UNIT-1

NEWORK TYPES

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a group of two or more interconnected computer
systems. You can establish a network connection using either cable or wireless
media.
Every network involves hardware and software that connects computers and
tools.
Computer Network Components

Here are essential computer network components:

Switches
Switches work as a controller which connects computers, printers, and other
hardware devices to a network in a campus or a building.
It allows devices on your network to communicate with each other, as well as
with other networks. It helps you to share resources and reduce the costing of
any organization.

Routers
Routers help you to connect with multiple networks. It enables you to share a
single internet connection with multiple devices and saves money. This
networking component acts as a dispatcher, which allows you to analyze data
sent across a network. It automatically selects the best route for data to travel
and send it on its way.

Servers:
Servers are computers that hold shared programs, files, and the network
operating system. Servers allow access to network resources to all the users of
the network.

Clients:
Clients are computer devices which access and uses the network as well as
shares network resources. They are also users of the network, as they can send
and receive requests from the server.

Transmission Media:
Transmission media is a carrier used to interconnect computers in a network,
such as coaxial cable, twisted-pair wire, and optical fiber cable. It is also known
as links, channels, or lines.

Access points
Access points allow devices to connect to the wireless network without cables.
A wireless network allows you to bring new devices and provides flexible
support to mobile users.

Shared Data:
Shared data are data which is shared between the clients such as data files,
printer access programs, and email.

Network Interface Card:

Network Interface card sends, receives data, and controls data flow between the
computer and the network.

Local Operating System:

A local OS which helps personal computers to access files, print to a local
printer and uses one or more disk and CD drives which are located on the
computer.

Network Operating System:

The network operating system is a program which runs on computers and
servers. It allows the computers to communicate via network.

Protocol:
A protocol is the set of defined rules that allows two entities to communicate
across the network. Some standard protocols used for this purpose are IP, TCP,
UDP, FTP, etc.

Hub:
Hub is a device that splits network connection into multiple computers. It acts a
distribution center so whenever a computer requests any information from a
computer or from the network it sends the request to the hub through a cable.
The hub will receive the request and transmit it to the entire network.

LAN Cable:
Local Area Network(LAN) cable is also called as Ethernet or data cable. It is
used for connecting a device to the internet.

OSI:
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model which
allows you to specify standards for communications.

Unique Identifiers of Network

Below given are some unique network identifiers:
Hostname:
Every device of the network is associated with a unique device, which is called
hostname.

IP Address:
IP (Internet Protocol) address is as a unique identifier for each device on the
Internet. Length of the IP address is 32-bits. IPv6 address is 128 bits.

DNS Server:
DNS stands for Domain Name System. It is a server which translates URL or
web addresses into their corresponding IP addresses.
MAC Address:
MAC (Media Access Control Address) is known as a physical address is a
unique identifier of each host and is associated with the NIC (Network Interface
Card). General length of MAC address is : 12-digit/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits

Port:
Port is a logical channel which allows network users to send or receive data to
an application. Every host can have multiple applications running. Each of these
applications are identified using the port number on which they are running.

Other Important Network Components

ARP:
ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol which helps network users to
convert the IP address into its corresponding Physical Address.

RARP:
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol gives an IP address of the device with
given a physical address as input.

Uses of Computer Networks

Here are some common application of computer networks
• Helps you to share resource such as printers
• Allows you to share expensive software’s and database among network
participants
• Provides fast and effective communication from one computer to another
computer
• Helps you to exchange data and information among users via a network.

