Introduction to Computer

Networks

Ch: 1
Objectives
1. Computer Networks- Goals and applications

2. Topologies – star, bus, mesh, ring etc.

3. Network Types-LAN, MAN, WAN, Wireless Networks, Home Networks,

Internetwork.

4. Data Communication-Definition, components, data representation, Data Flow

What is Computer Network??
● A computer network is a set of devices connected through links and nodes. A node can be
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving the data. The links
connecting the nodes are known as communication channels.
● In Computer networking two or more computers are linked together to enable
communication and data exchange through either a physical cable or a wireless
device.
● These networked devices use a system of rules, called communications protocols,
to transmit information over physical or wireless technologies.
● This link then allows the computers on network to share resources such as an Internet
connection, printers, files and programs.
● The first working network, called ARPANET(Advance Research Project Agency
Network), was created in the late 1960s and was funded by the U.S. Department of
Defense. Government researchers used to share information
How Does Computer Network work??

● Nodes and links are the basic building blocks in computer networking.
● A network node may be data communication equipment (DCE) such as a
modem, hub or, switch, or data terminal equipment (DTE) such as two or
more computers and printers.
● A link refers to the transmission media connecting two nodes. Links may
be physical, like cable wires or optical fibers, or free space used by
wireless networks.
● The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or
protocols which help in sending and receiving data via the links which
allow Computer networks to communicate. Each device has an IP Address,
that helps in identifying a device.
Goals Of Computer Networking:

1. Resource Sharing
2. High Reliability
3. Communication
4. Flexible Access
5. Security
6. Performance
7. Scalability
● Resource Sharing:
Many organization has a substantial number of computers in operations, which are located
apart. Ex. A group of office workers can share a common printer, fax, modem, scanner, etc.

● High Reliability:
If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be replicated on two or more machines. If
one of them is not available, due to hardware failure, the other copies could be used.

● Communication:
Network users, located geographically apart, may converse in an interactive session through
the network. In order to permit this, the network must provide almost error-free
communications.

● Flexible Access:
Files can be accessed from any computer in the network. The project can be begun on one
computer and finished on another.
● Security:
Computer networks must be secure to protect against unauthorized access, data breaches, and
other security threats. This includes implementing measures such as firewalls, antivirus
software, and encryption to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.

● Performance:
Computer networks must provide high performance and low latency to ensure that
applications and services are responsive and available when needed. This requires
optimizing network infrastructure, bandwidth utilization, and traffic management.

