesium
oxide compound.
Examples;
Two hydrogen atoms.
COMMON CHEMICAL ELEMENTS AND THEIR SYMBOLS

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SEPARATING MIXTURES
It is often necessary to separate the substances in a mixture.
Here are three examples of mixtures:
because sugar can dissolve faster in
 Sugar and sand. warm water than cold water
 Iron filings and sulphur.
 Salt and pepper.
1. Separating sugar from sand
 Take the mixture and put it in a container with warm water
 Shake the container to allow the sugar to dissolve properly in the water.
 Take the water and pour it in a separate container (filtration)
 Boil the water and until the whole water has evaporated
 Sugar crystals will remain in the pot

2. Separating iron filings from sulphur

We can separate the iron filings because they are attracted to the magnet but sulphur is non-
magnetic and stays behind.

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3. Separating a mixture of salt and pepper
We can separate salt from pepper because salt is soluble in water but pepper is insoluble.
We use a charged ruler which will attracts the small pieces of pepper but not the salt pieces.
In this way we can also separate salt from pepper.

We have separated mixtures because the substances in the mixture had different properties.
 One was soluble in water but the other one was insoluble.
 One was attracted by a magnet but the other was non-magnetic
 One was attracted by a static electric charge but the other was not.

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 ENERGY SOURCES AND CONVERSION
OBJECTIVES
3.2.1.1 Demonstrate that energy is converted from one form to another when work is done.
3.2.1.2 Describe energy changes for a given situation.
3.2.1.3 State the principle of conservation of energy.

Sources of energy
Scientists say that energy is the ability to do work. Without energy nothing in the world can
work, live or grow.
But where does energy come from?
(a) The Sun
All the energy in the world comes from the Sun. The energy in sunlight heats the world. It
makes plants grow to provide food for people and animals (photosynthesis). We can use the
Sun's energy (called solar energy) to heat water, to cook food in solar cookers and to
generate electricity from solar cells.
(b) Fuels
A fuel is anything that can burn such as wood, coal, oil, gas, petrol and paraffin. When a fuel
burns it produces heat that is a form of energy.
(c) Wind energy
The energy of the wind can make windmills turn and do other kinds of work.
(d) Water energy
Water can flow from high dams and turn water turbines that can produce electricity. The
waves of the sea can also be used to make machines produce electricity.
Energy conversions
When something (a person or a machine) does work, energy is changed from one form to
another. This is called energy conversion.
Example 1
Connect a cell (torch battery) to a small bulb. The bulb lights up. Light has been produced.
Inside the cell there are chemicals. When the cell is connected to the bulb, the chemical
energy in the cell is converted to electrical energy. When the electricity passes through the
bulb it is converted to light energy.
Leave the current switched on for a minute and then feel the bulb. The bulb will be hot. This
means that the electrical energy has also been converted to heat energy. We can summaries
this in the following word equation:
Chemical energy → Electrical energy → Light energy and heat energy.

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Example 2
When you light a candle and hold your hand over the flame. What do you feel? What kind of
energy conversion do you think took place?
When the wax is heated enough it melts and then it burns. It combines with oxygen from the
air. This is a chemical reaction. The chemical energy of the wax was converted to light so
that you can see and the heat that you can feel on your hand.
The word equation for this is:
Chemical energy → Heat energy + Light energy

A SPECIAL EXAMPLE
Electricity makes our lives very much easier. For instance, it can give us light, heat, sound,
and powers electric motors that move things. To bring the electricity into our homes and
buildings there are many energy conversions along the way.
 The solar energy from the sun makes plants grow and produces plant food in the leaves
of the plants. Solar energy has been converted to chemical energy.
 The plants die, become covered by soil and over thousands of years they change to coal,
oil or gas. These fuels contain chemical energy.
 The coal is burned in steam boilers. The chemical energy is changed to heat energy.
 The water boils and produces steam. The steam turns machines called turbines. The heat
energy has been converted to mechanical energy.
 The turbines drive large generators or dynamos. They produce electricity. The mechanical
energy has been converted to electrical energy.
 The electricity is carried to homes and buildings along cables and wires. In the home we
can switch on a stove or a heater to produce heat energy to warm our homes or to cook
food.
 The electrical energy can turn on lights to produce light energy.
 The electricity can also be used in loudspeakers to produce sound energy.
 Electric motors can produce mechanical energy to do work for us.

THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

One of the most important laws in science is the Principle of the Conservation of
Energy. This principle or law states:
 Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can only be changed from one form to another.
 This means that one cannot make or destroy energy. We can only change it from one
form to another

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THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVING ENERGY
When energy is conserved, it may have what we call setbacks. Some of the problems caused
by energy usage are;
 The burning of fossil fuels is causing global warming
 Energy is becoming more expensive
 The burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution
 Water that has been polluted by spilled oil and fuel eventually pollutes rivers, lakes, dams
and the sea.
 Waste from energy production ( for example old batteries and broken solar panels ) is
difficult to dispose of
 Chopping down of trees causes deforestation, soil erosion and desertification.
 The generation of energy in coal fired power stations uses a lot water
 Non-renewable fossil fuels are running out.

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 HEAT TRANSFER
OBJECTIVES
3.2.2.1 Describe the three methods of heat transfer.
3.2.2.2 Demonstrate heat transfer by conduction.
3.2.2.3 Compare conduction in the solids, liquids and gases.
3.2.2.4 Demonstrate heat transfer by convection.
3.2.2.5 Demonstrate heat transfer by radiation

What is heat transfer?

"Transfer" means "to move". Heat transfer means that heat moves from one place to another.
Heat always moves from a hot place (higher temperature) to a cooler place (lower
temperature).
Heat is transferred from one place to another in three ways:
 conduction
 convection
 radiation

Conduction of heat
Conduction can happen when one part of a material is heated. The atoms in this part vibrate
faster and the heat will travel to the other part of the material.
Materials such as metals are better conductors of heat than other like glass, wood and
plastic.
 Solids are good conductors of heat
 Liquids are poor conductors of heat
 Gases are very poor conductors of heat
Convection of heat
Convective heat transfer is the transfer of heat between two bodies by currents of moving gas
or fluid. In free convection, air or water moves away from the heated body as the warm air or
water rises and is replaced by a cooler parcel of air or water.

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Radiation of heat
Light travels in straight lines that we call rays. Heat does exactly the same. We call this
radiation. This means that heat can travel through the air without touching another material
like water or air.
When you stand close to a fire or a hot plate on a stove, you can feel the heat on your body.
The heat has traveled from the fire or the hot plate to your body. We call this heat transfer by
radiation.
The heat from the sun reaches the earth through radiation. The heat rays pass through empty
space where there is no air or any material that can conduct the heat or cause convection
currents. Therefore the heat from the sun reaches the earth, which is 150 million kilometers
away, through radiation.

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 LIGHT
OBJECTIVES
3.2.3.1 Describe the characteristics of images formed by a plane mirror.
33.2.3.3 Classify objects as opaque, translucent and transparent.
3.2.3.4 Describe refraction.
3.2.3.5 Demonstrate refraction of light.
3.2.3.6 Explain a mirage.
3.2.3.7 Identify instruments which use refraction of light (e.g. lenses, camera, telescope,
binoculars etc.)
2.3.2 Discuss some applications of reflection.

Light is a type of energy that is carried by waves which enter our eyes and allow us to see.
PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
 Reflection of light
 Reflection on a plane mirror
Light beams and light rays
Light is invisible. We cannot see it. One can only see light when it shines on something. If
you shine a flashlight on to a wall or a sheet of paper you cannot see the light unless there is
dust in the air. But you will see the circle of light where it falls on the wall or the paper.
When a light beam falls on something, much of the light bounces off that object. We say the
light has been reflected. This is called the reflection of light.

TRANSPARENT, TRANSLUCENT AND OPAQUE

Transparent – these are materials which let

all of the light straight through.
Translucent – these materials let light through
but it is randomly scattered.
Opaque – these materials let no light through.

NB: Light travels at different speeds in different media. It travels faster through gases, slower
through liquids and slowest in solids.

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REFLECTION OF LIGHT
When a beam of light falls on something, some or all of it is bounced back. The bouncing
back of light on a surface is called reflection of light.
The light coming from the sun is called incident light rays
The light bouncing back is called reflected light.
MIRRORS AND IMAGES
An image is like a picture of something. There are two kinds of images; real images and
virtual images
A real image is that we can show against a screen or a wall or on a paper like a photograph
A virtual image is not a real one. We can see it but we cannot show it on a screen or on a wall
or on a sheet of paper.

Lateral inversion
This is the reversal of mirror image where the right side of the object appears on the left side
behind the mirror.

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USING THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT
There are many ways in which we use the reflection of light. We mainly use mirrors for the
following:
We use mirrors to see ourselves when we comb our hair, put on lipstick or shave.
One can use a periscope to see over the heads of people or to see what is behind a high wall.
Periscopes are also used in military machines such as tanks and submarines to see what is
happening outside the tank or above the water surface.

The periscope
The light rays from the object travel into the periscope and hit the top mirror. The light rays
are reflected from this mirror and travel down the periscope. These rays now strike the
bottom mirror and are reflected to the eye of the person watching.
THE REFRACTION OF LIGHT
What is refraction?
When a light ray is bent we say it has been refracted. Refraction is the bending of a light
beam.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH WATER
When an object is put in an empty beaker, it looks straight; but when put it into a beaker with
water, it appears to be bent. This shows that light refract from the part of the object inside the
water changes speed as it moves from the water to the air and therefore the object appears to
be bent.

A mirage
When one looks along a road or a stretch of smooth sand on a very hot day, one can
sometimes see something that looks like a pool of water. There is not really any water there.
It just looks as if there is. This is called a mirage.
A mirage is caused by the refraction of light.

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 SOUND
OBJECTIVES
3.2.4.1 Compare qualitatively the speed of sound between solids, liquids and gases.
Sound is a form of energy

SOUND ENERGY
Sound is a form of energy that is made when molecules vibrate (move backwards and
forwards). Sound travels from one place to another because vibration is passed from one
molecule to the next and this forms a sound wave.
Properties of sound
(a) Sound is caused by a vibration.
(b) The vibrations are carried through the air as a sound wave. The air molecules bump
against one another and so the sound vibration is carried through the air.
(c) In a vacuum, there is no air and there are no air molecules that can bump against one
another. Therefore, sound cannot travel through a vacuum.
(d) When the vibrations of the sound wave enter one's ear, they cause the eardrum to
vibrate. This vibration causes an electrical impulse that travels along a nerve to the brain.
This is how we hear the sound.
Lightning and thunder happen at the same time. But you see lightning before you hear
thunder because light travels faster than sound.
Measuring the speed of sound in air, water and solid
Slowest through a gas like air (320 m/s)
Faster through a liquid like water (1 500 m/s)
Fastest through a solid like iron or steel (5 000 m/s)

How sound travels or move

Sound travels from where it is produced to where it is needed or travelling through in form of
a wave. The wave travels through a medium e.g. air or solid or liquid.

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 ACIDS AND ALKALIS
OBJECTIVES
3.3.1.1 Describe acid and alkali.
3.3.1.2 Use litmus paper to identify acids and bases.
3.3.1.3 Use litmus paper to determine whether a household chemical is acidic, alkaline or
neutral.
3.3.1.4 Classify acids and alkalis as strong and weak.
3.3.1.5 Demonstrate proper care when handling strong acids.

ACID
 It is a chemical substance that turns blue litmus paper red.
 It is a substance with a pH lower than 7.

Household Acidic Substance

 Lemon juice (citric acid)
 Bee stings (methanoic acid)
 Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
 Grapes (tartaric acid)
 Vinegar (ethanoic acid)
Properties of Acids
 All acids dissolve in water.
 Acids have a sour taste. You will recognize this property in some of the natural acids
which we use as foods. The sour taste of lemons and the sour taste of milk that has gone
bad are due to acids. However it is important that you never try to confirm this property
with laboratory acids- these are very dangerous.
 Acids change the colour of certain substances called indicators. Indicators are dyes often
obtained from animals and plants.
 Acids are corrosive.

BASE
It is a substance that reacts with an acid to produce a salt and water only. It neutralises an
acid. Most bases are oxides of metals.
Most bases do not dissolve in water. Bases that dissolve in water are called alkalis.
Copper oxide, iron oxide etc do not dissolve in water, so they are called bases

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UNIVERSAL INDICATOR
 It is used to test if the substance is acidic, alkaline or neutral.
 It shows the strength of a substance.
NB: Not all substances are acidic or alkaline, some are neutral eg water.

Indicators
 When an acid is dissolved in water we get an acidic solution.
 When a base dissolves in water it is an alkali and makes an alkaline solution.
 If a solution is neither acidic nor alkaline it is neutral. Pure water is neutral, and so is
paraffin.
 Indicators are substances that change colour when they are added to acidic or alkaline
solutions.
 Litmus paper is one of the common indicator used in the laboratory.
 Litmus
 Litmus indicator solution turns red in acidic solutions, blue in alkaline solutions, and
does not change in neutral solutions.
 Litmus paper comes as red litmus paper and blue litmus paper.
STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS AND ALKALIS
Some acids and alkalis are weak and cannot make changes to other substances but others are
strong.
Weak acids Weak alkalis
Lemon juice Limewater
Tartaric acid Washing soda
Vinegar Soap
Fruit juice Handy Andy (Dilute ammonia)

Strong acids Strong alkalis

Hydrochloric acid Caustic soda
Sulphuric acid Concentrated ammonia
Nitric acid

HANDLING STRONG ACIDS SAFELY

Strong acids can be dangerous. They are poisonous and will cause damage to clothes, metals
and to your skin. One must handle them very carefully.
Here are some safety rules for handling strong acids:
Never taste an acid by drinking some of it. Taste weak acids by using the fingertip test.
Never smell an acid in a bottle. Some acids evaporate easily to form a gas that can cause
damage to your nose and lungs.

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Wear rubber or plastic gloves, a mask and plastic goggles when you work with a strong
acid. This will prevent damage or injury to your hands, your eyes or your nose and throat.
Keep strong acids in glass or plastic bottles with good stoppers. This will prevent leaks that
can cause damage.
Do not leave acid bottles open. Always put the stopper back immediately.
Always keep strong acids in a safe place.

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 THE FORCE OF FRICTION
OBJECTIVES
4.1.1.1 Recognise that friction is a force.
4.1.1.2 Demonstrate friction.
4.1.1.3 Investigate the applications of friction in daily life situations.
4.1.1.4 Demonstrate ways of reducing friction (i.e. oiling, ball bearings, streamlining, rollers
and polishing.
4.1.1.5 Give examples of streamlined designs.

What is a force?
We know that a force is just a push or a pull.
The effects of a force
A force can have the following effects:
 If an object cannot move, a force can change its shape. This happens when you squeeze a
tennis ball or bend a steel spring.
 If an object is not moving, a force can make it start to move.
 If something is already moving, a force can make it go faster make it go slower make it
go in a different direction
 The direction of the force will determine which of these three things will happen
MEASURING A FORCE
The easiest way to measure a force is to use a spring scale. The harder you pull on something
(the greater the force), the larger the reading on the spring scale.
FRICTION
Friction is a force that resists the motion of one object against another. It exists when two
surfaces are in contact with each other, slide or rub against each other.

Friction is the force between two surfaces where objects or materials touch one another.
The bottom of the brick touches the surface of the desk. This causes friction.
Friction makes moving objects slowly down and it tries to stop objects from moving.
Friction tries to stop objects moving or slows down those that are moving. This means that
the friction force always acts against the first force. Friction acts in the opposite direction to
the force acting on the object.
THE IMPORTANCE OF FRICTION
Friction can cause many problems. But it is also useful in some ways.

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WAYS OF REDUCING FRICTION
 use of ball bearing around the axles of machines
 oiling or lubricating surfaces that are in contact or rub against each other
 streamlining bodies of object like airplanes, ships to make them move faster
Advantages of friction
Walking
If there were no friction, we would not be able to walk on floors or any other surface. When
we take a step forward, the foot is pushing back against the floor. If there was no friction, the
foot would just slip and we would stay where we are. The friction between the soles of our
shoes and the surface underneath our feet makes our feet stick and we can push ourselves
forward.
Holding things
When we pick up things with our hands, there is friction between our fingers and the object.
If there were no friction, the object would just slip out of our hands.
Cars and locomotives
A car moves forward because of the friction between its tyres and the road. If there were no
friction, the wheels would just spin because they do not stick to the road. If a steep railway
track is too slippery, the locomotive will spin its wheels and will not move.
The solution would be to put some sand on the railway track. This will make the track less
slippery because it increases the friction between the wheels and the track. The wheels will
grip and the locomotive will move forward again.
Disadvantages of friction
Cars and trains
When a car, a truck or a train is running along a perfectly level road, it should keep on
running at the same speed without the engine working. But we know it slows down and
eventually stops if we don't use the engine.
This is because of friction between the tyres or the wheels and the road or track. The friction
forces try to make the motion stop and the vehicle slows down. It needs extra fuel to keep the
vehicle moving at the same speed. This wastes fuel and money.
Turning shafts and axles
When a metal shaft or an axle is turning, it rubs against a metal surface. There is friction
between the two metal surfaces. This makes it harder to turn the shaft. This wastes fuel and
money. The friction also makes the shaft and the metal heat up. This can cause serious
damage.

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Streamlining
All moving objects move through air. If the object moves slowly, it can easily push the air
out of the way so that the air flows easily around the moving object.
When the object moves faster, there is friction between the air and the surface of the moving
object. The faster the object moves, the greater the friction will be. Motor cars, planes, high
speed trains, motor cycles and even racing cyclists need to reduce the air friction so that they
can go faster without wasting energy or fuel. This is called streamlining because it helps the
stream of air to flow more smoothly and easily over the surface of the moving vehicle. This is
done by making the moving object as small as possible or by giving it a pointed front. This
will reduce friction.