Computer networks have become invaluable to organizations as well as

individuals. Some of its main uses are as follows −
• Information and Resource Sharing − Computer networks allow
organizations having units which are placed apart from each other,
to share information in a very effective manner. Programs and
software in any computer can be accessed by other computers
linked to the network. It also allows sharing of hardware
equipment, like printers and scanners among varied users.
• Retrieving Remote Information − Through computer networks,
users can retrieve remote information on a variety of topics. The
information is stored in remote databases to which the user gains
access through information systems like the World Wide Web.
• Speedy Interpersonal Communication − Computer networks
have increased the speed and volume of communication like never
before. Electronic Mail (email) is extensively used for sending
texts, documents, images, and videos across the globe. Online
communications have increased by manifold times through social
networking services.
• E-Commerce − Computer networks have paved way for a variety
of business and commercial transactions online, popularly called e-
commerce. Users and organizations can pool funds, buy or sell
items, pay bills, manage bank accounts, pay taxes, transfer funds
and handle investments electronically.
• Highly Reliable Systems − Computer networks allow systems to
be distributed in nature, by the virtue of which data is stored in
multiple sources. This makes the system highly reliable. If a failure
occurs in one source, then the system will still continue to function
and data will still be available from the other sources.
 • Cost–Effective Systems − Computer networks have reduced the
cost of establishment of computer systems in organizations.
Previously, it was imperative for organizations to set up expensive
mainframes for computation and storage. With the advent of
networks, it is sufficient to set up interconnected personal
computers (PCs) for the same purpose.
• VoIP − VoIP or Voice over Internet protocol has revolutionized
telecommunication systems. Through this, telephone calls are made
digitally using Internet Protocols instead of the regular analog
phone lines.

Advantages of Computer Networking

Here are the fundamental benefits/pros of using Computer Networking:
• Helps you to connect with multiple computers together to send and
receive information when accessing the network.
• Helps you to share printers, scanners, and email.
• Helps you to share information at very fast speed
• Electronic communication is more efficient and less expensive than
without the network.

Disadvantages of Computer Networking

Here are drawbacks/ cons of using computer networks:
• Investment for hardware and software can be costly for initial set-up
• If you don’t take proper security precautions like file encryption,
firewalls then your data will be at risk.
• Some components of the network design may not last for many years, and
it will become useless or malfunction and need to be replaced.
• Requires time for constant administration
• Frequent server failure and issues of regular cable faults

Computer network types

As networking needs evolved, so did the computer network types that serve
those needs. Here are the most common and widely used computer network
types:
• LAN (local area network): A LAN connects computers over a relatively
short distance, allowing them to share data, files, and resources. For
example, a LAN may connect all the computers in an office building,
school, or hospital. Typically, LANs are privately owned and managed.

• WLAN (wireless local area network): A WLAN is just like a LAN but
connections between devices on the network are made wirelessly.

• WAN (wide area network): As the name implies, a WAN connects

computers over a wide area, such as from region to region or even
continent to continent. The internet is the largest WAN, connecting
 billions of computers worldwide. You will typically see collective or
distributed ownership models for WAN management.

• MAN (metropolitan area network): MANs are typically larger than

LANs but smaller than WANs. Cities and government entities typically
own and manage MANs.

• PAN (personal area network): A PAN serves one person. For example,
if you have an iPhone and a Mac, it’s very likely you’ve set up a PAN
that shares and syncs content—text messages, emails, photos, and more—
across both devices.

• SAN (storage area network): A SAN is a specialized network that

provides access to block-level storage—shared network or cloud storage
that, to the user, looks and works like a storage drive that’s physically
attached to a computer. (For more information on how a SAN works with
block storage, see Block Storage: A Complete Guide.)

• CAN (campus area network): A CAN is also known as a corporate area

network. A CAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. CANs
serve sites such as colleges, universities, and business campuses.

• VPN (virtual private network): A VPN is a secure, point-to-point

connection between two network end points (see ‘Nodes’ below). A VPN
establishes an encrypted channel that keeps a user’s identity and access
credentials, as well as any data transferred, inaccessible to hackers.

Wireless Networks
Computer networks that are not connected by cables are called wireless
networks. They generally use radio waves for communication between the
network nodes. They allow devices to be connected to the network while roaming
around within the network coverage.
Types of Wireless Networks
• Wireless LANs − Connects two or more network devices using
wireless distribution techniques.
• Wireless MANs − Connects two or more wireless LANs spreading
over a metropolitan area.
• Wireless WANs − Connects large areas comprising LANs, MANs
and personal networks.
Advantages of Wireless Networks
• It provides clutter-free desks due to the absence of wires and
cables.
• It increases the mobility of network devices connected to the
system since the devices need not be connected to each other.
• Accessing network devices from any location within the network
coverage or Wi-Fi hotspot becomes convenient since laying out
cables is not needed.
• Installation and setup of wireless networks are easier.
• New devices can be easily connected to the existing setup since
they needn’t be wired to the present equipment. Also, the number
of equipment that can be added or removed to the system can vary
considerably since they are not limited by the cable capacity. This
makes wireless networks very scalable.
• Wireless networks require very limited or no wires. Thus, it reduces
the equipment and setup costs.
Examples of wireless networks
• Mobile phone networks
• Wireless sensor networks
• Satellite communication networks
• Terrestrial microwave networks
Wi-Fi Network Standards
The networking standard used by wireless architecture is IEEE 802.11.
However, this standard is in continual development and new amendments come
out regularly. Amendments to the standard are assigned letters, and while many
amendments have been released, the most commonly known are:

802.11a
This original amendment added support for the 5 GHz band, allowing
transmission up to 54 megabits of data per second. The 802.11a standard makes
use of orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM). It splits the radio
signal into sub-signals before they get to a receiver. 802.11a is an older
standard and has been largely replaced by newer technology.

802.11b
802.11b added faster rates in the 2.4GHz band to the original standard. It can
pass up to 11 megabits of data in a second. It uses complementary code keying
(CCK) modulation to achieve better speeds. 802.11b is an older standard and
has been largely replaced by newer technology.

802.11g
802.11g standardized the use of OFDM technology used in 802.11a in the
2.4GHz band. It was backwards compatible with both 802.11 and
802.11b. 802.11g is an older standard and has been largely replaced by newer
technology.

802.11n
Once the most popular standard 802.11n was the first time a unified
specification covered both the 2.4GHz and 5GHz bands. This protocol offers
better speed when compared to those that came before it by leveraging the idea
of transmitting using multiple antennas simultaneously (usually called Multiple
In Multiple Out or MIMO technology). 802.11n is an older standard, but some
older devices may still be found in use.

802.11ac
802.11ac was only specified for the 5GHz band. It built upon the mechanisms
introduced in 802.11n. While not as revolutionary as 802.11n was, it still
extended speeds and capabilities in the 5GHz band. Most devices currently out
in the wild are likely 802.11ac devices.
802.11ac technology was released in two main groups, usually called
‘waves’. The primary difference is that Wave 2 devices have a few more
technical capabilities when compared to Wave 1, but it is all interoperable.

802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6)
802.11ax (much like 802.11n) unified the specification across all applicable
frequency bands. In the name of simplicity, the industry has started to refer to it
as Wi-Fi 6. Wi-Fi 6 has expanded the technologies used for modulation to
include OFDMA, which allows a certain amount of parallelism to the
transmission of packets within the system, making more efficient use of the
available spectrum and improving the overall network throughput. Wi-Fi 6 is
the latest technology and is what most new devices are shipping with.

Other 802.11 Standards

There are many more amendments that have been made to the standards over
the years (most letters of the alphabet have been used over time). Additional
802.11 standards have focused on things like better security, increased Quality
of Service, as well as many other enhancements.

Wi-Fi Network Connection Modes

There are multiple Wi-Fi network connection styles, the most prevalent are:
infrastructure, ad hoc, and Wi-Fi Direct.

Infrastructure
Infrastructure mode is the most common style of Wi-Fi, and it is the one people
think of when they connect at home or the office. With infrastructure mode, you
need an access point that serves as the primary connection device for clients. All
other clients in the network (computer, printer, mobile phone, tablet, or other
device) connect to an access point to gain access to a wider network.

Ad Hoc
Ad hoc mode is also referred to as peer-to-peer mode because it does not
involve an access point, but is instead made up of multiple client devices. The
devices, acting as “peers” within the network, connect to each other directly.

Wi-Fi Direct
Wi-Fi Direct is a form of Ad Hoc, but with some additional features and
capabilities. Wireless connectivity is provided to compatible devices that need
to connect without the use of an access point. Televisions are frequently Wi-Fi
Direct compatible, allowing users to send music or images straight from a
mobile device to their TV.

Wi-Fi Hotspot
The term “Wi-Fi hotspot” usually refers to wireless networks placed in public
areas, like coffee shops, to allow people to connect to the internet without
having to have special credentials. While some are free, others require a fee,
particularly those administered by companies that specialize in the provision of
hotspots in places like airports or bus terminals.
Many cell phones are hotspot-enabled, and users can turn on the feature by
contacting their cell service provider. With a hotspot turned on, the user can
share their internet connection with someone else, providing them with a
password for more secure access.