● Scalability:
Computer networks must be designed to scale up or down as needed to accommodate
changes in the number of users, devices, and data traffic. This requires careful planning and
management to ensure the network can meet current and future needs.
Advantages of Network:
● Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file server) that can
be shared and made available to every user in an organization.
● Connectivity: There is a negligible range of abilities required to connect to a modern
computer network. The effortlessness of joining makes it workable for even youthful
kids to start exploring the data.
● Faster Problem-solving: Since an extensive procedure is disintegrated into a few littler
procedures and each is taken care of by all the associated gadgets, an explicit issue can
be settled in lesser time.
● Reliability: Reliability implies backing up information. Due to some reason equipment
crashes, and so on, the information gets undermined or inaccessible on one PC, and
another duplicate of similar information is accessible on another workstation for future
use, which prompts smooth working and further handling without interruption.
● Flexible: This innovation is known to be truly adaptable, as it offers clients the chance
to investigate everything about fundamental things, for example, programming without
influencing their usefulness.
● Security through Authorization: Security and protection of information are additionally
settled through the system. As just the system clients are approved to get to specific
records or applications, no other individual can crack the protection or security of
information.
● Storage capacity: Since you will share data, records, and assets with other individuals,
you need to guarantee all information and substance are legitimately put away in the
framework. With this systems administration innovation, you can do most of this with
no issue, while having all the space you require for capacity.
Disadvantages of network:
● Expensive: Execution of the network can be expensive in the case of an initial setup, as the
wires and the cost of the cable are high and sometimes equipment is also costly.
● Virus and Malware: Computer Networking can lead to the spreading of viruses to another
computer through the network.
● Management of the network: Management of the Network is quite difficult as it requires
skilled persons to handle that large network. It requires training of people who are employed
in this work.
● Loss of Information: In case of a crash of the Computer Network, it can lead to the loss of
information or not being able to access information for some time.
● The system can be Hacked: In the case of Wide Area Networks(WAN), there is a threat of
Hacking of the System. Some security features should be added to prevent such things.
Applications of Computer Network:
Business Application:
The result of business application here is resource sharing. And the purpose of resource
sharing is that without moving to the physical location of the resource, all the data, plans,
and tools can be shared to any network user. Most of the companies are doing business
electronically with other companies and with other clients worldwide with the help of a
computer network.
1. Resource Sharing
2. Server Client Model
3. Communication Medium
4. eCommerce
Home Application:
There are many common uses of the computer network are as home applications.
For example, you can consider user-to-user communication, access to remote
instruction, electronic commerce, and entertainment. Another way is managing bank
accounts, transferring money to some other banks, paying bills electronically. A
computer network arranges a robust connection mechanism between users.
● Access to remote information
● Person-to-person communication
● Interactive entertainment
● Electronic commerce
Mobile Applications:
Many professionals use desktop computers at office and want to be
connected to the office network while travelling and at home also. This is
possible by wireless networks, hence use of laptop, notebook computers and
personal digital assistants has increased. Mobiles applications are used in:
I. Taxis, delivery vehicles and other mobile vehicles for keeping contacts with
their office.
II. Geographical information system.
III. Military application.
Social Issues:
The widespread introduction of networking has introduced new social,
ethical and political problems.
● Newsgroups or bulletin about political and religious.
● Employees right versus Employer right
● Government versus citizen
● Electronic junk mail
● Network viruses
● Identity Theft
A lot of these problems could be solved if the computer industry took computer security
seriously. If all the conversations or messages will be encrypted and authenticated, it would
be harder to commit mischief.
Component Computer Network:
Basic Components of Computer Networks:

● Node: Any device connected to the network, like a computer or printer.

● Server: A powerful computer that provides services and resources to other
devices on the network.
● Client: A device that accesses services from the server, like a user's laptop or
smartphone.
● Transmission Media: The physical or wireless pathways that connect devices,
like cables or Wi-Fi signals.
● Switch: A device that connects multiple devices on the same
network and manages data traffic between them.
● Network Interface Card (NIC): A hardware component that
allows a device to connect to a network.
● Modem: A device that connects a network to the internet.
● Firewall: A security system that monitors and controls incoming
and outgoing network traffic.
Network Topology:
● A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems
or network devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define
both physical and logical aspect of the network.
● Physical topology describes where the cables are run and where the
workstations, nodes and gateways are located.
● Logical topology refers to the paths that messages take to get from
one user on the network to another.
● There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring
Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.
Bus Topology:

● This topology is structured to connect all the nodes (network devices) in a single network cable,
referred to as the backbone cable.
● In this topology, all computers connect through a single continuous coaxial cable. This cable is
known as the backbone cable, bus or trunk. Both ends of the backbone cable are terminated
through the terminators. To connect a computer to the backbone cable, a drop line is used.
● All nodes (file server, workstations and peripherals) are connected to
the linear cable.
● Ethernets and LocalTalk networks use a linear bus topology.
● Bus topology is good for a temporary, small (fewer than 10
people)network.
● If the cable is damaged, the entire network will fail or be split
Disadvantages:
○ Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults.
If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
○ Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both
the nodes collide with each other.
○ Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
○ Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues. Repeaters are
used to regenerate the signal.
Ring Topology:
○ Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
○ The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next
node.
○ The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
○ The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
○ It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination
point.
○ The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
○ The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
○ Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to
another node.
○ Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Star topology:

○ Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to the central hub,
switch or a central computer.
○ The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the server are
known as clients.
○ Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
○ Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
○ Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
● Each device in star topology has a dedicated point to point link to central controller, usually called
a hub or a switch.
● The controller act as an exchange: if one device wants to send data to another, it send the data
to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected devices.
Mesh topology:
Application of mesh topology
● Mesh topology network can and is being used both in small as well as large organizations. It
is used in homes, industries, and also for public service communication.
● Mesh Topology is often used by military organizations in order to stop or avoid
communication breakdowns.
● Mesh topology is being used in cities in a rapid manner, where street lighting, traffic lights,
etc are being controlled wirelessly.
● Also, emergency services such as hospitals, police services, fire services, etc use mesh
topology so that they can be easily in touch with each other.
● Overall, the best example which can be given about mesh topology is the internet, which is
being used in our daily life, where various pieces of information are being shared worldwide.
Hybrid Topology:
● It is the combination of two or more topologies such as mesh topology, bus
topology, and ring topology.
● Its usage and choice are dependent on its deployments and requirements like
the performance of the desired network, and the number of computers, their
location.
● For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in
another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid
Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Application of Hybrid topology
You can apply this scenario anywhere especially in the offices having multiple
departments. Each department may require a different mechanism.

So, the flexibility of this Type of Network Topology offers you with plenty of options for
creating, running and managing your office.

● Automated Industry
● Banks
● Multi-National Offices
● Educational Institutes
● Research Organizations
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Tree Topology:
Applications:
● In big university campuses and hospitals, several floors can be attached with each
other via combination central bus backbone and star topology.
● B-trees work similar as tree network topology that is used for different kinds of
programming language such as Redis, PostgreSQL, MySQL and file system that is
enabling with ext4, NTFS.
● This topology is also extremely used for going to organize in many databases and
workstations. Any two network topologies are capable to connect into tree topology
as a single mutual connection.
Types of Networks:
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and
applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size.

● LAN
● MAN
● WAN
● Wireless Networks
● Home Networks
● Internetwork
LAN:
○ LAN stands for Local-area Network. LAN is a group of computers and associated
peripheral devices connected by a communications channel, capable of sharing files and
other resources among several users.
○ Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
○ LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
○ It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
○ LANs offer computers users many advantages, including shared access to devices and
applications, file exchange between connected users and communication between users via
electronic mail and other applications.
Characteristics:
WAN:
Examples Of Wide Area Network:

○ Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

○ Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
○ Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices. This
network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network):
Advantages of MAN:
● It provides higher security compare to WAN
● It is wider than LAN
● It helps in cost-effective sharing of common resources such as printer etc
● It help people interface fast LANs together. This is due to easy implement of links
● MAN require fewer resources compare to WAN. This saves the implementation cost
● The dual bus used in MAN help the transmission of data in both direction simultaneously
● It provides a good backbone for a large network and also provides greater access to WAN
● A MAN is usually encompasses several block of city or an entire city
● Increases the efficiency of handling data
● Increases the speed of transfer data
● Easy to implement link
● Save the cost attach to establish a wide area network
S.NO. LAN MAN WAN

1. LAN is defined as a computer On the other hand, MAN is On the other hand, WAN is defined as the

network that links the local areas defined as a computer network telecommunications network that covers a

like schools, universities, that links the metropolitan large geographical area.

organizations, etc. areas.

2. The full form of the LAN is Local The full form of MAN is The full form of WAN is a Wide Area

Area Network. Metropolitan Area Network. Network.

3. LAN is a wired network, i.e., all the The connections in MAN are The network of WAN is connected through

computers and printers are connected through modem or broadband services, 3G or 4G internet

connected through wires. cables/ wires. services, etc.

4. The ownership of LAN is private. The ownership of MAN might be The ownership of WAN might be private or

public or private. public.

7. The bandwidth of LAN is high. The bandwidth of MAN is less. The bandwidth of WAN is relatively low.
Disadvantages of MAN:
● More cable require for a MAN connection from one place to another
● The data rate is slow compared to LAN
● It is difficult to make a system secure from hackers
● The large network difficult to manage
● It is difficult to secure the network once its becomes large
● Network installation require skilled technicians and network
administrators. This increases overall installation and management
costs
● Cost is higher than LAN
● While we move our network to another city or area it doesn't work
S.NO. LAN MAN WAN

5. The internet speed of LAN is very The sped of MAN is The speed of WAN is relatively less than

high, i.e., 1000 Mbps. moderate, i.e., 44-155 Mbps. MAN and LAN, i.e., 150 Mbps.