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 LEVERS
OBJECTIVES
4.2.1.1 list different types of levers.
4.2.1.2 identify the pivot, effort and load on a given lever.
4.2.1.3 use a lever to do a task

What is a lever?
A lever is a bar or rod that cannot bend and can turn around some fixed point.
Levers are simple machines that we use to move things. They are used to do work.
2. The parts of a lever
A lever has three parts:

The pivot (or fulcrum). This is the point around which the lever can turn.
The effort arm. This is the part where one pushes or pulls.
The load arm. This is where the load rests that one wants to move.
This is a crowbar being used to lift a heavy rock. It is a good example of a lever being used to
do work. The rock is too heavy for the man to lift but by using a lever, she can move it quite
easily.
When the lady pushes down on the end of the lever (the effort arm), the lever turns around
the stone (the pivot or fulcrum). The rock (load) is lifted.
This diagram shows the three main parts of the lever (the crowbar).

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEVERS
All levers have a pivot, an effort arm and a load arm. These parts can be in different places.
Here are three examples.

The crowbar

The man is pushing down on the one end of the crowbar (the effort).
The rock is pushing down on the other end of the crowbar (the load).
The crowbar turns over the log (the pivot) between the load and the effort.
This type of lever, where the pivot is between the load and the effort, is called a lever of the
first class.
The wheelbarrow Here the man is lifting at the end of the handlebars (the
effort).
The soil in the wheelbarrow (the load) is pushing down
in the middle.
The whole lever turns around the wheel of the
wheelbarrow (the pivot).
This type of lever, where the pivot is at one end of the
lever and the load is in the middle, is called a lever of
The spade with soil the second class.

Here the pivot is at one end (in the person's

hand).
The soil in the spade (the load) is at the other
end.
The person is lifting the spade up (the effort) in
the middle.
This type of lever, where the pivot is at one end,
the load at the other end and the effort in the
middle, is called a lever of the third class.

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 STATIC ELECTRICITY AND LIGHTNING
OBJECTIVES
5.1.1.1 Describe lighting as a natural phenomenon of static electricity.
5.1.1.2 Explain the hazards associated with lightning.
5.1.1.3 Identify factors that increase the risk of lightning strikes.
5.1.14 Take precautions necessary for protection from lightning

Static Electricity
What is static electricity?
The word "static" means "not moving". Static electricity is an electric charge that stays
where it is built up or made.
Conducting and insulating materials.
Some materials such as metals are called "conductors" because electric charges will flow
along them from one point to another. Other materials (such as glass, plastic, wood, rubber,
etc.) are "non-conductors" or "insulators" because they do not carry or conduct electric
charges at all.
A static electric charge can only be built up or made on an insulating material such as plastic
or glass.
Making or generating a static charge
Static charges are generated or produced by friction (rubbing).
If you rub a plastic ruler with a cloth, a static electric charge is built up or generated on the
ruler.

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Lightning
(What is lightning?
In a thunderstorm, heavy rain clouds slide past one another. This causes friction and it
generates very large static charges in the clouds. If the charges become large enough, they
will jump from one cloud to another. This is like a very large electric spark that flashes from
one cloud to another. This is called lightning. When the lightning flashes from one cloud to
another, we call it sheet lightning.
If the static charge on a cloud becomes very high and there is no other cloud close enough,
the lightning will travel down to the earth. This is called a lightning bolt or flash.
A lightning bolt will only jump to the earth if the charge is strong enough. It needs millions
of volts for such a flash to happen. If we could collect electricity in one bolt of lightning, it
would have enough power town. But the flash is so strong and so fast for a whole that it is
impossible to collect it.
Damage caused by lightning
A lightning bolt is an extremely powerful electric spark that carries millions of volts of
electricity. When it strikes something on the ground, it is so powerful that the electricity
cannot pass through the object fast enough. The object becomes hot so quickly that it often
explodes.
The lightning bolt in this picture has struck a house and damaged it very badly.
If a lightning bolt strikes a tree, the tree trunk heats up so quickly that it splits apart
completely.
Injuries to people
If lightning strikes a person directly, that person will almost certainly be killed. The body is
badly burned by the heat of the flash, the person's heart will stop beating and he/she will be
completely paralysed and will stop breathing. Even if the person is struck by only part of the
lightning bolt, he/she will be unconscious and might stop breathing for a long time.
Lightning is extremely dangerous. Many people are killed by lightning each year in Botswana
and around the whole world.
Other Damage
A lightning flash carries so much electricity that it is often too much for most cables to carry.
Lightning will cause damage in different ways.
 Wooden beams and other structures may catch fire and burn.
 Brick structures may explode and be smashed.
 Electric cables may be damaged or even melt because the electric current is too great.
 Even if the electric current can pass through a cable, the sudden increase of current (it is
called a "surge") will damage electric motors, telephones, television sets, computers and
any other electrical apparatus connected to that cable.

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FACTORS THAT INCREASE THE RISK OF LIGHTNING
(i) The electric charge that causes lightning can only form in clouds. If there are heavy clouds
overhead, the danger of lightning is much greater.
(ii) If the air is moist, it will be easier for a lightning flash to travel from a cloud to the earth.
Lightning is more likely when it is raining.
(iii) A lightning flash strikes the closest point on the earth. This means that it will strike the
highest point underneath the cloud. Tall buildings or towers and even tall trees are usually
struck first.
Precautions against lightning
Protecting yourself during a thunderstorm.
 Never stand under a tree during a thunderstorm because lightning will strike the highest
point under the cloud. If it strikes the tree, then people standing under it will be struck as
well. It is better to stay out in the rain because it is easier to dry yourself again than to
recover from a lightning strike.
 If you are standing in a large open area during a thunderstorm, it is best to lie down flat
on the ground. If you are standing in an open area, you will be the highest point there and
the lightning could quite easily strike you. If there is a hole nearby, crawl into it to keep
yourself as low as possible.
 If you are in a house during a thunderstorm, don't stand near a window or a door because
the lightning flash may come through the opening instead of flowing down the walls.
 Do not touch metal pipes or wire fences during a thunderstorm because a lightning strike
further away may be conducted through the wire and injure you.
 Do not swim in a dam or a pool during a thunderstorm. If lightning strikes the water
surface, the charge may be conducted through the water and through your body.
Protecting equipment and apparatus
All electrical equipment should be disconnected during a thunderstorm.
It is not enough to switch them off. If they are still plugged into the wall socket, the electric
surge from a lightning strike could jump over the switch and damage the apparatus. This is
especially important for television sets, telephones, electric motors and computers.
To prevent damage to a house or building, there should be a lightning conductor fitted. This
is a metal strip (copper is best) that goes from a pole above the house to deep into the ground.
If lightning strikes the house, the charge will be conducted from the highest point to deep into
the ground and very little of the charge will flow into the house to cause damage.

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 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
OBJECTIVES
5.2.1.1 Construct simple parallel circuits containing cells (power supply), two switches and
two bulbs.
5.2.1.2 State the advantages of a parallel circuit connection over a series circuit.
5.2.1.3 Describe the type of circuit connection used in homes.
5.2.1.4 Represent simple series circuits by drawings and conventional symbols.
5.2.1.5 Consider the power rating when buying an electrical appliance

The electric current

An electric current is a stream of electric charges that are flowing along a conductor such as a
wire.
An electric current flows from the positive terminal (or pole) of a cell or a battery to the
negative terminal (or pole). In a diagram of an electric circuit, the direction of the current is
shown by an arrow.
Electric circuits
One can show an electric circuit as a drawing to show all the parts.
Here is a simple circuit that is made up of a cell, a switch and a bulb.

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It is often better to show an electric circuit by drawing a circuit diagram where we use
symbols instead of a picture of that part.
Here are some of the most important symbols that are used.
Name Symbol
Open switch

Closed switch

Connecting
wire
Cell

Light bulb

Battery

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A SERIES CIRCUIT AND A PARALLEL CIRCUIT

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SERIES CIRCUITS
In a series circuit, the electric current has only one path to follow.
Here is an example of a simple series circuit.

We can describe this circuit like this:

This battery is connected in series with a switch and with two bulbs that are also connected in
series. We say the cells and the bulbs are in series because the electric current has to flow
through each of them in turn. The current has only one path to follow.
Parallel circuits
In a series circuit route there is only one path for the current to follow.
If the parts are connected so that they form two or more separate paths we say they are
connected in parallel. (The word "parallel" means "side by side without touching".)

These three bulbs are connected in series. There is only one path for the current to flow.
These two bulbs are connected in parallel. There are two paths for the current to flow.
6. Parallel circuit in a home
In a home, there is one switch that can switch off all the electricity in the house. It is called
the main switch or master switch. With this switch, you can switch off the electricity if
there is something wrong or if you want to go away for a long time.
Each of the electrical items in the house is on its own parallel circuit so that it can be
switched on or off without affecting the other parts.
The power supply comes into the house from cables. This current does not have a positive or
negative terminal. It is called alternating current (AC) because it changes the direction in
which it flows 50 times per second. We cannot show the current direction with arrows. The
current from cells and batteries is called direct current (DC) because it flows in one direction
only – from positive to negative.

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Different voltages
There are different voltages (electric strength) used in the world.
A dry cell (like a torch battery) is 1.5 V (1.5 volts)
A car battery is usually 12V because it is made up of six separate cells connected in one
case or box. (Some very large trucks and tractors may use batteries of 24V or even bigger.)
The mains electricity supply used in our homes in Botswana is 220V but it is alternating
current (AC).
The power rating of appliances
 Each electrical appliance we use has a power rating that is given in watts (W). An electric
kettle can be marked 2000W or only 1500W. A heater may be marked as 3000W or
4000W. This shows how much power that appliance has and how much electricity it uses.
 One must also check whether an appliance can do the job. If you buy an electric drill or
an electric saw, you should buy one that is strong enough to work properly.
 One must also make sure that the appliances do not use so much power that the power
supply from the mains is not strong enough.

A series circuit is a circuit in which

the electric current flows in one
What is the path, while a parallel circuit is a
difference between circuit in which the electric current
series and parallel flows in two or more paths.
circuit?

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 MAGNETS AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
OBJECTIVES
5.3.1.1 Show that a magnet is strongest at the poles.
5.3.1.2 State the law of magnetism.
5.4.1.1 Describe the different ways of generating electricity.
5.4.1.2 Demonstrate electricity generation using a bicycle dynamo.
5.4.1.3 Compare a hydroelectric power station to a thermal power station.
5.4.1.4 Discuss the advantages of a hydroelectric power station over a thermal power station.
5.4.1.5 Describe how electricity is transmitted from the power station to consumers.

Magnets and magnetism

We learnt about magnets in Standard 5. Here are some of the most important things we
learnt:
Magnets have different shapes.
Straight magnets are called bar magnets. Those that are bent are called horseshoe magnets.

Magnets attract some materials

Magnets attract some materials such as iron and steel. They are called magnetic materials.
Magnets do not attract non-magnetic materials such as copper, lead, plastic, wood, etc.
Magnets have poles

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Magnets show direction

Law of Magnets

The north pole of one magnet pushed away (repelled) the north pole of the other magnet. The
north pole of the one magnet attracted the south pole of the other magnet.
We can now write a Rule for Magnets:
Like poles (poles that are the same) repel one another.
Unlike poles (poles that are not the same) attract one another.
ELECTRICITY
Ways of generating electricity
There are different ways of generating or producing electricity.
(a) Static electricity
We have learned that one can generate static electricity (a static charge) by friction (one thing
rubbing against another). We cannot use static electricity because it cannot flow to those
places where we need it. We therefore use current electricity that can flow.
(b) Electricity from the Sun
To use the energy of the sun to produce electricity, we need solar cells.
A solar cell is a small glass square with two very small metal plates inside.
When a bright light such as sunlight shines on it, it produces a small electric current. If
hundreds of these small cells are placed on a large sheet called a solar panel, it can produce
much more electricity. This electricity can be stored in batteries almost like a very large car
battery.
When we need it, the stored current can be taken from the battery, made stronger, and then
used in our homes.

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These solar cells convert the energy of sunlight (solar energy) to an electric current
(electrical energy).
Most scientists believe that we will have to use solar power in the future because there will
soon be no coal and oil left to use for fuel and power.
(c) Electric generators or dynamos
If a coil of metal wire (called an armature) is spun fast next to a strong magnet, an electric
current will be generated or produced in the armature.
This is what happens in a dynamo (also called a generator). Dynamos generate most of the
electricity used in the world.
One can use different machines to turn a dynamo to produce electric current.
Some dynamos are turned by steam, some by petrol or diesel engines and others by water
power. In some parts of the world large wind generators use wind power to generate
electricity.
Thermal and hydroelectric power stations
All power stations use dynamos or generators to produce electricity.
A thermal power station is one that uses heat to produce steam to power the dynamos that
produce the electric current. A hydroelectric power station uses the energy of very fast-
flowing water to produce electricity.
(a) Hydroelectric power
A hydroelectric power station is built at the bottom of a high dam wall. Hydroelectric power
(HEP) is produced by running or falling water .HEP is created where water flows over
turbines. The movement of the turbines generates electricity. Botswana does not generate
hydroelectric power at present.
The water that is stored behind the high wall has a lot of potential energy because it is much
higher than the bottom of the dam. Large pipes or tunnels bring water from the bottom of the
dam to the power station. The water pressure is very high and it has lots of energy because it
flows very fast in the pipes. In the power station, the water flows into large water turbines.
These turbines have rows of discs, almost like large fans, with many small blades all around
the edges. The water makes these fans spin very fast and this power is used to spin the
dynamo to produce an electric current.

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(b) Thermal power
The word "thermal" means "heat". Thermal power stations use heat to produce steam to turn
the dynamos. In thermal power stations, the heat is produced by burning coal or oil or
sometimes gas. The heat boils water in large boilers. This produces steam at very high
pressure. The steam is then taken to large turbines taken to large turbines (very much like the
water turbines in hydroelectric power stations). The steam blows against the blades of the
steam turbines and this makes them spin very fast. The steam turbine spins the dynamo that
generates electricity.
Advantages of hydroelectric power stations
There are many reasons why hydroelectric power stations are better than thermal power
stations. There are three very important reasons why it is often impossible to use
hydroelectric power.
Hydroelectric power stations need lots of water all through the year. In dry regions like most
of Southern Africa, this is a big problem. Water is scarce and for long periods there is little
rain to store water.
Hydroelectric power needs very large high dams to store water and to produce water at high
pressure. This is usually only in regions with mountains or very large rivers.
The dams and the pipes to bring the water from the storage dam to the power station are very
expensive. However, once they are installed, the cost of running the power station is very
low.
There are many advantages of hydroelectric power over thermal power.
 Once a hydroelectric power station and its dam have been built and the pipes, turbines
and dynamos installed, it is much cheaper to run than a thermal power station.
Hydroelectric power is much cheaper than thermal power.
 The coal, oil or gas used in a thermal power station is very expensive and will become
more expensive in the future.
 Scientists say that very soon all the coal, oil and gas in the world will be used up. It is
called a non-renewable resource. This means it cannot be replaced once it has been used
up. The water that flows through the turbines of a hydroelectric power station has not
been used up at all. It is still there and can be used for drinking and for irrigation.
 When coal, oil or gas is burned to produce the steam for turbines, it produces smoke and
other gases. These gases mix with the air that we breathe and they could cause problems
for people and for plants. This is called air pollution. There is no pollution from
hydroelectric power.
 The ash that is left after coal has been burned has to be stored somewhere.
 This leads to large ash dumps that cause even more pollution because the ash can blow
away or be washed into rivers. There is no waste from hydroelectric power stations.
Transmitting electricity
The electricity generated at a power station has a very high voltage because it has to be sent
or transmitted over a long distance from the power station to those places where it will be
used. The electric current is transmitted from the power station through thick cables that are
set on high towers called pylons.
High voltage electric current is transmitted along these cables. The best metal to use for the
cables is copper, but that is very expensive. Aluminium cables are usually used.

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Before the current can be used in the factory or home, the voltage must be reduced. This is
called "stepping down" and this is done by transformers.
Large transformers are put inside small buildings and smaller ones are often placed on poles
or small pylons in the street.
In a house, the electricity usually comes into a switchboard that has meters that can measure
how much electricity has been used. The switchboard must also have special switches where
the current can be switched off immediately if there is some problem that may be dangerous.
From the switchboard, the current is taken to the lights, plugs or appliances along parallel
circuits.

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 DISEASES
OBJECTIVES
6.2.1.1 Explain the difference between contagious and non-contagious diseases.
6.2.1.2 Classify diseases as contagious and non-contagious.
6.2.1.3 Discuss the cause, transmission, signs and symptoms, treatment, and prevention of
tuberculosis (TB).