Types of Network Topology

Definition: A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of

nodes and connections in a network. Nodes usually include devices such as
switches, routers and software with switch and router features. Network
topologies are often represented as a graph.

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via
sender and receiver is referred to as network topology. The various network
topologies are:

Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a
particular channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These

channels are known as links.

•Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a

mesh topology, the total number of ports that are required by each
device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each
other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4.
The total number of ports required=N*(N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a
mesh topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to
connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is
5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of this topology:
• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• It is robust.
 •The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is
transferred among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.
Problems with this topology:
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable
for less number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.

Star Topology:
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central
node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an
active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables
are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet
LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access), etc.

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of

connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of this topology:
• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set
up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore
the total number of ports required is N.
• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other
than that.
• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Problems with this topology:
• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the
whole system will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
 • Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection
and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are
followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA,
Slotted Aloha, etc.

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are
connected to the channel via drop lines.
Advantages of this topology:
• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone
cable, and N drop lines are required.
• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks
that support up to 10 Mbps.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is
used to build small networks.
• Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and
troubleshooting techniques are well known.
Problems with this topology:
• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network.
To avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as
Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
• Security is very low.

Ring Topology:
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two
neighboring devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to
reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e.., it is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is
called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing
protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a

ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is
passed from one node to another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
The following operations take place in ring topology are :
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the
responsibility for performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the
transmission is done, the token is to be released for other stations to
use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate
in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token
release releases the token just after transmitting the data
and Delayed token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology:
• The data transmission is high-speed.
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
• It is less costly than a star topology.
Problems with this topology:
 • The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire
network to fail.
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can
disturb the whole topology.
• Less secure.
Tree Topology :
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a
hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC
(Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub
which contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the
central hub to the secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e.
devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes.
Advantages of this topology :
• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it
decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the
devices.
• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.
• We can add new devices to the existing network.
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
Problems with this topology :
• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 • The cost is high because of the cabling.
• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

Hybrid Topology :
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of
topologies we have studied above. It is used when the nodes are free to take
any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or
can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each
individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology
Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As
seen it contains a combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of this topology :
• This topology is very flexible.
• The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices.
Problems with this topology :
• It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
• Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
• The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a
lot of cabling and network devices.

Computer Network Architecture

Network Architecture is the way network services and devices are structured
together to serve the connectivity needs of client devices and applications
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of
the software, hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply
we can say that how computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the
computer.
The two types of network architectures are used:

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked
together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10
computers.
o Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the
resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer with the resource
is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working.
o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:
o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized
system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data is different in
different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
Client/Server Network
o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called
clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central
computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the
network are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example,
if client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request
to the server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client
1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can
back up the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers
the shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:
o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large
memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide the resources
to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources.
data and signals

When discussing data in the context of data communications, we can define

data as a rawcollection of 0’s and 1’s, with “information” being the result of
converting the data into a meaningful form. In short, data has to be interpreted,
managed or converted by software instructions so that it becomes information.

Electronic transmissions have to be encoded into a language that can be

transmitted. Signals are the electric or electromagnetic impulses used to encode
and transmit data. Data is then transmitted through some medium, such as a
cable or the airwaves. The receiving node then reverses the conversion and
turns the electronic pulses or waveforms back into the 0’s and 1’s that represent
the original data.

Both the sending and receiving node have to understand the encoding technique,
or language, that is applied during the conversions. Encoding can be
proprietary, such as the language used by a DSL modem or a microwave
satellite, or universal and based on a known open source standard.

Analog and Digital Signals

The next critical concept is the difference between analog and digital signals.
Analog waveforms are continuous and infinite in scope. All sounds that we hear
are analog. Our eardrum and ear bones vibrate with the frequencies of the
sound, and then deliver nerve impulses to our brain where the data is
interpreted. Telephone systems also use analog waveforms, as do radio and
television signals that move through the air.

Digital signals are quite different from analog signals. Digital signals are not
continuous or infinite — rather they are voltage or light pulse conversions of
analog or digital data into specific 0’s or 1’s. These pulses are easily transmitted
and regenerated through network mediums.
Like analog encoding concepts, digital signals also have to be encoded with
languages or controls that both the sending and receiving peer nodes can
interpret.