What is a disease?
A disease is any condition that causes some part of the body not to function or work well. A
disease is mostly caused by organisms such as germs that attack an organ or a part of the
body. This will cause that organ or part of the body to work badly.
A disease often causes the body to show certain signs that it is not well. These signs are
called the symptoms of the disease.
Symptoms can help a doctor or nurse to find out or to diagnose which disease the person has.
CONTAGIOUS AND NON-CONTAGIOUS DISEASES
A contagious disease is one that can be passed or transmitted directly from a sick person
to a healthy one. This can be by just touching the sick person; germs from that person
coming into the healthy person by breathing them in; or by coming in contact with the sick
person's blood or other body liquids.
A non-contagious disease is one that cannot be passed or transmitted directly from the sick
person to a healthy one through contact.
Examples of contagious diseases
(a) The common cold
The common cold or its more serious version we call "flu" (an abbreviation for "influenza")
is probably the most common contagious disease. It is contagious because it can be
transferred directly from a sick person to a healthy one by breathing in germs when the sick
person coughs, by touching any moisture from the sick person's mouth or nose, etc.
(b) HIV/AIDS
HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. It is a virus that is transmitted directly from a
positive person to a healthy one through unprotected sexual intercourse (intercourse
without using a condom) or when infected blood enters a healthy body through a blood
transfusion or through a cut or an open wound. The virus slowly destroys the immune system
the body uses to protect itself against diseases. A person who has been infected with the virus
can sometimes live a reasonably healthy life for a few years but eventually the HIV develops
into AIDS and then the body cannot defend itself against any diseases. There is no cure for
or vaccine against HIV/AIDS.
People who have developed AIDS often die from ordinary diseases like pneumonia or
tuberculosis because the body cannot defend itself against them.
(c) Tuberculosis (TB)

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This is one of the most dangerous contagious diseases in Africa.
(d) Other contagious diseases
Measles Whooping cough Hepatitis (jaundice)
Gonorrhea Chicken pox German measles Syphilis
Examples of non-contagious diseases.
We have already said that a non-contagious disease is one that cannot be passed or
transferred directly from a sick person to a healthy one. In some cases, the organism (germ or
virus) has to pass through some other carrier before it can infect the healthy person.
Here are examples of some important non-contagious diseases.
Malaria: This is carried from a sick person to a healthy one by a mosquito.
Rabies: It is transmitted when an infected animal (dog, cat, mongoose, etc.) bites a healthy
person.
Tetanus: It is caused by a germ that enters the body through a cut or an open wound.
Pneumonia: It is caused by a germ that enters the lungs and causes an infection.
TUBERCULOSIS
This is one of the most important contagious diseases in the world and especially in Africa. It
kills more people than any other disease because it often occurs in combination with another
disease. It affects humans, cattle, birds and rats - especially when they are not in good health
or are thin and weak. Because of this, it is mostly found in people who are homeless and poor
do not have enough to eat and live in very crowded conditions suffer from AIDS.
Cause of tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by a germ called Bacillus. It enters the body and mostly affects
the lungs, but it can also attack other parts of the body. It causes severe damage to the lungs
where it can form growths that block the air tubes.
Transmission
The saliva (spit) and any moisture from the mouth or throat of an infected person will contain
the germs. When an infected person coughs, small drops of moisture is sprayed into the air,
and when a healthy person breathes in these drops through the mouth or nose, the germs will
enter the healthy body. Using utensils like cups and glasses that were used by a sick person
can also transmit the germs. Kissing an infected person can also transmit the disease through
the saliva. Infected cattle can also transmit the disease to humans through contaminated milk.
Symptoms (signs)
The most important symptoms are:
Coughing. This can be just a light cough but later it becomes very severe and the sick person
may even cough up blood in the mucus or phlegm.
Fever and "night sweats". The sick person often has a high temperature. This sometimes
causes him/her to perspire (sweat) a lot at night.
Damage to the lungs. This can be seen on X-ray pictures as "spots in the lung".

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Weight loss. The sick person becomes weak and thin (loses weight). This is sometimes called
consumption because it seems as if the body is "consuming" (eating up) itself.
Diagnosis (Identification)
X-ray pictures. X-ray pictures of the chest and lungs of a sick person will show the damaged
spots in the lungs. This is the easiest way of diagnosing TB.
Skin test. A doctor injects a very small dose of much weakened TB germs into the skin. If the
person has been infected, that spot will become swollen and sensitive.
Treatment
TB can be treated and completely cured. There are medicines that will kill the TB germs but
the treatment takes quite a long time and many people stop taking the medicine because they
are impatient. This causes the TB germs to become immune to the medicine and the next
treatment will be much more difficult and take even longer. People who suffer from TB must
complete the whole treatment or it will only become worse.
In addition to the medicine treatment, sick people should also rest, eat good food and breathe
clean, fresh air.
Prevention
 People should never spit, cough or sneeze in public places even if they are completely
healthy.
 Babies should be vaccinated immediately after birth and again two months later. This will
protect them against TB germs.
 Milk should be pasteurized to kill all germs in it.
 People who are healthy, who eat good healthy food, take regular exercise to stay fit and
healthy and live in good, clean conditions are not often infected by TB.
 People who have TB should be treated in a special hospital for TB patients (called a
sanatorium). Here they will be treated properly and are kept away to prevent them
infecting healthy people until they are completely cured.

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 ROAD SAFETY IN BOTSWANA
OBJECTIVE
6.3.1.1 Carry out an investigation to determine the major cause(s) of road accidents in
Botswana.
6.3.1.2 Discuss the socio-economic effects of road accidents on Botswana.
6.3.1.3 Explain why it is important to wear white clothes, or shoes with reflectors at night.

Why is road safety important?

Road accidents are the second greatest cause of deaths in Botswana. Only AIDS kills more
people. Apart from causing deaths, many people are injured, crippled or maimed for life in
road accidents. There will be fewer accidents on the roads if drivers and pedestrians obey the
traffic rules.
Fatal accidents
This could be because:
 more people drive long distances over the weekend and become tired
 people perhaps drive faster over weekends
 many people drink alcohol over weekends and then drive carelessly
The effects of road accidents on Botswana
Road accidents cause many serious problems.
(i) Vehicles are damaged. Sometimes they can be repaired but often they have to be replaced.
This is very expensive.
(ii) Motor vehicles are usually insured. If there is an accident, the insurance company pays
for the repairs. If there are many accidents and claims, the company will charge more for the
insurance. Vehicle owners then have to pay higher insurance premiums.
(iii) Many animals are killed or injured on the roads. This is a serious loss for their owners
and the beef industry at large.
(iii) Many animals are killed or injured on the roads. This is a serious loss for their owners
and the beef industry at large.
(iv) People involved in road accidents are often injured. They may be maimed, disabled or
killed.
Hospital treatment costs more money. If a person is killed, the funeral is also very expensive.
(v) Injured people may not be able to continue working. They are not paid and the family
loses that income. The place where the person works also loses his/her work and experience.
Safety at night
Many pedestrians are injured or killed on the roads at night. This happens because drivers
cannot see people when they walk in the road after dark. The only way to stop this is for
pedestrians to wear white (or bright) clothes or wear something that reflects light. One can
also wear special shoes with reflectors on the heels.
Drivers should also make sure that the vehicle has good lights and that they are switched on
as soon as the sun sets.

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 THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
7.1.1.1 Identify the organs of the digestive system.
7.2.1.2 Describe the functions of the major organs of the digestive system (i.e. liver,
pancreas, and stomach, large and small intestines).

What is digestion?
Digestion is the process by which: the food we eat is first broken up into smaller pieces. The
finer food pieces are further broken down into very small substances that can be taken up
(absorbed) and used in the body. The remaining material not used is finally passed out of the
body as waste.
The whole process of digestion takes place in the digestive system. Most of the organs of this
system are found in the abdomen.

THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS

The digestive system consists of different organs that work together to break down the food
we eat.
Food is broken down in two ways:
(a) Mechanically
Most of the food we eat comes in pieces that are too big to swallow.
The teeth are used to bite off pieces of food and then to chew it into smaller pieces that we
can swallow.
The tongue is used to move around the pieces of food in the mouth so that it is all chewed
fine. The fine food is then swallowed and passes down the gullet or esophagus to the
stomach.

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(b) Chemically
In the stomach and the rest of the digestive system, the fine food is mixed with chemical
juices called enzymes. The different enzymes break up different parts of the food into simple
substances that can be taken up into the bloodstream and used in the body.
Note: Some substances in food such as water, minerals and vitamins do not need to be
digested. They can be absorbed without any further change.
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

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From the stomach, the food moves along the rest of the digestive system. This is basically a
tube that is about 5 or 6 meters long in an adult. It is called the intestine.
(a) The mouth
While the teeth are chewing the food, it is mixed with saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme that
starts digesting part of the food.
(b) The stomach
The stomach is located just below the ribs and slightly to the left of the middle. It is a large
bag in which the fine, chewed food is stored for about 4 hours. There are strong muscles in its
walls that can churn the food and mix it further with the stomach juices. There are glands in
its walls and they secrete gastric juice. This juice contains an acid and an enzyme that digests
most of the stomach contents.
From the stomach, the half-digested food (called chyme) passes into the small intestine.
(c) The pancreas
This is a gland that lies just below the stomach. It produces pancreatic juice and this passes
into the food just after it leaves the stomach. Pancreatic juice contains important enzymes that
help to further digest food.
(d) The liver
This is a large organ that lies behind and to one side of the stomach. It is a very important
part of the digestive system and one cannot live without it. It produces bile. Bile is a green
liquid that is stored in the gall bladder that is attached to the side of the liver. The bile passes
through the bile duct into the food as it leaves the stomach. Bile helps with the digestion of
fat in the food.
The liver also stores digested food so that the body can use it later.
(e) The small intestine
The small intestine is the longest part of the whole digestive system. The first part is about 30
cm long and is called the duodenum. As the food passes from the stomach into the
duodenum, it is mixed with the juices and enzymes from the stomach pancreatic juice from
the pancreas bile from the liver. Intestinal juice produced by the small intestine itself.
Intestinal juice is made by glands in the walls of the small intestine. It contains enzymes that
complete the digestion of food.
The walls of the ileum (small intestine) are covered by many small villi. Villi are small
structures like little fingers that stick out from the membrane that lines the inside of the small
intestine. Digested food passes through the walls
The large intestine (colon)
The colon is about 1.5 m in length. In the colon, water is absorbed from the undigested food.
The undigested food becomes more solid. The solid matter or faeces moves to the rectum
where it is stored. The walls of the rectum contract from time to time and the faeces are
pushed out through the anus. This is called defecation.

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 SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
OBJECTIVES
8.2.1.1 Correctly label the reproductive systems of the male and the female.
8.2.1.2 State the functions of the male reproductive system.
8.2.1.3 State the functions of the female reproductive system.

HUMUAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- Human reproduction is the process of producing babies.
- It starts with the fertilization of an egg and ends with the birth of a baby.

The Female Reproductive System

Functions of the female reproductive system

1) Vagina: Also known as the birth canal, it is a masculine tube that opens to the outside of
the female’s body. It is the opening in which the male penis is placed during sexual
intercourse and it receives the male sperms. It is also the tube through which babies are
born into the world. It widens during childbirth to make it easy for the baby to come out.
2) Cervix: it is at the opening end of the womb (uterus) at the base of the vagina. It is a very
tiny opening between the uterus and the vagina where sperm is usually deposited during
sexual intercourse. Sperm has to pass through the cervix for fertilisation to occur. The
cervix dilates during childbirth to allow the baby to come out of the womb.
3) Uterus: Also called the womb. It is the place where the baby (fetus) grows during
pregnancy. It receives the fertilised egg from the oviduct. After fertilisation, the fertilised
egg moves into the uterus and stays there for 9 months while the baby is still growing.
The uterus protects and feeds the baby during pregnancy.
4) Oviduct (Fallopian tube): The oviduct is the place where fertilisation of the female egg
occurs. Sperms swimming through the uterus eventually reach the fallopian tubes where
if they meet a mature unfertilised egg, one of them fertilised it. Only one sperm can
fertilise an egg at a time. The rest die and are absorbed by the female body.
5) Eggs (Ova): An egg or ovum is the female sex cell. These are seeds of reproduction
produced by females. An unfertilised egg on its own cannot produce a baby. A woman
produces one ovum every 28 days (called ovulation). The egg fuses (joins) with the
sperm in the fallopian tube to produce a baby. The ovum is much larger than a sperm.
6) Ovary: The ovary is the female sex organ that is responsible for producing eggs and
other female sex hormones. A normal female would have two ovaries. Females are born
with thousands of unripe eggs already in the ovaries. The eggs only mature at puberty. At
an older age e.g. 50 years the female stops releasing eggs (menopause).
7) Vulva: the outside opening of the vagina. It closes off the vagina.
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The Male Reproductive System:

Functions of the male reproductive system

1) Penis: The penis is the muscular male sex organ that releases sperm and deposits it in the
female vagina during sexual intercourse.
2) Scrotum: The scrotum is the sac that holds the testes outside the body where they can be
kept at the right temperature.
3) Testes: The testes are the two balls contained in the scrotum that produce sperms and
male sex hormones starting from puberty. Sperms: These are male sex cells produced in
the testes. These are seeds of reproduction produced by males. About two billion sperms
are produced in the testes of a healthy male every day. Sperms are too small to see with a
naked eye. Testes also produce male hormones.
4) Coiled tube (epididymis): Used to store sperm before it enters the sperm duct.
5) Sperm duct (vas deferens): A long tube leading from the testes that carry sperm to the
urethra.
6) Urethra: A tube inside the penis that carries sperm and urine to the outside of the body.

PREGNANCY
Pregnancy occurs when a mature male and mature female have unprotected sex. Pregnancy
can only occur when the male sperm fertilises the female egg.

Stages of pregnancy

1) Fertilisation
- During sexual intercourse, sperms are deposited into the female vagina.

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- The sperms then use their tails to swim through the cervix, the uterus, up to the fallopian
tubes, where if they meet a mature egg, one of the sperms enters it and fertilises it.
- However, the journey is so long for most of the sperms so that only a few hundred
manage to reach the egg.
- Once the egg has been fertilised no other sperm can enter it (the ovum hardens), and the
remaining sperm die and are absorbed by the female’s body.

2) Development of the embryo

- The fertilised egg then moves slowly along the fallopian tube toward the uterus.
Meanwhile, the uterus is thickening to prepare itself for the development of the new baby
(fetus).
- It attaches itself to the wall of the uterus where it gets oxygen and nutrients from the
mother’s blood vessels.

3) Development of the fetus

- The fetus is surrounded by a bag called a placenta which is filled with a liquid. The
liquid protects the baby against sudden shock.
- The placenta is connected to the fetus by a tube called umbilical cord which enters the
body of the fetus at the navel.
- The fetus gets nutrients and oxygen through the umbilical cord. Waste products from the
fetus get expelled through the cord. The fetus’ blood and the mothers’ never mix.
- The fetus stays in the womb for approximately 39 weeks (9 months) before it’s born.

4) Birth
- Before birth, the baby turns so that the head points downwards.
- When the baby is about to be born, the uterus muscles start contracting and relaxing
very strongly.
- The placenta breaks and water runs out.
- The cervix opens and the uterus muscles push the baby out, head first.
- The placenta is also pushed out (it is called the afterbirth).
- The umbilical cord is cut and tied.

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 PROPER CHILDCARE
OBJECTIVES
8.2.3.1 Describe pre-natal care for the baby.
8.2.3.2 Describe post-natal care for the baby.
8.2.3.3 Use data to plot a baby’s weight on a health card.
8.2.3.4 Explain immunisation.
8.2.3.5 Explain the importance of an immunisation programme.
8.2.3.6 Identify immunisable diseases in Botswana.
8.2.3.7 Interpret an immunisation schedule.

Babies are completely dependent on their carriers and their mothers. It is therefore important
for a pregnant woman to take proper care of herself and the baby before (prenatal care) and
after (post-natal care) it is born.

Pre-natal Care (after conception)

 Pre-natal care means the care that is given to the baby before birth.
 When a female is expectant (pregnant), she should:
 Go for regular medical check-up
 Eat healthy food with plenty of iron, calcium, vitamins and protein.
 Not smoke and drink alcohol or take habit-forming drugs.
 Have sufficient rest
 Have moderate exercises according to the doctor’s advice.
 Buy the basic needs for the baby before it arrives.
 Seek medical assistance from the clinic immediately the labour signs begin.
 Go for a HIV and AIDS test with a view of getting PMTCT help in the event of a
positive HIV positive status.

Post-natal Care
It is still very important that even after birth the mother continues to take proper care of
herself and that of the baby. Babies need care for a long time after their birth. In addition to
what the mother had been doing during pregnancy, the mother should:
 Keep the baby clean
 Keep the baby warm
 Take the baby regularly for medical check-up to monitor its growth and health.
 Breastfeed at regular intervals. The mother milk (colostrum) contains antibodies that
protect the baby against some diseases. It also contains the right nutrients needed by
the baby to grow well. This only applies to mothers who have not tested HIV and
AIDS positive.
 Immunise the baby against diseases as scheduled.
Having a baby carries great responsibilities. As the child grows parents have are
responsibility to provide the food, protection from harm, clothing, education and all other
basic needs that will ensure that the child grows into healthy and responsible person.

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IMMUNISATION

When a person’s body cannot be infected and is resistant to a certain disease, that person is
said to be immune to the disease.
 The state of being resistant to the disease is called immunity.
 The ability of the body to resist certain diseases is determined by the body’s immune
system.
 Natural immunity can be genetically inherited (active) or passed from the mother to the
developing fetus. Natural immunity could also be acquired due to initial exposure to the
disease and thereafter becoming resistant to further infections.
 On the other hand immunity can be induced, i.e. artificial immunity. In most cases a
small amount of killed or weaker toxin (germ) is introduced into a healthy person (active
acquired immunity). This makes the person’s own defence system produce substances
(antibodies) that act against the germ. This is usually done by injecting a vaccine into a
healthy person’s body or taking it orally.
 The process of doing this is called vaccination and the substances used are called
vaccines.
 In some instances, anti-bodies are obtained and injected into people already suffering
from the disease and this provides passive artificial immunity since the body does not
make its own anti-bodies. The purpose of doing this is for immunisation.

The importance of an immunisation programme

 A person who is immune to a disease can never get that disease again.
 It saves lives.
 It prevents the spread of diseases.

Immunisable diseases in Botswana

• Polio *Measles
• Smallpox *Hepatitis B
• Whooping cough *Tetanus
• Tuberculosis *Diphtheria

An immunisation schedule
Children should be taken to a clinic regularly to be vaccinated against immunisable diseases.
The table below shows a schedule to when children should be vaccinated against certain
diseases

Vaccine Protection against Age Method

Bacille Calmette- Tuberculosis (TB) After birth Injection
Guerin (BCG) 2 months old
Diphtheria Tetanus Diphtheria, tetanus, 6 weeks to 6 years of Injection
Pertussis (DTaP) & pertussis age
Hepatitis B Hepatitis B After birth Injection
9 months
Measles Measles, mumps, & 9 months Injection
rubella
Oral Polio Vaccine Poliomyelitis (polio 2 to 4 months Drop in the mouth
(OPV) 18 months

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 FAMILY PLANNING AND TEENAGE PREGNANCY
OBJECTIVES
8.2.4.1 Identify problems associated with teenage pregnancy.
8.2.4.2 Discuss ways of avoiding unwanted pregnancies.
8.2.4.3 Discuss the importance of family planning.
8.2.4.4 Discuss the problems associated with back-street abortions.

FAMILY PLANNING
• Family planning means when a family decides:
- how many children it should have
- when to have the children
- how far apart should the children be spaced
The importance of family planning
 A small family is much easier and cheaper to care for.
 It is easier for children to finish their studies and to concentrate on their jobs before
starting a family.
 Older women may run a health risk to have babies. Babies from older women have a
greater chance of abnormalities.
 The world can support a limited number of people due to limited resources.

Family planning can be archived through birth control methods such as:
 Abstinence
 The pill
 The condom
 Strilisation
 Withdrawal

TEENAGE PREGNANCY IN BOTSWANA

- Also known as adolescent pregnancy
- Is pregnancy in a female under the age of 20

Problems associated with teenage pregnancy

 There is the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, especially HIV and AIDS.
 Risk of falling pregnant with an unwanted child.
 A teenage mother could easily have complications during delivery that could result in the
death of the baby, the teenage mother or both.
 Both the teenage mother and the teenage father are withdrawn from school until the child
reaches a certain age.
 The teenage mother also risks raising the child as a single parent.
 Some religions and societies will reject young pregnant girls.
 Pregnant teenagers cannot take care of themselves. As a result, it brings extra
responsibilities for their parents.

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ABORTION
 Abortion is the deliberate ending or terminating of a pregnancy.
 It involves the premature removal of the fetus from the mother’s womb.
 Teenagers are usually tempted to commit abortion after falling pregnant because the
pregnancy is unwanted and unplanned.
 This can be very risky when not done by trained medical personnel in the proper
environment. Because abortion is illegal in Botswana, some teenagers seek assistance
from untrained persons
Ways of avoiding unwanted pregnancies
 Abstinence until marriage.
 Using birth control or contraception methods.
 By planning when they would like to have a child and limiting the number of children
they would like to have.

Problems associated with backstreet abortions

- Backstreet abortions have killed many young potential mothers in Botswana. This is
because its practitioners operate in secrecy and use very unorthodox methods. Sometimes
they use substances (chemicals) that are poisonous and harmful to the body.
- This is also normally carried out under very unhygienic conditions. Most mothers die in
the process of committing the abortion or shortly after committing it.
- In addition, in the process of committing abortion the uterus can be infected, which may
result in infertility if the infection spreads to the fallopian tubes.
- Instruments used in abortion may puncture the uterus, resulting in heavy bleeding and
cramps. Any heavy bleeding from the vagina weakens the body.
- Illegal abortion is punishable by law in Botswana.

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 Standard 7

Topics
Technology in Science
The Environment
Adaptation in plants and animals
Water
The Solar System
Heat loss
Light and the eye
The ear and hearing
Chemical reactions
Simple machines
Lightning protection
Handling main electricity
Magnets and electromagnetism
Food and nutrition
Alcohol and drugs abuse
The skeletal and nervous system
Sexual transmitted diseases
HIV and AIDS

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 THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
OBJECTIVES
1.1.1.1 Identify characteristics of scientific ways of thinking.
1.1.1.2 Describe a variety of ways scientists generate ideas.
1.1.1.3 Distinguish between a question and a hypothesis.

Science is the study of everything around us.

It can also be described as a process by which we study or gain knowledge of our
surroundings.
Science is defined as knowledge gained through observing, asking questions and carrying out
experiments to find answers.
 A geologist studies the rocks of the earth. They investigate how rocks were formed and
what has happened to them since their formation.
 A chemist studies the way different substances can change and combine. He or she
studies the composition and behavior of matter and its properties.
 A physicist studies matter and energy
 A biologist studies all living things – people, animals and plants
 An entomologist studies insects
 A meteorologist studies the weather
WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC THINKING?
The steps followed by scientists in order to carry out information about a certain problem.
Scientists are ordinary people like us but they look at things and think about them
scientifically.
STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC THINKING
The process of doing science follows certain steps called scientific process.
OBSERVATION
Scientists observe things by using 5 senses
 Seeing
 Feeling
 Tasting
 Hearing
 Smelling
Many things may be poisonous or dangerous, so it is better not to try to smell or taste an
unknown substance.
Observations must be facts. Things that can be proven and that are certain and definite.
RECORDING
Scientific observations must be described and measured if possible. Then it must be recorded
so that there can be no mistakes later.

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QUESTIONING
Scientists always ask questions about their observations.
Why? Why did this happen?
How? How did it happen?
What? What caused it to happen?

HYPOTHESIS
Once the questions have been asked, the scientist must think of possible answers or
explanations. This possible answer is called hypothesis. It is a possible answer because it has
not yet been tested.
EXPERIMENTING OR INVESTIGATION
The scientist has to think and decide of the investigation can do or what experiment can
perform to prove that the hypothesis is correct or not.
CONCLUSION
Once the scientist has investigated or experimented and decides that the hypothesis is correct
or not, they must now describe the result or conclusion.
COMMUNICATION
When the scientist has made a discovery that has been approved, they tell other scientists
what they found or discovered. This is called communication and it is done by writing an
article in a scientific magazine or writing letters to other scientists.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS
A question is something you ask yourself such as why? How? When? What if? Scientific
questions are measurable or very clear and specific. These questions can only be proved
through scientific investigation.
A hypothesis is a possible answer or explanation to the question. It is not a complete answer
because it must first be tested or confirmed.
HOW SCIENTISTS GENERATE NEW IDEAS
Scientists generate new ideas through research. There are two main kinds of research; pure
research and directed research.
Pure Research
Scientists who do pure research are trying to find out more about anything general that
interests them. They do not study a specific problem.
Directed Research
In directed research, also called practical research, the scientist studies and investigates a
particular problem to try to find an answer.

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 TECHNOLOGY IN SCIENCE
OBJECTIVES
1.3.1.1 Describe technology as the application of scientific knowledge and discoveries.
1.3.1.2 Classify objects as natural or man-made (artificial).
1.3.1.3 Demonstrate proper use of simple technology such as watch, telephone, camera etc.
1.3.1.4 Explain the impact of technology on agriculture, medicine and space science.
1.3.1.5 Describe how technology contributes to solving problems.
1.3.1.6 Identify problems caused by technology.

WHAT IS TECHNOLOGY?
Technology is the use of our knowledge, skills, and information gained from science to make
things that make our lives easier.
It can also simply be defined as the application of scientific knowledge and discoveries.
For instance, it uses scientific knowledge to design and make something that we can use to
solve a problem or meet our needs.
NATURAL AND MAN-MADE OBJECTS AND MATERIALS
Natural objects and materials are those that are found in nature.
Man-made or artificial objects and materials are created or manufactured by man.

Men made things are made from natural materials.

Natural Materials
 Air
 Rocks and ore
 Plants
 Water
 Coal
 Soil
 Minerals

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Man Made Materials
 Iron and steel made from ores in rocks
 Glass made from sand
 Gas from coal and oil
 Explosives from minerals such as sulphur
 Chemicals such as herbicides and pesticides
 Rubber made from the sap of trees
 Medicines made from minerals and plant material
TECHNOLOGY IN OUR LIVES
Technology has changed our lives in many ways and we now find it very difficult to live
without the benefits it brings. Without technology there would be;
 No electricity
 No cars, trucks and trains
 No radio, CD players or television
 No telephones
 No clocks or watches
 No farm machinery
 No vaccines
 No computers
 No calculators
 No cameras
Without technology our lives would be very difficult and much harder.
One of the most important technological developments in history has been the printing
press. It has helped to enable information and ideas to be put on paper and to be circulated
more widely.
USING TECHNOLOGY
Every technological instrument should be used correctly.
The Watch
 Many years ago people used hour glasses to measure time.
 A digital watch or clock does not have hands to show the time or the date.
 Through the use of technology we are now able to use analogue and digital watches.
 All watches and clocks must be handled carefully
 If they are dropped they can break very easily
 If any water gets into them, they will stop working
The Telephone
 The first telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
 The old types of telephones were large and clumsy and had dials which were turned to
‘dial’ a number.
 The modern telephones, which are smaller and use push-buttons to dial the number one
wants to call.

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The Camera
 The Camera was invented in 200 years ago.
 Older cameras were to be adjusted for bright or dim light and for distance.
 Modern ones are able to make these adjustments automatically. You just have to look
through the viewfinder and then press the shutter button.
 Modern cameras have a small flash to use if there is not enough light
 It is important to hold the camera very still when taking pictures.
The Calculator
 In the past, all calculations were done by hand.
 Nowadays, people use calculators which were invented and used gears.
 Modern calculators use transistors and are electronic calculators.
 Electronic calculators use very small batteries.
 Other electronic calculators use solar cells that can convert light to electricity.
THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY
On Agriculture
Before technology, people used simple hand tools to dig, plough and harvest. This meant that
farmers could not plant large land or produce a lot of food.
With the technology we now have;
 Tractors, planters, plough, harvesters, cultivated
 Fertilizers to add to the soil if the soil (inorganic fertilizers)
 Herbicides kill weeds and pesticides to kill pests.
 Large graders to make firebreaks or clear the land.
 Large ploughs to plough large areas of land quickly
 Harrows to smoothen the soil for planting crops
 Cultivators are used for primary and secondary tillage and for removing weeds (weeding).
 Harvesters which are used during harvesting
 Planters which are used to plant seeds in the soil.
On Medicine
Technology has provided ways of helping doctors to see what is happening inside a patient's
body.
 X-ray machines can take pictures that show bones right through the flesh
 Ultrasound machines are used to show a baby inside the mother's uterus. The doctor can
see if the baby is growing well and if everything is correct.
 Development of antibiotics and other medicines which can cure diseases which killed
thousands of people in the past
 Doctors can carry out operations that can correct many physical problems which people
have.

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On Space Science
 Space Science studies the space around the earth, the moon and the planet in the solar
system.
 In the past, scientists could only study the moon and other planets by looking through
telescopes.
 Through the use of new technology, rockets have been developed which can travel into
space and look at our earth and solar system in much more detail than ever before.
 Traveling by rocket has enabled people to walk on the moon and study it in detail.
 Large rockets are now used to send satellites into space to circulate around the earth. These
satellites have enabled people to view the earth from space and for them to see the effects
of man-made pollution and to observe and predict climate changes.
TECHNOLOGY CAN SOLVE PROBLEMS
Technology has given us machines, tools and chemicals to solve many problems. Here are a
few examples;
 Telephones help us to communicate directly instead of having to send a messenger.
 Radio and television bring us news, information and entertainment.
 Calculators and computers do calculations hundreds times faster than we could do them by
hand.
 Medical technology has given us medicines and instruments to diagnose people's health
and physical problems.
 Cars, trains and planes do transport us long distances very quickly instead of walking or
using animals to get from one place to another.
 Farm implements, machinery and chemicals help us to produce more food to feed our
people.
TECHNOLOGY CAN ALSO CAUSE PROBLEMS
Technology is very important in our lives but it also brings about negative impacts such as;
 Pollution – cars, trucks, tractors and factory machines produce smoke which can pollute
the air causing health issues such as lung diseases for people.
 Deforestation – this is the cutting down of many trees in a large area. People use bulldozers
to cut down a lot of trees. This can result in the land being left bare and soil being eroded.
 Global warming – this is the gradual rise or increase in the earth’s temperatures.
 Depletion of the ozone layer
 Waste from industries poisons people or causes respiratory diseases.
Mechanization leads to many people losing their jobs. It is usually cheaper to use machines
than men and this has led to unemployment all over the world.

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 THE ENVIRONMENT
OBJECTIVES
2.1.1.1 Discuss the importance of decomposers in a food chain
2.1.1.2 Give examples of decomposers
2.1.1.3 Describe the feeding habits of scavengers
2.1.1.4 Discuss the importance of scavengers in a food chain/web
2.1.1.5 Give examples of scavengers

SCAVENGERS AND DECOMPOSERS IN A FOOD CHAIN

Food Chain
Food Chain is a list of organisms that depend on one another.

Food chain uses arrows to show how a given organism passes energy to other organisms. It
starts with producers, followed by primary consumers then secondary consumers and
ends with tertiary consumers. Below is an example of a food chain:

The Producer
Producers are plants that produce, or create, their own food by using light energy from the
sun, carbon dioxide from the air, and water from the soil. This process of creating their own
food is called photosynthesis. It is the first level in the food chain. The basic producers are
plants or grass.

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Consumers
Animals are consumers. Animals cannot produce their own food, so they get their food and
energy by consuming (eating) other plants and animals. There are 3 groups of consumers:
carnivores, herbivores, scavengers and omnivores.
Primary Consumers
These are animals that eat plants. They are called herbivores (plant eaters). Examples
include grasshoppers, cattle, sheep, goats and people.
Secondary Consumers
These are animals that eat animals in the primary consumer group. They eat meat/flesh and
they are called carnivores (flesh eaters). Examples include mice, lions, hyenas and a dog.

Scavengers
They are part of secondary consumers but rather they eat what is left by other secondary
consumers.
Examples include owl, vultures, hyenas, jackals, some eagles.
Decomposers
These are organisms that further break down what is left at the end of the food chain.
Decomposers feed on dead things: dead plant materials such as leaf litter and wood, animal
carcasses, and feces. Without decomposers, dead leaves, dead insects, and dead animals
would pile up everywhere.
Examples of decomposers
 Fungus
 Bacteria

SCAVENGERS
A scavenger is an animal that feeds on material that is left after other animals have eaten.
All scavengers are secondary consumers because they eat meat that is left by other
consumers.
Omnivores are consumers that eat both
plants and animals.
Examples
Bears, birds, dogs, and humans.
____________________________
Animals that hunt other animals are
known as predators, while those that are
hunted are known as prey.

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 IMPORTANCE OF SCAVENGERS
Scavengers help to keep the environment clean.
How?
Scavengers as they eat remains left by other carnivores, they remove pieces of flesh, skin and
bone that will rot and cause a bad smell.
FEEDING HABITS OF SCAVENGERS
The feeding habits of scavengers are directly related to their body characteristics.
Scavengers have body characteristics that help them to find and eat their food.

claws
Body Characteristics of scavengers’ birds
 Scavenger birds like vultures have strong talons or claws with which they can rip pieces
of meat or skin to eat

 They also have strong beaks with which they can tear off the small pieces of meat
or skin from a carcass
 Vultures are also very large and strong so that they can fight off other scavenger birds
 Vultures can also fly long distances and very high so that they can cover a large area

BODY CHARACTERISTICS OF OTHER SCAVENGERS

Scavengers with four legs also have special body characteristics.
 The hyena has very powerful jaws and teeth that can crush bones and tear skin and flesh
from the carcase.

 The jackal has sharp teeth and strong jaws to hear flesh off the carcase.

 Hyenas and jackals also have a very strong sense of smell so that they can smell a dead
animal from far away.
DECOMPOSERS
Decomposers are animals that break down or decay or rot organic matter (dead plants and
animal’s remains) into simpler chemical substances.
The breaking down of organic matter into simpler chemical substances is called
decomposition.
Examples of Decomposers
The most important decomposers are;
 Bacteria
 Fungi

Fungi plant
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Bacteria and fungi are micro -organisms that live in the soil. Bacteria are so many in the soil
and they participate in soil transformation processes like weathering of rocks, breakdown of
organic matter. Bacteria are often called germs.

Fungi are plants that without any chlorophyll (they are not green). The most common
fungi are moulds (the white or yellow material that forms on old jam or rotting fruit) and
mushrooms (toadstools).
IMPORTANCE OF DECOMPOSERS

 They recycle nutrients

 They breakdown dead plants and animals to form manure (organic fertilisers) and fossil
fuels.
 The starch in dead plants is decomposed into carbon dioxide which the plant will use for
the process of photosynthesis.

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 PLANTS
OBJECTIVES
2.2.1.1 Describe seed germination.
2.2.1.2 Investigate conditions necessary for seed germination.
2.2.2.1 Define seed dispersal.
2.2.2.2 Describe the different modes of seed dispersal.
2.2.2.3 Identify seeds and fruits according to their modes of dispersal.

SEED DISPERSAL AND GERMINATION

HOW NEW PLANTS ARE PRODUCED
It is important that new plants are produced to take place of the old plants. There are two
methods of producing new plants;
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND VEGETATIVE PRODUCTION
1. Vegetative reproduction
This is the process where new plants are formed from the growing of new parts of the
parent plant. Some plants like strawberry produces runners that touch the ground to form
new roots. Some like onions form bulbs that can be planted to form new plants.

2. Sexual reproduction
This process uses seeds to produce a new plant. It involves the male and female plants or
parts of the plant to produce the seeds. The male sex cells (the pollens) combine with the
female sex cell (the ovule) to produce a seed.
SEED DISPERSAL
What is seed dispersal?
This is the process through which seeds are scattered away from their parent plant.
This is important as it prevents competition from water, sunlight and mineral salts.
HOW SEEDS ARE DISPERSED
Seeds are dispersed through;
 By water
 By animals
 By wind
 By the plant itself (self-dispersal)
Wind dispersal
Seeds that are dispersed by wind are different in some ways. They have the following
characteristics so that they can be easily carried away by wind.
 They are very light in weight
 They have a small wing-like structure which enables them to fly further than heavier seeds
 They are large and can roll along the ground when the wind blows.
 They have parachute-like shapes

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Water dispersal
Certain seeds can float on water and are carried away by running water from their parent
plants. Water dispersed seeds have the following characteristics;
 They have a spongy layer which is water proof
 They have a little air sac which enables them to float on water.

Animal dispersal
Animals disperse seeds in two ways;
a) By eating the seeds. When the animal eats the fruit, the seeds will enter the stomach,
some seeds are digested while others are not. The seeds will drop to the ground in the
droppings and germinate in a different place or away from the parent plant.
b) By carrying the seeds on their body. As the animal moves along in the bush, some seeds
which have hooks or thorns will stick on the body of the animal and as it moves it will
carry the seeds from one place to the other.
 The look fleshy,
 Tasty and are edible
 Fruits are brightly coloured
 Usually have hooks.

Self-dispersal
Certain plants have seedpods that burst open and shoot or explode the seeds away from the
parent plant. Seed that are usually self-dispersed have the following characteristics so that
they can shoot away seeds.

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Contained in pods
The pods have a spring-like mechanism through which they throw away seeds.

TYPES OF SEEDS
There are mainly two types of seeds namely;
 Monocotyledons
 Dicotyledons
a) Monocotyledons
Sometimes they are called monocot seeds
They have one cotyledon. E.g maize seed

b) Dicotyledons
Sometimes they are called dicot seeds
They have two cotyledons. E.g bean seed

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GERMINATION OF SEEDS
What is seed germination?
Seed germination is the fundamental process by which different plant species grow from a
single seed into a plant.
It is when the seed starts to grow into a new plant.
Factors Affecting Seed Germination
There are some major factors that affect seed germination. These include:
 Water: The poor or additional supply of water affects seed germination.
 Temperature: This affects the growth rate as well as the metabolism of the seed.
 Oxygen: Germinating seeds respire vigorously and release the energy required for their
growth. Therefore, deficiency of oxygen affects seed germination.
In certain cases, a temperature below the moderate level slows down seed germination and
promotes fungal growth. In some cases, germination stops at the temperature above the
moderate level.
Germination of a bean seed
During the beginning stage of germination, the seeds take up water rapidly and this results in
softening of the seed coat at normal temperature. The seed coat or testa around the seed
splits open.
The young root or radicles grows out
of the opening.
The plumule, shoot and starts growing
upwards

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 When the cotyledons of a germinating seed grows up out of the soil it is called epigeal
germination.
Germination of a maize seed
In the maize seed germination, there is no testa that splits open.
The radicle grows downwards out of the seed
The new plant or plumule grows upwards out of the soil.
The maize seed remains below the ground.

When the cotyledon of a germinating seed remains below the wound as the new plants grows
upwards, it is called hypogeal germination.
Epigeal germination Hypogeal germination

The cotyledon of the germinating plant grows

The cotyledon of the germinating plant remains in
upwards out of the soil.
the ground

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 ADAPTATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
OBJECTIVES
2.2.3.1 Define adaptation.
2.2.3.2 Describe ways by which different plants are adapted to their environment.
2.2.3.3 Explain how these adaptations help the plants to survive.
2.3.1.1 Describe ways in which different animals are adapted to their environment.
2.3.1.2 Explain how birds are adapted to flying, and fish to living in water.
2.3.1.1 Describe ways in which different animals are adapted to their environment.
2.3.1.2 Explain how birds are adapted to flying, and fish to living in water.

ADAPTATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

What is adaptation?
This is when animals and plants (all living organisms) have changed or developed ways that
help them to live and reproduce in the places they live.
It simply refers to the change in organisms that makes them suited to a particular
environment.
There are mainly three types of adaptation, namely;
 structural
 behavioral
 physical
Structural adaptation involves the body of an organism developing in certain shape to help
suit its survival.
Physical adaptation involve developing certain features to help their survival
Behavioral adaptation involve reacting in a certain way to a stimuli in order to survive.
IMPORTANCE OF ADAPTATION
 Helps organisms to survive
 Helps increase population to avoid extinction
 Attracts tourists
 Reduce competition for food
ADAPTATION IN PLANTS
Plants may be adapted to live and grow in wet and dry conditions.
The most common adaptation of plants in Botswana is usually to live and grow in dry
conditions.

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PLANTS ADAPTED TO DRY CONDITIONS (XEROPHYTES)
Plants growing in dry area’s needs;
 to collect water from the soil in dry periods
 to store water to use in dry periods
 to stop water loss from its leaves
Collecting water
The plants have long roots that penetrates deep into the soil and collect underground water
that has seeped down in the soil during the rainy season. The plants also have many shallow
roots that grow over a wide area.
Storing water
The plants store water in their leaves or stems. Aloes have thick, fleshy leaves that contain
sap which is rich in water. During winter when it is dry, the plants will use the water stored
during summer.
Cutting down water loss
Plants lose water from their leaves. The water evaporates from small openings called stomata.
This process is called transpiration. Plants that grows in dry areas have adapted to reducing
the loss of water (transpirations).
Leaves are coated with waxy layers to close up many stomata which helps them to slow
down transpiration.
The leaves of certain plants have become smaller and smaller and have become thorn. The
thorns of the prickly pear were originally leaves that have adapted. Thorns cannot lose water
through transpiration.
They develop long tap roots to absorb water deep underground e.g. baobab
Develop a large fleshy stem to store as much water as possible e.g. cactus
They have thorny leaves to reduce water loss by transpiration e.g. cactus
They also shade leaves in dry season (winter) to reduce water loss by transpiration.
PLANTS ADAPTED TO WET CONDITIONS (HYDROPHYTES)
Some plants such as the water lily (tswii), grow in water. They have very small weak roots
that grow into the soil at the bottom of the dam. The large leaves and flowers float on the
water surface.
They develop small or short roots to absorb small amounts of water, e.g. water lily
They have large leaves to increase water loss by transpiration e.g. water lily

Plants such as reeds (letlhaka), which grow on the banks of lakes or rivers, have very
shallow roots because they do not need extra water. They usually have large long leaves to
enable them to lose as much water as possible through transpiration.

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ADAPTATIONS IN ANIMALS
Animals may be adapted to survive predators, dry conditions, cold conditions, competition
for food and to be able to catch prey.
Below is how some animals are adapted to their environment;
 Vultures and birds of prey have strong beaks and powerful talons or claws to grasp their
food and eat it.
 They have good eyesight to see their prey from a distance
 Birds that eat seeds have developed short strong beaks to help them pick up and crush hard
seeds.
 Sunbirds have developed long curved beaks so that they can drink nectar from deep inside
certain flowers
 Hyenas and other animals have very strong jaws and teeth so that they can tear off skin and
crush bones to eat.
 Many animals such as hares have adapted to being able to run fast to escape predators.
 A tortoise has a hard shell to protect it against animals which want to eat it.
 The giraffe has a long neck so that it can reach tall trees.
 A chameleon can camouflage itself to hide from predators.
 A camel defecates dry feces and urinates a small amount of urine to help them live in dry
conditions.
 Polar bears have thick fur and a thick layer of fat to help them live in very cold temperatures.
Giraffes have a long neck to avoid competition for food.
A chameleon has a tongue that can stretch to catch its prey from a distance.

HOW BIRDS ARE ADAPTED TO FLYING

 Birds have wings
 Birds have very light bodies
 They also have hollow bones
 Birds have streamlined bodies.

ADAPTATION IN FISH
They have gills which help to breathe in water
They are streamlined therefore less friction in water because of surface area coverage
They have fins which enables them to swim in water

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 WATER
OBJECTIVES
2.5.1.1 Describe the process of water purification in towns.
2.5.1.2 Demonstrate ways of making water safe to drink.
2.5.1.3 Discuss the importance of decontaminating water

TREATING WATER
The importance of water
 Water is used for drinking
 Water is used for cleaning
 Water is used for bathing
 Water is used for cooking
 Water is used for the process of photosynthesis
SOURCES OF WATER
 Dams
 Lakes
 Borehole
 Rivers
 Pond
 Oceans
PURIFYING (DE-CONTAMINATING) WATER
When water is dirty, we say it is contaminated.
To de-contaminate water means to clean or purify it by removing every dirty thing from it.
Purifying water means removing impurities from the water.
 Rainwater is the purest form of natural water but it can become contaminated by dust
particles or gases that were picked up the raindrops while they fall through the air.
 The water from rivers, springs and shallow wells contains impurities from rainwater. It can
also contain germs from dead animals or from pollution.
 Water from boreholes or deep wells usually contains fewer impurities but it often contains
salts (hard water) that were dissolved from the rocks where the water was stored.
IMPURITIES FOUND IN WATER
 Insoluble solid particles like mud, sand, clay or plant materials
 Dissolved mineral salts that come from rocks and from pollution in rivers and dams
 Germs that can cause diseases
WAYS OF MAKING WATER SAFE TO DRINK
In order to make water safe to drink, it;
- must contain no germs
- must be clear and not muddy
- must not contain hazardous chemicals
- must have no taste or smell

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METHODS OF MAKING WATER SAFE TO DRINK
There are three steps in the process of purifying water and making it safe to drink;
 Sedimentation or settling
 Filtration
 Sterilization or boiling
SETTLING OR SEDIMENTATION
Water that contains solid particles is left undisturbed for a few days or minutes and the solid
particles are going to settle at the bottom of the container. After a while, the solid particle
will settle at the bottom of the container. This is called settling or sedimentation.
The layer of the settled solid particles is known as SEDIMENT.

Sediment
The water is still not safe to drink because it is still a little muddy and contains very small
particles.
FILTRATION
In filtration, small particles in water are filtered through the filter.
The small particles that remain in the filter are known as the RESIDUE.
The water that is collected after filtration is known as FILTRATE.

After filtration, the water may still contain germs or other micro-organisms.
These have to be killed first through the process of STERILISATION.

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STERILISATION
The easiest way of sterilizing water is to boil it.
This will kill germs and micro-organisms in water making it safe to drink.
It is much quicker to sterilize water by using a substance that contains chlorine.

WATER PURIFICATION SYSTEMS USED IN TOWNS

We use the same processes;
 Filtration
 Sedimentation
 Sterilization
TREATING RAW WATER
Raw water is water that comes from dams, rivers and boreholes that have not been treated.
It contains all kinds of particles and impurities.
The raw water is going to be pumped into a large open concrete tank or dam.
The water contains very fine clays particles that may pass through a filter and leave the water
slightly milky
Alum (aluminium sulphate) is added to the water so that the clay particles stick together.
Many germs and micro-organisms are also going to stick to the ALUM particles.

The process of adding ALUM is known as FLOCCULATION or COAGULATION.

SETTLING OR SEDIMENTATION
The water is then left undisturbed in the tanks or dams for a few days until all the large solid
particles have settled at the bottom. This is called settling or sedimentation.
FILTRATION
The clear water above sediment is then pumped into a large sand filter in concrete dams or
tanks.

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The water that comes out of the sand filter is now quite clear.
STERILISATION
The water that has been pumped into large sand filters or tanks during the filtration process is
then pumped into a section where chlorine gas is added.
The chlorine will kill all the germs and other micro-organisms that may remain in the water.
Addition of chlorine to water is known as CHLORINATION.
WATER STORAGE
The pure water is now stored in tanks and reservoirs where it is pumped to homes.

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 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
2.7.1.1 Distinguish between rotation and revolution of the earth.
2.7.1.2 Explain day and night in terms of the earth’s rotation on its axis.
2.7.1.3 Describe the motion of the earth around the sun.
2.7.1.4 Discuss seasons in relation to the motion of the earth around the sun

ROTATION OF THE EARTH

Rotation is the motion of an object about its axis.
Rotation of the earth is defined as the movement of the earth round the sun on it axis. The
earth rotates or spins on its axis.
The North Pole is in the sea called the Arctic Ocean.
The South Pole is on a land called Antarctica.
It takes the Earth 24 hours or a day to complete one rotation around its axis.
Characteristics of Earth’s Rotation
1. The earth moves or rotates on its own axis from west to east (anticlockwise motion)
2. The rotating earth is inclined at an angle of 23 ½ along its axis
3. It takes the earth twenty-four hours to complete one rotation
4. The rotation of earth causes days and nights
5. The earth rotates through 150 in 1 hour and 4 minutes in 10.
Effects of Rotation
1. Days and Night: as the earth rotates, only one part of the earth’s surface facing the sun
receives the rays of the sun and experience daylight (day) while the other part of the earth
backing the sun’s rays will experience darkness (Night)
2. Apparent Sunrise and Sunset: during rotation part of the earth emerging from darkness
into rays the sun experiences sunrise while the part that is moving away from the sun’s rays
to darkness will experience sunset.
3. Daily Rising and Falling of the Tides: this results in falling and use the level of water in
the ocean and seas

EARTH’S REVOLUTION

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A revolution is the motion of an object around a point or another object.
Revolution of the earth is defined as the movement of the earth round the sun on its orbit.
The earth revolves around the sun
The path that the earth takes as it revolves around the sun is called its ORBIT.
It takes 365 days for the earth to complete one revolution around the sun.

NB; The earth rotates on its axis as it revolves around the sun.
WHAT HAPPENS AS THE EARTH ROTATES
Part of the earth we live on is facing the sun that part of the earth will be lit up by the sun. We
call this day time.
Part of the earth we are not living in is facing away from the sun, that part will not have light.
We call this night time.

SEASONS OF THE YEAR

 Summer is hotter, the sun is higher in the sky and the days are longer. Weather is wammer.
 In winter, the sun is lower in the sky, the days are shorter and it is cooler.

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What causes this?
 In summer, the southern part of the Earth is tilted towards the sun.
 It is exposed to more heat from the sun every day so the climate is hotter.
 In winter, the southern part is tilted away from the sun.
 The amount of heat from the sun is less than in summer thus making the climate cooler.

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 HEAT LOSS
OBJECTIVES
3.1.1.1 Investigate the effects of cooling on the physical properties of a substance.
3.1.1.2 Demonstrate the cooling effect of evaporation.

What is heat?
All objects are made up of very small particles called molecules. The molecules of an object
are always moving back and forth. The energy of this vibration is called heat.
What is temperature?
Temperature is the measure of how hot or cold something is.
How do objects lose heat?
Objects lose heat when some of its heat energy is being transferred from it to another object
or substance. For example, if a pot of boiling water is left, it will lose heat to the surrounding
air.
 When a substance loses heat energy, it cools down and its temperature drops.
 The faster the molecules of an object vibrate, the temperature increases
 The slower the molecules of an object vibrate, the temperature will drop or loses
temperature.
 Heat does not disappear but it is transferred from one object to the other.

The water molecules in the kittle are vibrating very fast, therefore the
temperature is high, but when the kittle is switched off, the water molecules will slowly stop
vibrating and the kittle will become cold and lose its heat energy to the air surrounding it.
EFFECTS OF HEAT LOSS ON AN OBJECT
When a substance or object loses heat, the following happens;
 the temperature decreases
 it shrink or decrease in size (remember; matter expands when it gains heat energy)
 it change in its hardness
 it change its state (remember; when matter gains heat, it change from liquid to gas

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Heat loss causes a change in temperature

 The temperature of the water drops down when an

object loses its heat energy
 The air around the beaker and above it will take the
heat and become warm
Heat loss causes a change in size  Due to heat loss, the water temperature will drop
down
On heating, the ball expands and increases in size and cannot pass the ring when left on it.
As the ball cools, it contracts, size becomes less than the ring and passes the ring.

Heat lose change the hardness of a substance

When substances like rubber or plastic cools down, it becomes harder or less flexible. When
plastic or rubber is heated, it becomes very soft and flexible.
Heat loss change in the nature (state) of a substance.
When water change from ice (solid) to liquid it is called change in state. The process is called
melting. This is caused by gaining of heat energy.
When water (liquid) change to form ice (solid) it loses heat energy and change from liquid
to solid. When the water cools down, it becomes a solid again. The process is called
solidification. We say the water is solidified.
Heat loss causes a gas to change to a liquid.
When we heat water, it gains heat energy and forms water vapour. During the process of
condensation, water vapour is changed from steam or gas to liquid.
The heat loss has caused a change in the state rom gas (vapour) to liquid.
EVAPORATION OF A LIQUID
Evaporation is when the liquid has been exposed to the air and some of it escape into the air
in form of a gas or vapour. The hotter the liquid, the faster it escape.

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 RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
OBJECTIVES
3.2.1.1 Identify renewable energy resources in Botswana.
3.2.1.2 Discuss uses for such energy resources.
3.2.1.3 Discuss the social and economic benefits of harnessing solar energy, biomass and
wind energy.
3.2.1.4 Harness solar energy in whatever way to heat water

When we say something is a source, it means where we get it from. A source of energy is
anything that we get energy from or that produces energy. If one burns wood to boil water,
wood is a source of heat energy because it has produced heat to boil water.
Sources of energy can be grouped into two namely;
 Non- renewable energy sources
 Renewable energy sources
RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
These are sources of energy that cannot be used up. Energy sources which when used, they
do not get finished or depleted. Examples of renewable energy sources
 Wind energy – when the wind blows, it turn machines such as windmills and generators
that produces electricity. Will cannot be used up or finished hence it is a renewable source
of energy.
 Solar energy – this is the energy from the sun. The sun produce so much energy that it
cannot be used up or finish. The energy from the sun can be used to produce electricity and
heat energy.
 Geothermal energy – there is a very thick layer of molten rock below the surface of the
earth. In some places this molten rock flows or shots out in what is called volcanoes. In
some countries hot steam that comes out of the earth is used to heat homes and generate
electricity.
 Biomass – this is the name given to organic matter such as material coming from plants or
animals. This material can be used to produce gases that can be burned to provide energy.
 Wave energy – the sea rises and fall twice a day because of the attraction of the moon.
These movements of the sea are called high tide and low tide. These tides can be used to
produce electricity.

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RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN BOTSWANA
Botswana is a landlocked country, therefore it cannot use waves as an energy source and
has no volcanic areas for geothermal energy. The only renewable energy sources that could
really be used here are;
 Solar energy
 Wind energy
 Energy from biomass
Uses of renewable energy sources
a) Solar energy
The energy from the sun can be used to;
o heat water
o cook food
o produce electricity

b) Wind energy
The energy of the wind can be used to turn windmill and any kind of
machine in which there is a propeller that can turn. Some windmills are
used to pump water from boreholes and wells.
c) Biomass
We use living things (plants and animals) materials to produce methane gas which is used
as fuel. When biomass material is put in special tanks or containers (called digestors)
bacteria will digest it and cause it to ferment. During the process of fermentation, a gas
called methane is produced. The gas is called biogas and it can be used as fuel and burn
to produce heat.
THE BENEFITS OF USING RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
When people use fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, there are two main problems;
 the cost of fuel
 the smoke from burning fuels can cause air pollution
Renewable energy sources are ecofriendly
 They are cheap
 They are sustainable

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 HEAT TRANSFER
OBJECTIVES
3.2.2.1 Distinguish between heat conductors and insulators.
3.2.2.2 Identify building materials that are conductors.
3.2.2.3 Identify building materials that are insulators.
3.2.2.4 Construct a heat retainer using locally available material.
3.2.2.5 Describe good radiators and good absorbers of heat.
3.2.2.6 Identify good radiators and poor radiators of heat.
3.2.2.7 Demonstrate that heat can be reflected.
3.2.2.8 Identify applications of heat reflection.

The movement of heat from one place to another is called heat transfer. Heat always
moves or transfer from one place to another in three ways;
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation

CONDUCTION OF HEAT
The process of transmission of heat energy from one particle of the medium to another with
the particles being in direct contact with each other.
This is the way heat moves mainly through solids.
It is passed by hot particles to cooler ones.
Conduction takes place at different rates in different solids.
Materials that conduct heat quickly are said to be good conductors of heat and those that do
not heat well are said to be insulators or poor conductors of heat.

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METALS ARE GOOD CONDUCTORS OF HEAT
 Silver and copper are the best conductors BUT lead is a poor conductor of heat
Examples of Insulators
Non-metals are very poor conductors of heat
 Glass
 Wood
 Rubber
 Plastic
The diagram below is of a set-up to investigate the rate at which different solids conducts
heat;

Observation
The pin fell first from the
aluminum rod, then copper, iron
and took longer to fall from the
brass rod.

Conclusion
Different materials conduct heat at different rates.
Aluminum is the best conductor followed by copper and then iron while brass is a poor
conductor of heat.
It can also be, noted that metals are good conductors of heat while non-metals are poor
conductors.

BUILDING MATERIALS
Insulation in buildings refers to building a house in such a way that it prevents heat loss or
gain within them.
In buildings, insulation depends on;
 The type of materials used for roofing
 The presence of a ceiling.
 Thickness of the walls.
Below is a comparison of different houses.

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Observations
The house without a ceiling recorded higher temperatures than the house with a ceiling.
The house with a single wall recorded higher temperatures than the house with double walls.
Houses roofed with corrugated iron recorded higher temperatures than house with thatched
roofs.
Conclusion
Materials that are suitable for insulation in a building include,
 the use of thatch for roofing,
 double walls
 the presence of a ceiling.
Examples of Insulators used for building
 Bricks
Bricks are insulators and do not let heat through. It helps to keep buildings cool in
summer and warm in winter.
 Wood
Wood is a good insulator and it is often used for the inside walls of buildings.
 Thatch
Houses with thatched roofs (grass roofs) are cool in summer and warm in winter because
the thatch is a good insulator and stops heat from going through.
 Cement
Cements are insulators and do not let heat through. It helps to keep buildings cool in
summer and warm in winter
 Plastics
Plastic sheets are put underneath roof sheets to keep the sun’s heat out during the summer
and to keep heat inside during the winter. Polystyrene foam is used between brick walls
or around stoves and hot water tanks to keep them hot and to prevent the heat damaging
other materials around them.
CONVECTION OF HEART
This refers to the movement of heat through fluids (gases and liquids).
That is the movement of heat through liquids and gases.
If a fluid is heated, hot particles become less dense and move to the top of the liquid.
While cold ones with high density sinks to the bottom.

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RADIATION OF HEAT
This is the movement of heat through an empty space.
Unlike conduction and convection, there are no particles involved in movement of heat
through radiation.
Example
- Heat from the sun reaches us through radiation.
• Radiation of substances is described in terms of heat absorption and emission.
Absorption of heat
This refers to the rate at which heat is taken into an object.
Different surfaces absorb heat at different rates.
The set-up below is an activity to investigate absorption of heat by different surfaces.

The dull black colour recorded higher temperatures, while the one that is bright silver in
colour, recorded lower temperatures.
Conclusion
Black surfaces or dull coloured surfaces are good absorbers of heat whereas silvery or light
coloured surfaces are poor absorbers of heat.
This is because lightly coloured or silvery coloured surfaces reflect heat outwards.
EMISSION OF HEAT
This refers to the release of heat to the surroundings.
The set-up below is an activity to investigate emission of heat through different surfaces.

Observations
The side with a black or dull
surface feels warmer than the one
with white or bright.
Conclusion
Black or dull coloured surfaces are
good emitters of heat whereas
white or bright coloured surfaces
are poor emitters of heat.

This is because white or bright coloured surfaces reflected heat inwards.

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USES OF REFLECTION OF HEAT
A VACUUM FLASK
It is used to make hot liquids hot and cold ones cold for a long time.
It does this by preventing heat loss or gain by conduction, convection and or radiation.
Below is the diagram of a vacuum flask.

The silvery surfaces reduce heat loss or gain by

radiation.
The vacuum prevents heat gain or loss by
conduction and convection.
A plastic cork reduces heat gain or loss by
conduction and convection.

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 LIGHT AND THE EYE
OBJECTIVES
3.2.3.1 Show that light is needed for one to see.
3.2.3.2 Correctly label the eye.
3.2.3.3 State the functions of the parts of the eye (i.e. pupil, iris, lens, cornea, retina, optic
nerve, and eyelids).
3.2.3.4 Describe the appearance of the pupil in response to different amounts of light.
3.2.3.5 Discuss factors that may cause visual impairment

Light is a form of energy that enters our eyes and causes a sensation called sight. This
means that without light, we will not be able to see anything.
We can only see objects if;
 it produces its own light (if it is luminous)
 light is reflected from it

THE HUMAN EYE

The eye is an organ for seeing.
For us to see an object light rays strikes the object and the object reflect the rays into our
eyes.
The image is, formed into the retina and sent to the brain for interpretation.
Below is the structure of a human eye:

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 Myopia is a condition that causes objects
that are far away to appear blurry and is
commonly referred to as nearsightedness.
Myopia is caused when light focuses in
front of the retina. It can be corrected by
placing a concave lens in front of the eye
FUNCTIONS OF THE MAIN PARTS OF THE EYE (either in the form of eyeglasses or contact
lenses) that causes the light to spread out
CORNEA before it enters the eye.
 Protects the eye but allow light through into the eye Hyperopia occurs when light focuses
 The cornea refracts light rays towards the lens behind the retina and causes objects that
are nearby to appear blurry, a condition
THE PUPIL also called farsightedness. It is corrected
by placing a convex lens in front of the eye
 It is the opening in the middle of the iris to cause the light to begin to converge
 It controls the amount of light that goes into the eye. before it enters the eye.
 It allows light to enter the eye.
THE LENS
The lens focuses light rays into the retina.
The lens flatter for looking at objects that are far
RETINA
It acts as a screen where images are formed.
OPTICAL NERVE
It transmits impulses to the brain for interpretation.
IRIS
This is the coloured part of the eye.
It controls the size of the pupil.
EYE LID
It protects and cleans the eye.
CILIARY MUSCLES
It controls the shape or thickness of the lens.

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HOW THE PUPIL CHANGES IN DIFFERENT LIGHT CONDITIONS
The size of the pupil changes depending on light intensity.

This is to protect the eye from damage by too much light and to allow enough light to enter
the eye.
The iris controls its size.
When one is in bright light, the iris relaxes to reduce the size of the pupil. This reduces the
amount of light entering the eye. It contracts to increase the size of the pupil when one is in
the dark to increase the amount of light entering the eye.

HOW THE LENS CHANGES

Accommodation of the eye means the ability of an eye lens to change shape or thickness to
focus images on the retina.
The thickness of the eye lens is, controlled by the ciliary muscles.
 When looking at a closer object ciliary muscles contract and
squeeze the lens, which make it thick.
 This makes the lens have a short focal length.
 When looking at a distant object, the muscles relax and release
the lens from pressure.
 This makes the lens thin and the focal length long.

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 Did you know?
Damage to or malfunction of any part of the eye can
CAUSES OF BAD EYESIGHT cause blindness or poor sight.
For example, if any of the structures involved in the
a) Loss of accommodation transmission of light, like the cornea, pupil, eye lens or
b) Infection those responsible for conversion of light to electrical
c) Cataracts impulse, like the retina or even the optic nerve that
transmits these impulses to the brain, is damaged, it
d) Trachoma will result in visual impairment.
e) Detached retina
You might have experienced that you are not able to
f) Diseases see objects clearly for some time when you enter from
g) Severe head injuries a brightly lit to a dimly lit room. The pupil of the eye
acts like a variable aperture whose size can be varied
with the help of the iris. When the light is very bright,
the iris contracts the pupil to allow less light to enter
the eye.
However, in dim light the iris expands the pupil to
EYE DEFECTS AND DISEASES allow more light to enter the eye.
Thus, the pupil opens completely through the
What are EYE DEFECTS? relaxation of the iris.
Eye defects or vision problems occur when light is not correctly focused onto the retina. This
leads to blurred vision. These defects can be divided into four main categories.
1. SHORT SIGHT (MYOPIA)
A short-sighted person can see near objects very well BUT cannot see distant objects clearly.

REMEDY/CORRECTION;
Short sightedness can be corrected with a concave lens in spectacles.

2. LONG SIGHT (HYPERMETROPIA)

A long-sighted person can see distant objects clearly BUT cannot see near objects clearly.

REMEDY/CORRECTION;
Long sight is corrected with the use of convex lens in spectacles.

3. ASTIGMATISM
It is an eye defect where by a person cannot focus vertical and horizontal lines at the same
time.

REMEDY/CORRECTION;
Can be corrected through the use of cylindrical lens i.e. special combination of convex and
concave lenses in spectacles.

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EYE DISEASES
1. CATARACT
Cause;
It is caused by too much exposure to Ultra Violet Light (UV light)
It damages the protein in the eye lens and this makes the lens cloudy.
Signs:
Clouded, blurred or dim vision
Treatment;
The lens can be replaced by surgical operation.

2. TRACHOMA
Cause;
It is caused by bacteria called Chlamydia trochomotis.
Signs;
Repeated itchy eye infections.
These infections can lead to blindness.
Treatment;
Through the use of antibiotics and improved hygiene.

3. RETINAL DETACHMENT
Cause
The retina becomes separated from the back of the eyeball.
This may be due to injury or it may just happen.
Signs;
Flashes of light are seen

Treatment
Surgery to reconnect the retina

4. NIGHT BLINDNESS
Cause
Lack of vitamin A in the diet.
Vitamin A is needed to make the pigment that detects light in the retina.
Signs;
The person has difficulties in seeing objects at night.
Treatment
Diet rich in vitamin A is needed. E.g. carrots and orange coloured vegetables.

5. GLAUCOMA
Cause;
Increase of pressure in the eye ball which damages the optic nerve.
It is the second cause of blindness in Africa.
Signs:
Person experiences patchy loss of vision or reduced clarity.
Treatment;
Surgery and medication to reduce the pressure and the cause of increased pressure.
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 THE EAR AND HEARING
OBJECTIVES
3.2.4.1 List the main parts of the ear.
3.2.4.2 State the functions of the main parts of the ear.
3.2.4.3 Appreciate that different animals can detect different audibility.
3.2.4.4 State the average audibility frequency range for humans.
3.2.5.1 Demonstrate good care for ears.
3.2.5.2 Discuss factors that can cause hearing impairment.

The ear is an organ for hearing.

The ear help us to keep our balance.
Its parts maybe grouped as outer, middle and inner ear.
 The earflap, ear canal and eardrum make the outer ear.
 The hammer, stirrup and anvil make the middle ear
 The cochlea and the auditory nerves make the inner ear.

PARTS OF THE EAR

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE EAR

1. Ear Flap
• It collects sound from air and directs it into the ear canal.
2. Ear Canal
• It directs sound to the ear drum.
3. Ear Drum
 It vibrates when sound enters the ear
 It also makes the small bones to vibrate
 Small Bones (Ossicles): Hammer, Anvil, Stirrup
 They amplify sound.
4. Cochlea
 It stimulates the nerve endings.
 The nerve endings pick up the vibration and send them to the hearing nerve (auditory
nerve).

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5. Auditory Nerve
• It transmits electrical signals to the brain for interpretations.
6. Eustachian Tube
It helps balance pressure inside the ear and outside the ear by allowing air in and out of the
ear.
HOW DO WE HEAR
 Sound waves are collected by the ear flap / pinna and passed into the ear canal.
 The ear canal (is a passage) channels sound waves to the eardrum.
 The ear drum then vibrates from the sound waves that strikes it.
 The vibration is later passed on to the small bones and they magnify or enlarge the
vibrations and carry it to the oval window.
 The oval window will then vibrate and causes vibrations in the liquid inside the cochlea.
 These vibrations will stimulate the nerve endings in the cochlea.
 This produces nerve impulses.
 The nerve impulses will then be carried by the auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation.
THE AUDIABLE FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
Refers to the number of vibrations. It is measured in Units called Hertz. (Hz)
The audible frequency of human beings is 16Hz (minimal) to 20 000 Hz (maximum).
HEARING IMPAIRMENT / DAMAGE
Hearing impairment is a term used to describe the complete or partial loss of hearing in one
or both ears
Signs of hearing impairment
 Loss of balance
 Hearing loss
 Tinnitus (ringing in the ear)
 Impaired speech
CAUSES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT
 Accidents or injury to the ear
 Noise pollution
 Old age
PREVENTING HEARING IMPAIRMENT
 Wearing ear muffs
 Immunize children against infections
 Cure chronic infections such as ear infections as early as possible.
 Do not poke your ears with hard objects
 Safe and healthy care for ears
 Ears should be cleaned carefully
 Wear protective clothing when using very loud machinery
 Do not listen to loud music with headphone

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 CHEMICAL REACTIONS
OBJECTIVES
3.3 Chemistry
3.3.1.1 Describe a chemical reaction.
3.3.1.2 Recognise a chemical reaction.
3.3.1.3 Demonstrate a chemical reaction.
3.3.1.4 Identify reactants and products in a given chemical reaction.
3.3.1.5 Describe observable signs of evidence of a chemical reaction.
3.3.1.6 Investigate factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction.

What is a chemical reaction?

A chemical reaction is a process by which two or more substances combine chemically to
produce a completely new substance.
Signs of a reaction include;
 Colour change
 Change in temperature
 Bubbles of a gas and flames.
 Completely new substance is formed
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES
Physical Changes Chemical Changes
Physical changes take place when a substance Chemical change is when a change takes
changes form or arrangement. They are often place and a new substance is formed. They
reversible. are often not reversible.
Examples: Examples:
1. Changing state 1. When something is burned
2. When two substances are mixed 2. When food is cooked
3. When a substance or material is broken apart. 3. When metal rusts

Evidence of a chemical change:

1. Change in energy: temperature increase = exothermic chemical reaction temperature
decrease = endothermic chemical reaction
2. Color change: This is not when a color has been covered, for example dying, painting, etc.
This is an unexpected change.
3. Formation of a gas: if in a solution, bubbles will often times be seen when the gas is
formed.

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 Chemical and physical changes
similarities differences
• Both cause a change in appearance • Chemical creates to a new material, physical does
• Amount of matter does not change for both not
• Chemical is hard to reverse, physical is easy to
reverse

REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS

In any chemical reaction, we start with one or more substances. They then react and produce
a new substance. The substances that react are called reactants and the substances that are
produced are called products.

Example of a chemical reactions

 Photosynthesis
 Respiration
 Rusting
 Acid-base reactions
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Temperature
 Increasing temperature increases the rate of a chemical reaction.
 This is because increase in temperature increases the rate at which particles move and
collide.
 Likewise, a decrease in temperature decreases the rate of chemical reactions. This is why
food rots easily in high temperatures but stay longer in cold temperatures.
Surface area
 Particles with smaller grains react faster than those with larger grains.
 That is a powered substance would react faster than those in lumps or with larger grains.
 This is because in powdered substances the total surface area exposed for reactions is great.
Concentration of reactants
 The higher the concentration the less time taken for reactants to react.
 The lower the concentration, the more time taken for reactants to react.
Catalysts
 A catalyst is a chemical that speed up a chemical reaction without itself being changed.
 It is never used up in the reaction.
 A catalysed reaction is faster than the one not catalysed.

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 SIMPLE MACHINES
OBJECTIVES
4.3.1.1 Describe a machine as a device that is used to make work easier.
4.3.1.2 List examples of simple machines used in daily life (e.g. pulley, inclined plane, gear
and wheel etc).
4.3.1.3 Demonstrate how machines can be used to make work easier.

A machine is any device which makes work easier. They do this by reducing the amount of
effort needed to move a load.
The force needed to move an object is called an effort. The object to be moved is called a
load.
EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE MACHINES
 Lever
 Gears
 Pulley
 Inclined plane
 Wheel and axle

SIMPLE MACHINE HOW IT WORKS EXAMPLES

Lever A stiff bar that turns on a support called a pivot or Crowbar, scissor and
fulcrum which lifts or moves loads. wheel borrow
A lever consists of a board or bar that rests on a
turning point called the fulcrum. The board pivots,
or rotates, on the fulcrum.

Inclined plane It is a slope through which objects are rolled up A parking ramp, stairs
instead of lifting them vertically upwards. and ladder
The inclined plane is a very simple machine.
It has no moving parts! It is a surface with a slope,
or incline. Inclined planes are used to change the
height of an object.
Pulley These are grooved wheels and a rope or a chain Block and tackle,
that runs through them to raise, tower or move a window blinds and flag
load. pulley.

Wheel and axle This is a wheel with a rod, called an axle through Car wheels and a winch
its center to move or lift objects.
The wheel is wider than the axle. When a force is
used to turn the wheel, the force is transferred to
the axle. Since the wheel turns a longer distance,
the force at the axle is greater. This allows it to
move heavy objects.

Gears These are wheels with teeth or cogs cut in them to Bicycles, food whisk
change direction or speed of other wheels.

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 Gears are used to transfer motion or force from
one place to another. Gears attached to axles can
be used to increase or decrease speed and to
change the amount of force. A large gear will turn
more slowly than a small gear it is connected to,
but the large gear will turn with greater force.

Axle – a pin or pole around which a wheel revolves

Complex machines – any devices made up of more than one simple machine; compound
machines
Force – the strength or energy that moves an object
Friction – the force that builds up when two objects rub against each other
Fulcrum – the point around which a lever pivots or turns
Gear – a toothed wheel that connects with another toothed object to change speed or
direction; a type of simple machine
Inclined plane – a slanted surface that makes it easier to move an object between a lower
level and a higher level; a type of simple machine
Lever – a rigid bar that pivots or turns around a fulcrum; a type of simple machine
Load – something that is lifted or carried
Machine – any device that uses energy to help a person do work
Pulley – a circular lever, usually a wheel with a rope around it; a type of simple machine
Ramp – a sloped path used to move things between a lower level and a higher level
Screw – an inclined plane wrapped around a rod, often used to hold things together; a type of
simple machine
Simple machines – any basic devices that work with the use of a single force
Wedge – a simple machine with one narrow or pointed end and one wide end, used to
separate two objects or parts
Wheel – a round object that turns around a central point
Wheel and axle – a round object that turns around a pin or pole; a type of simple machine
Work – the act of moving something

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 LIGHTNING PROTECTION
OBJECTIVES
5.1.1.1 Describe how a lighting conductor works.
5.1.1.2 Construct a simple lightning conductor.

By the end of this students will understand the following:

 The difference between lightning and thunderstorm.
 How lightning is formed through opposite electric charges
 How one can be safe from lightning
 The dangers of lightning
 The fundamentals of how lightning protection systems function.

What is lightning?
Lightning is a bright flash of electricity produced by a thunderstorm in the atmosphere. All
thunderstorms produce lightning and are very dangerous. If you hear the sound of thunder,
then you are in danger from lightning.
What is the difference between thunderstorm and lightning?
Thunder is the sound created by the expansion of air created by lightning.
Lightning is an electric discharge in the atmosphere. It represents a quick moving flow of
charge between the clouds and the ground.
How does lightning form?
When a thunderstorm develops, electrical charges (positive (+) and negative (-)) within the
cloud separate, and an electric field is produced between the top of the cloud and the base.

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 Below the negatively charged storm base,
positive charges begin to gather on the
ground.
Do you still remember that opposite charges
attract each other?
Since opposites attract, the ground’s
electrical charge concentrates around
anything that sticks up, such as mountains,
people, or single trees. The charge coming
up from these points eventually connects
with a charge reaching down from the
Lightning Safety Rules thundercloud and lightning strikes. When
the positive and negative charges meet, they
• The best shelter from lightning is inside a large cause light and sound.
enclosed structure, such as your home or school. No
place outside is safe during a thunderstorm. Once inside,
stay away from any windows and doorways, electrical
appliances, lighting, electric sockets, and plumbing, such
as toilets and showers.
• If you can’t get to a house, a vehicle with a solid metal
roof and metal sides (such as a bus) is a reasonable
second choice. Avoid contact with the windows. Close A person on the ground sees the lightning
the windows and lean away from the door. Don’t touch flash before hearing the thunder because
light travels faster than sound.
anything metal, such as the steering wheel, ignition, gear
shifter or radio.
Stay away from:
 Tall isolated objects (trees, flag poles, light poles, field goal posts, and telephone
poles)
 Wide-open areas (sports fields, farm fields, hiking trails)
 Water related activities (boating, fishing, lying on the beach, swimming)
 Metal (fences and tools)
 Using the telephone and showers (using a corded phone is the leading cause of
indoor lightning injuries)

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THE DANGERS OF LIGHTNING
 Lightning can heat trees and tall buildings
 Lightning causes very serious damages to power lines and electrical equipment
 Lightning can cause a sudden death when it strikes people (some can be left paralyzed and
stop breathing)
 Lightning can cause a heat failure when it strikes a person
Lightning Conductor
A lightning conductor is a metal rod placed on top of a building to protect it from a lightning
strike.
This conductor is struck first in lightning without hitting the
building directly, preventing fire or electrocution. It
provides a harmless and easy path for the lightning energy
to pass into the ground without damaging the structure of
the buildings.

Lightning rods are made of conducting materials to give a path for the
charges from the lightning to pass through and reach the ground. In this
case, copper and aluminium being conductors, are suitable for the
construction of a lightning rod.

In order to protect building from lightning, make a lightning conductor on the building.

The “path” or the earthing system is installed from the top to

the bottom of the building. The conductor provides a poor
resistance path between the top of the conductor rod – through a
substantial metal strip – to the ground. Hence the current from
the lightning strike is diverted through the rod and avoids
flowing through the building.

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 HANDLING MAIN ELECTRICITY
OBJECTIVES
5.2.1.1 Identify and explain the functions of a fuse, an earth wire and a trip switch.
5.2.1.2 Describe a short circuit and how it can be prevented.
5.2.1.3 Demonstrate proper handling of electricity in the home.
5.2.1.4 Demonstrate ways of conserving electricity in the home.

What is main electricity?

The electric current generated in a power station have a very high voltage so that it can be
sent along power lines to where it will be used. The high voltage current cannot be used in a
home because it is dangerous. The high voltage is brought down to a lower voltage by a
transformer. The electric current that comes from the transformer is 220 volts (220 V) and is
called main current because it comes from the main supply.
The danger of electricity
Electricity is dangerous because;
 it can cause serious injuries or kill animals and people.
 it can paralyse people leading them to stop breathing and die
 it can cause fires when an electric current flows through conductor and it heats up.
To avoid harm from electricity;
 do not touch electric cables with wet hands
 make sure no very high voltage passes through any conductors
 prevent the electric current from passing through your body
Controlling the current strength
People can prevent very large current flowing through a conductor by using;
1. a fuse
2. a strip switch
Fuse
A fuse is a thin wire or metal strip that has a low melting point. When an electric current
passes through anything, it heats up. If the current is too bit for safety, it heats up the metal
wire or strip so much that it melts and breaks the path of the current. No current can then flow
until the fuse is replaced.

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Trip switch
A strip switch off (trip) when the current is too large. This will prevent a very large current
flowing through a wire or through an appliance and so cause a fire through overheating.
Trip switches are better than fuses because they can be switched on again after they have
tripped and switched off the current. If a trip switch keeps on tripping then there is something
wrong in that part of the electric circuit and the fault must be fixed before switching on the
current again.

A SHORT CIRCUIT
What is a short circuit?

Electric current always flows through a

conductor. Even the best conductors have some resistance that holds back some of the
current. The higher the resistance, the smaller the current and the lower the resistance the
larger the current. When an electric current flows through an appliance such as an electric
kettle or a heater, it flows in through the live wire, then through the heating element (which
has a very high resistance) in the kettle or the heater and then it flows out through the neutral
wire. The live and neutral wires are always covered with a layer of plastic or rubber that
insulates them so that the current cannot escape from the wires. If there is a break in the
insulation and a bare wire touches another bare wire or a metal part of the appliance, a very
large current will flow from the live wire to the metal. This is called a short circuit
because the current has taken a shortcut past the resistance (the element).

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The dangers of a short circuit
When there is a short circuit in electrical wires or appliances, the current that flows is very
large because there is little resistance. The current can be large that it could cause;
 wires to overheat
 start fire or electrical burns,
 electrocution (this is when someone touches the any part of the appliance during short
circuit and the current runs through their body which can cause injuries or even kill them)
 damage to appliances
Preventing a short circuit
A short circuit can only happen if there is a break in a wire or if the insulation around an
electric wire is broken or damaged and the live wire touches the neutral wire or any metal
part of the appliance. To prevent a short circuit;
 check outlets before use.
 check appliances before use.
 check if there is any broken insulation on the wires (conductors) before use
 make sure all appliances are fitted with the earth wire
 reduce electrical usage during storms.
 perform basic circuit breaker maintenance.
THE EARTH WIRE
When a bare wire touches the metal part of an electric appliance, the whole appliance is now
live (electrically charged). If a person touches any metal part of the appliance, he or she can
get an electric shock.
In order to prevent electric shock, all electric appliances should be fitted with an earth wire.
The earth wire is connected to wires that lead to the ground.

Electrical wire is used for power

distribution to transmit
electricity from a transformer or
other source to an outlet,
appliance, device, cable, switch,
distribution board, socket, and
light fitting. They conduct
electricity and provide a low-
resistance path for electricity to
flow through

SAFETY AT HOME
The biggest dangers from electricity in the home are;
 people getting electric shock
 wires overheating and causing a fire

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A) Avoiding electric shock
A person can only receive an electric shock if he or she touches a wire or a live metal
part. This can only happen if an electric wire is bare (without insulation). To avoid this;
 Do not leave any electric wires bare. All electric wires should be insulated
 Repair damaged electric wires and electric appliances immediately
 Do not use electric appliances where the ground is wet and avoid touching appliances with
wet hands
 Call an experienced electrician to repair any electric wires and faults
 All electric appliances should have the earth wire
 Make sure all electric plugs are wired correctly before using them.

Wire Colour Function

Live wire (L) Brown It carries the high voltage and delivers it to the
appliance.

Neutral wire Blue It carries the circuit back to the original power source.
(N)
Earth wire Green and yellow It absorbs the excess electrons and channelize them to
(E) flow beneath the ground.
It protects the electrical appliances from damages.
It absorbs excess electricity from appliances.

B) Preventing electric fires

Electrical fires are caused by wires or cables that are overloaded and that start
overheating. This happens when a too large amount of current flows through a wire or
cables. To avoid electric fires;
a) Don’t connect many appliances to one plug outlet.
b) Replace fuse if it is damaged. Make sure to replace the fuse with the correct strength fuse.
c) Use wires that are thick enough to carry the current.

CONSERVING ELECTRICITY
We need electricity to carry out many activities in our everyday life. It is therefore very
important to use electricity wisely so that it can be available for future generation. The
following are possible ways of conserving electricity;
a) Don’t leave electric lights burning unnecessarily.
b) Use time switch to switch lights off at a certain time at night.
c) Use power saving globes that have a small fluorescent tube inside.
d) Reduce water heating expenses

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 MAGNETS AND ELECTROMAGNETISM
OBJECTIVES
5.3.1.1 Use a compass to find the direction North-South of the earth.
5.3.1.2 Demonstrate that a magnet has two poles.
5.4.1.1 Make a simple electric motor.
5.4.1.2 List the uses of motors.

There are two types of magnets, namely the bar magnet and the horseshoe magnet.

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
A. Magnets attract things
Magnets attract things which are made of iron and steel.
Magnets do not attract things which are made up of wood, glass, plastic or metals such as
aluminium, copper or lead.
Materials which are attracted by magnets are called magnetic materials.

B. Magnets have poles

The ends of a magnet are called poles
Magnets have the north and the south poles
Magnets are strong at the poles. Their strength is concentrated at the ends than in the
middle
Iron filings will always be attracted to ends of the magnet

C. Magnets indicate direction

A magnetic compass has a magnetic needle that can turn on a sharp point and point
North. It can be used to tell direction.
THE USES OF MAGNETS
Magnets are used for many things such as;
 Magnets are used to keep cupboards or refrigerator doors closed
 Magnets are used to stick small objects to metal surfaces
 Magnets are used in dynamos to generate electricity
 Small magnets are used in electrical meters such as ammeters and voltmeters
 Magnets are used in telephones

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Like poles repel
Unlike poles attract

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electric current and magnetism
When an electric current flows in a wire, there is a magnetic force around the wire. This is
used to build electromagnets. When we wound the wire into a coil (solenoid) and passed a
current through it, it becomes an electromagnet and it behave exactly like a bar magnet.
Solenoid is a long coil of tightly-wound wire.

When the electric current is flowed through the coil it creates a magnetic field around the
coil.
Uses of electric motors
Large power motors can be used to;
 drive trains, buses and trucks
 lift up heavy loads in mines and factories
 pump water in irrigation schemes
Smaller electric motors are used in;
 electric fan heaters
 electric hair cutting machines

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 FOOD AND NUTRITION
OBJECTIVES
6.1.1.1 List some common food deficiency diseases and their causes.
6.1.1.2 Discuss deficiency diseases common in Botswana
6.1.1.3 List illnesses associated with unhealthy eating, e.g. obesity, goitre, high blood
pressure etc.

In this topic you are going to learn about the effects of not
eating healthy. You will also discuss diseases that may affect
someone who lack certain nutrients in their bodies. Deficiency
means something that is not enough or is lacking.

What is food?
Food is the source of nutrients and energy for the body. It usually comes from animals or
plants and is taken into the body where it is broken down to provide the nutrients needed by
the body.

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Each one of us has to take in all of the chemicals we need from the food that we eat. We use
our food in three main ways:
 To provide energy for our cells to carry out all the functions of life.
 To provide the raw materials for the new biological material needed in our bodies to
grow and also to repair and replace damaged and worn out cells.
 To provide the resources needed to fight disease and maintain a healthy body
There are three basic things we need in order to live, food (nutrients), water and oxygen.
Food is basically the things we eat so that our bodies can have all essential nutrients needed
to keep healthy and strong. If there is no food, human beings would not survive. Short or lack
of food leads to hunger. This called starvation.
Malnutrition is a condition that happens when one’s diet does not contain the right amount
of nutrients. When the body does not get enough nutrients it becomes very weak and is likely
to be affected by many diseases.

If there are nutrients missing we say there is a deficiency of that nutrient. This can cause a
sickness or disease called deficiency disease.

FOOD DEFICIENCY DISEASES

These are diseases caused by lack of nutrients.
What causes food Deficiency Diseases?
 Shortage of proteins and energy giving nutrients.
 Shortage of vitamins.
 Shortage of minerals.

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 FOOD DEFICIENCY DISEASES
Disease Cause Symptoms Treatment
Goitre Lack of  Swelling of the thyroid Eating food that contain iodine
iodine gland  Fish
 Scratchy voice  Milk
 Neck vein swelling  Yoghurt
 Lump on the neck  Cheese
 Egg
Kwashiorkor Lack of  Large bloated abdomen Eating food that contain proteins
proteins  Growth failure  Eggs
 Loss of muscle mass  Peanuts
 Decreased immunity  Milk

Marasmus Lack of  The child becomes very Eating food that contain proteins
proteins thin  Eggs
 The skin becomes dry  Peanuts
 They become hungry  Milk
 Dehydration  Beans
 Meat
 Fish
Rickets Lack of  Bowing of legs Eating food that contains vitamin
Vitamin D  Swelling ankle joints D
(Calcium).  Wide knee joints  Peaches
 Pelvic deformities  Apricots
 Odd-shaped skull  Papaya
 Carrots
 Meat
Scurvy Lack of  Bleeding gums Eating food that contains vitamin
Vitamin C  Loose teeth C
 Too much fatigue  Guavas
 Rough and dry skin  Tomato
 Weak muscles  Oranges
 Lemons
Anaemia Lack of  Headache Eating food that contains iron
iron  Fatigue  Spinach
 Chest pains  Broccoli
 Insomnia  Fruits
 Dizziness  Spices
 Irregular heartbeats

UNHEALTHY EATING
Eating too much food or the wrong food is known as unhealthy eating. People who eat too
much food can be overweight or suffer from obesity. People who are obese normally suffer
from;
 Coronary diseases
 Diabetes
 Breathing problems
 High cholesterol

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 ALCOHOL AND DRUGS ABUSE
OBJECTIVES
6.2.1.1 Discuss the dangers of alcohol and drug abuse.
6.2.1.2 Describe addiction.
6.2.1.3 List the signs of alcohol addiction.
6.2.1.4 Discuss the problems associated with alcohol abuse.
6.2.1.5 Discuss the problems associated with drug abuse.
6.2.1.6 Interpret and analyse data on drug and alcohol abuse and relate it to sexually
transmitted infections (STIs) prevalence.
6.2.1.7 Describe the dangers of smoking to both the smoker and the non-smoker (active and
passive smoking).
6.2.1.8 Suggest ways of controlling alcohol and drug abuse.
ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE
What is abuse?
Abuse is when a substance is used for the purpose it was not meant for or overused.
Addiction is a condition where an individual cannot stop using a certain substance. People
who are addicted to a certain substance will always want to take it in order for their bodies to
function properly. People can be addicted to different things such as alcohol, marijuana,
painkillers and other pills.
Alcohol is a liquid that is made from fruits or grains that have been fermented. Most alcohol
contains ingredients which makes people enjoy or like it and they end up abusing it.
Alcohol affects the brain and the muscles. Many people drink and abuse alcohol because of
its effects after consuming it. A person is said to be addicted to alcohol if they can’t stop
taking it and they take it very much often.
A drug is a substance that affects some parts of the body. Medicines are also drugs. Medicine
can be used to cure diseases, kill pain and headache. Some people can get a pleasant feeling
from taking drugs which they may end up taking for a long time. Cannabis is a one of the
most abused drugs.
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL
Some body systems such as the nervous system can be affected by the overuse of alcohol.
The brain may not work properly hence some people will not make right decisions after
consuming alcohol. A person who have taken more alcohol may experience;
 slurred speech
 unsteadiness or failing to keep the right posture
 loss of concentration
 fail to pay attention or concentrate on one thing
 unacceptable behaviour
ALCOHOL ADDICTION
When someone cannot stop taking a certain drug and always want to take it, it called
addiction. Many people are addicted to drugs and alcohol. People who are addicted to
alcohol are called alcoholics.

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SIGNS OF ALCOHOL ADDICTION
People who are addicted to alcohol usually show some of these signs;
 They want to consume the alcohol everyday
 They get some pleasant feeling from the alcohol
 They easily become aggressive when they take long without consuming the alcohol
 Their eyes are normally red and swollen
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ALCOHOL ABUSE
Drinking too much alcohol regularly can damage one’s body and brain. High blood pressure,
heart disease, stroke, liver disease, and digestive problems. Cancer of the breast, mouth, throat,
esophagus, voice box, liver, colon, and rectum. Weakening of the immune system, increasing
the chances of getting sick.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH DRUG ABUSE

 Damaged relationships with friends and family due to drug and alcohol use
 Withdrawal from family, friends, and once-loved activities
 Sexually transmitted diseases, due to unprotected sex
 Unplanned pregnancies, also due to unprotected sex
 Increased risk of violent behaviors and fights
 Hallucinations and fatigue

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THE DANGERS OF SMOKING TO BOTH THE SMOKER AND THE NON-
SMOKER
The difference between a smoker (active smoker) and a non-smoker (passive smoker) is,
active smoker breathes in the mainstream smoke (MSS) during a puff, whereas the passive
smoker inhales not only the smoke generated by the lit cigarette between two puffs.

The man is the active smoker because he is the one holding the
cigarette smoking. The woman is a passive smoker because she inhales the smoke from
the man.

Health risks on the smoker

Cigars contain the same addictive, toxic and carcinogenic compounds found in cigarettes and
are not a safe alternative to them. Cigar smoking can cause cancers of the lung, oral cavity,
larynx and esophagus as well as cardiovascular disease.

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 THE SKELETAL AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVES

7.1.1.1 Identify the major parts of the skeletal system.

7.1.1.2 Describe how the skeletal system works.
7.1.1.3 Identify the major organs of the nervous system.
7.1.1.4 Describe how the nervous system works.
7.1.1.5 Identify the central nervous system (CNS).
7.1.1.6 Describe the difference between a reflex action and a voluntary action

Our skeleton is an internal support framework made of bone, cartilage and ligaments. Soft
bones are called cartilage. All parts of the human skeleton are inside the body, therefore they
are called endoskeleton.

The Four Major Functions of the Skeleton

1. Body Shape
The arrangement of bones in our skeleton gives our body a particular shape that has evolved
and is adapted to carry out the many varied activities of survival and reproduction.

2. Support
The soft parts of our body, especially the muscles, are held in position by direct or indirect
attachment to the skeleton. If the skeleton was removed our body would collapse like a pile
of clothes when a clothes line breaks.

3. Protection
Bone is made of hard material and can form a protective cover around soft organs
a) Skull: protects the brain, eyes and ears.
b) Backbone/vertebrae: protects the spinal cord.
c) Rib Cage: protects the heart and lungs.

4. Movement
Many of the 206 bones act as levers and will turn at a joint when a pulling force is exerted on
them by muscle contraction.

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THE MAJOR BONES OF THE BODY

a) Skull
It is made up of the bones of the head. It protects the brain.

b) Vertebrae
These are the 33 small bones arranged in an S-shaped line from skull to ‘tail’ tip just below
the pelvis. Each small bone is called a vertebra.

c) Ribs
Twelve pairs of ribs make up the ribcage forming the thorax or chest of the body.
The ribcage not only protects the heart and lungs but also has a very important role in
breathing.

d) Collar Bone
The collar bone is also called the clavicle. It is at the top front of the rib cage and supports the
shoulder preventing it collapsing inward. There are two collar bones, one to each shoulder.

e) Shoulder Blade (Scapula)

There are two shoulder blades, one behind each shoulder at the back. They are broad bones
form the attachment of very strong muscles.
The arms are attached to the shoulder blades by a ball and socket joint. The two clavicles and
two shoulder blades make up a ring of bones called the pectoral girdle.

f) Humerus
The humerus is a long bone in the upper arm from shoulder to elbow.
The biceps and triceps muscles are found here.

g) Radius
The radius is one of the two bones of the lower arm from the elbow to the wrist at the thumb
side.

h) Ulna
The other bone of the lower arm is the ulna forming a hinge joint with the humerus and it is
on the small finger side at the wrist.

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i) Pelvis
The pelvis is also known as the hips. The lower limbs (legs) are attached to the pelvis by a
ball and socket joint.
The pelvis is attached very strongly to the backbone at vertebrae 25 to 29.

j) Femur
This is the upper leg bone forming a ball and socket joint with the hip and a hinge joint at the
knee with the tibia. The femur is the largest, longest strongest bone of the body.

k) Tibia
This is the larger of the two bones of the lower leg and is commonly known as the shinbone –
it is the second largest and second strongest bone of the body

l) Fibula
The fibula is the smaller of the two bones of the lower leg.

MOVEMENT OF THE SKELETON

Bones can move because they have joints
between them. Bones are connected to
muscles by a connective tissue called a
tendon. When a muscle contract, it pulls the
bone at a joint and movement will be initiated.
The hip joint is called ball and socket joint
because the joint is formed like a ball and a
socket attached together

Other Important Functions of the Skeleton

1.The suspended solids of the blood – red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets – are
made by the bone marrow.
2. The movement of the lower jaw plays an important role in physical digestion in the mouth.
3. The rib cage has an important role in breathing.

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

COMPONENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

PART FUNCTION
Brain Controls all information received by the body.
Interprets & respond appropriately.
Communicates with the rest of the body through the spinal cord and the
nervous system.
Spinal cord Connects a large part of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) to the brain
Responsible for some simple reflexes, such as knee jerk, withdrawal reflex.
Neurons Carry messages (impulses) from the CNS to the muscle and glands- motor
(nerves) nerves.
Carry messages to the brain- sensory nerves.

The peripheral nervous system is, made up of the nerves (neurons), sense organs, sensory
receptors and effector organs.
A function of the nervous system is to control and coordinate parts of the body so that they
work together at the right time.
Below is the diagram showing the nervous system:

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FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Sensory organs contain receptors, which detect or receive the stimuli.
 Sensory neurons carries impulses from the sense organs to the CNS
 The relay neuron passes impulses from the sensory neurons to the motor neuron
 The motor neurons carries impulses from the CNS to the effector organs
 Brain and the spinal cord interprets impulses from the sense organs
 Effector organs help the body the body act or respond to the stimuli.

VOLUNTARY AND REFLEX ACTIONS

The way the bodies respond to the stimuli or messages differs, and responses resulting from
them are, classified as voluntary or reflex (involuntary).
Voluntary actions are, controlled by ones’ will. They are, interpreted and controlled by the
brain e.g. walking, talking and dancing.
Reflex actions are, not controlled by one’s will. They may, not be controlled by one’s will
e.g. heartbeat, blinking and breathing.
SIMPLE REFLEX ACTION
 These are quick involuntary actions, which are a response to possible danger.
 They are, interpreted at the spinal cord e.g. knee jerk and pupil reflex.
 Learned reflex action
 These are reflex actions that are, acquired from past experiences.
 They are, also not controlled by ones’ will e.g. salivating when hearing of your favourite
food or getting an erection when seeing an attractive person.

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 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
OBJECTIVES
8.3.1.1 List common STIs in Botswana.
8.3.1.2 Describe how sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) increase the risk of contracting
HIV and AIDS.
8.3.1.3 Identify diseases that are closely associated with HIV and AIDS infections

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES – These are the diseases that are passed from
one person to another through unprotected sexual intercourse.
Sexually transmitted diseases are also known as Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) or
venereal diseases.
These diseases are caused by different types of micro-organisms such as bacteria and virus
COMMON STIs IN BOTSWANA
The following are examples of STIs found in Botswana;
 Gonorrhea
 Syphilis
 Genital Herpes
 Genital Warts
 HIV/AIDs
 Chlamydia
SYMPTOMS OR SIGNS OF AN STI
These are the physical changes one to experience if he/she has an STI.
 Burning or stinging urine
 Sores, rashes or itching around the sex organs
 A discharge (pus) from the sex organs.
 Swelling or lumps on or around the sex organs.

How STDs increases the risk of contracting HIV and AIDS

 They cause sores
 They make the skin break
 Women with yeast infection and bacterial virginal infections have an increased risk of
becoming infected with HIV
 They make the body’s immune system to be weak and the person can easily be exposed to
HIV

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 STD Cause Symptoms Treatment
Gonorrhea Bacteria Painful urination in both man and woman Antibiotics
Discharge or drip from penis in men
Vaginal discharge in woman
Genital herpes Virus Painful sores on the sex organs It is very difficult
to cure
Genital warts Virus Painless bumps in the genital area. May be removed
These bumps may become large and cause by burning or
problems during urination. minor surgery.
It also leads to cancer.
Chlamydia Bacteria It causes severe infection of the urinary tract that Antibiotics
leads to urination being very painful especially
males.
It also causes damage to the uterus and fallopian
tube leading to babies dying before birth.
Syphilis Bacteria in the primary stage; painless sore on the genital Antibiotics
organs which may disappear after several weeks
in the secondary stage; it causes rashes all over
the body that does not itch, white patches on the
mouth
In the tertiary stage; it damages body organs such
as the heart, nervous system and the bones

1. GONORRHEA
What is Gonorrhea?
Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) that can infect both men and women. It
can cause infections in the genitals, rectum, and throat. Gonorrhea bacteria can grow in the
warm, moist areas of the reproductive tract, including the cervix (opening to the womb),
uterus (womb), and fallopian tubes (egg canals) in women, and in the urethra (urine canal),
mouth, throat and anus in women and men.
How is gonorrhea spread?
You can get gonorrhea by having unprotected sex with someone who
has gonorrhea. A pregnant woman with gonorrhea can give the
infection to her baby during childbirth.
How do I know if I have gonorrhea?
Men with gonorrhea may have no symptoms at all. However, men who
do have symptoms, may have:
 A burning sensation when urinating;
 A white, yellow, or green discharge from the penis;
 Painful or swollen testicles (although this is less common).
Women with gonorrhea are at risk of developing serious complications from the infection,
even if they don’t have any symptoms.
Symptoms in women can include:
 Painful or burning sensation when urinating
 Increased vaginal discharge

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 Vaginal bleeding between periods.
How is gonorrhea treated?
• Gonorrhea can be treated and cured with antibiotics.
• Finish all of the medicine to be sure you are cured.

2. GENITAL HERPES
WHAT IS GENITAL HERPES?
Genital herpes is an STD caused by a virus called herpes
How is genital herpes spread?
You can get herpes by having unprotected sex with someone who has the disease.
Fluids found in a herpes sore carry the virus, and contact with those fluids can cause
infection. You can also get herpes from an infected sex partner who does not have a visible
sore or who may not know he or she is infected because the virus can be released through
your skin and spread the infection to your sex partner(s).
How do I know if I have genital herpes?
Most people who have herpes have no, or very mild
symptoms. You may not notice mild symptoms or you
may mistake them for another skin condition, such as a
pimple or ingrown hair. Because of this, most people
who have herpes do not know it.
Genital herpes sores usually appear as one or more
blisters on or around the genitals, rectum or mouth. The
blisters break and leave painful sores that may take
weeks to heal. These symptoms are sometimes called
“having an outbreak.” The first time someone has an
outbreak they may also have flu-like symptoms such as
fever, body aches, or swollen glands
Can herpes be cured?
There is no cure for herpes. However, there are medicines that can prevent or shorten
outbreaks. One of these herpes medicines can be taken daily, and makes it less likely that you
will pass the infection on to your sex partner(s)
COMPLICATIONS OF UNTREATED STDs
Sterility (not able to have children)
Cause blindness to babies whose mothers had STIs when pregnant
Infected people can cause infections to spread to other people
Sexually transmitted diseases

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 HIV AND AIDS
Objectives
8.4.1.1 Discuss the different ways in which HIV and AIDS can be transmitted.
8.4.1.2 Identify the major mode of transmission of HIV and AIDS in Botswana.
8.4.1.3 Discuss stereotypes that exist in their communities about HIV and AIDS.
8.4.1.4 Discuss the social, economic and cultural factors that expose women to a high risk of
HIV and AIDS infection.
8.4.1.5 Explain the economic and social impacts of HIV/AIDS on the, individual, family and
the nation.
8.4.2.1 Discuss ways of preventing infection by HIV and AIDS
8.4.2.2 Describe the proper use and disposal of a condom.
8.4.2.3 Explain the advantages of using a condom.
8.4.2.4 State the advantages of prevention over cure.
8.4.2.5 Discuss the importance of testing for HIV and AIDS.

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What does HIV/AIDS mean?
HIV
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. This is a virus that attacks and destroy
the human immune system. The immune system is responsible for protecting the body
against infections, therefore if it is damaged, the body will be very weak and will not be able
to defend against diseases. Once someone has become infected with HIV, the person is said
to be HIV-positive.
HIV can only get into someone’s body from another person through body fluids like blood
and semen. HIV can also be passed from the mother to child through breast milk.
When the virus enters the body, it immediately gets into the white blood cells in the
bloodstreams. The virus will then start attacking white blood cells and destroy them. One can
live with HIV in their body for a long time without knowing until they test for the virus.
There is no cure nor treatment for HIV. Once the person is infected, he or she will
eventually develop AIDS and die.

AIDS
AIDS stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. It comes after the body’s immune
system has been completely destroyed and their body is defenseless against diseases.
AIDS is caused by HIV. AIDS cannot be transferred from one person to another, it is only
HIV that can be transferred. AIDS has no treatment nor cure and it always leads to death.
How HIV is transmitted from one person to another
AIDS cannot be transmitted from one person to another. It is only HIV that can be
transmitted between two or more people.
HIV can be transmitted through;
 Unprotected sexual intercourse
 Intimate contact
 Touching someone’s blood (infected person)
 During pregnancy and birth
KNOWING MY HIV/AIDS STATUS
It is very important for every individual to go
for HIV testing regularly so that they can know
if they are HIV positive (infected) or HIV
negative. The only way to find out about your
status is by having a blood test carried out by
medical doctor or nurse.

HIV WINDOW PERIOD

When a person is infected with HIV, then he or she goes for testing, the results may show negative. The person
will have to wait for at least two weeks and carry out the test again. That waiting period is called window period.
During window period, the infected person is highly advised not to engage in any sexual activities or be in
contact with anyone’s blood or semen. A mother will be advised to avoid breast feeding and use other
alternatives to feed the baby. For this reason, the person have to carry another test to confirm their status.

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Effects of HIV/AIDS
Facts about HIV?
On individual There is no cure or treatment
An HIV infected person will eventually have AIDS
 Loneliness HIV/AIDS will always lead to death
 Death Stop the spread of HIV by preventing HIV
 Being attacked by several diseases
 Low self-esteem
On the family
 Loss of breadwinners
 More money and time spent on taking care of the infected person
 Isolation of infected and affected family members by the community
On the community
 Many orphans are left behind
 Hospitals and clinics run out of drugs
 Money that could be used to develop the community is
used to purchase drugs

WAYS OF PREVENTING HIV INFECTION

 No sexual intercourse with infected person
 Having only safe or protected sex
 No sharing of injection needles
 Avoid touching someone’s blood
CONDOM
A condom is a small thin sheath that is used to cover the penis during sexual intercourse and
collects sperms. The purpose of a condom is to prevent sexually transmitted diseases and
pregnancy by stopping sperms from getting into the vagina. There are both male and female
condoms

How to use a condom

 Make sure to check if it not expired
 Put on the condom before having sex
 Make sure it has no tear or defects
 Store a condom on a dry and cool place
 After using a condom, dispose it in a bin
 Do not flush the condom in a toilet

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