6. The maintenance cost of LAN is The maintenance cost of The maintenance cost of WAN is

easy. MAN is difficult. difficult.

Examples Computer networks of Computer networks that Computer networks that cover an
schools, homes, offices, spread over a small city, or entire city, or globe like internet are
hospitals, etc. are the town are the examples of the examples WANs.
common examples of LANs. MANs.
Wireless Networks
Computer networks that are not connected by cables are called wireless networks. They
generally use radio waves for communication between the network nodes. They allow devices to
be connected to the network while roaming around within the network coverage.

Types of Wireless Networks

Wireless LANs − Connects two or more network devices using wireless distribution
techniques.
Wireless MANs − Connects two or more wireless LANs spreading over a metropolitan
area.
Wireless WANs − Connects large areas comprising LANs, MANs and personal
networks.
Some common examples of wireless networking include:

● Television and Radio Broadcasting

● Satellite Communication
● Radar
● AM radio
● Bluetooth
● Paging
● Terrestrial microwave networks
● FM radio
● HD radio
● SiriusXM satellite radio
● Cordless Phones
● Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
● Cell phone networks
● Wireless sensor networks
Home Networks:
A home network is a small sized LAN that is used to connected devices within the small
area of a home. It facilitates sharing of files, peripheral devices, programs and Internet
access among the computers in a home. Home networks may be wired, i.e. connections
within devices are done with cables; or wireless, i.e. connections are provided using Wi-Fi
and Bluetooth.

Example – Think about a home where computers, printers, game systems and tablets,
smartphones, other smart appliances are connected to each other through wired or
wireless over a network is an example of Home Area Network.
Internetworking
● The word “internetworking,” which combines the words “inter” and “networking,” denotes a
connection between completely distinct nodes/segments.
● This connection is made possible by intermediary hardware like routers or gateways.
Catenet was the initial title for associate degree internetwork.
● Private, public, commercial, industrial, and governmental networks frequently connect to
one another.
● Therefore, a degree of internetwork could be a collection of several networks that operate
as a single large network and are connected by intermediate networking devices.
● The trade, goods, and methods used to address the difficulty of creating and managing
internet works are referred to as internetworking.
Type of Internetworking
Internetworking is implemented in Layer 3 (Network Layer)
of this model The most notable example of internetworking is
the Internet (capitalized). There are three variants of
internetwork or Internetworking, depending on who
administers and who participates in them :
• Extranet
• Intranet
• Internet
Internetworking Diagram
Data Communication
● Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network or a data network is a telecommunications network that
allows computers to exchange data.
● Data means information in digital format and communication means to exchange
information between two or many users in anyways like speaking, texting, or any other
modes of the medium.
● So, data communication is simply the exchange of data between two or many users through
the transmission media like twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, optical fibers, radio wave,
satellite microwave, etc.
● The user or device that sends the data is the source and the user that receives the data is a
receiver.
● For data interchange to take place, the communicating devices must be a part of a system
comprising of a combination of hardware and software.
● There are data communication jargons to contend with such as modems, routers, LAN, WAN,
TCP/IP, ISDN, during the selection of communication systems.
Applications of Communication & Computer Network

● Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network.They provide numerous
advantages:
○ Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
○ Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
○ Information sharing by using Web or Internet
○ Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
○ IP phones
○ Video conferences
○ Parallel computing
○ Instant messaging
Characteristics:
● Delivery: Data must be delivered to the correct destination and must be
received by the intended receiver only.
● Accuracy: Data delivered must be accurate. Any alteration to the data during
transmission renders it useless.
● Timeliness: Data must be delivered within the ideal time else it is useless. In
case of audio and video, the data must be delivered as they are produced, in the
same ordered they are produced without significant delay. This kind of delivery
is called real-time transmission.
● Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven
delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that
video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms
delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.
Components of Data Communication:
A Communication system has following components:
1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers,
pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver
computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and
receiver depends upon the types of network used in between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from
sender to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cable or wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both
sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.
Data Representation:
● Data Representation refers to the form in which data is stored, processed,
and transmitted.
● Devices such as smartphones, iPods, and computers store data in digital
formats that can be handled by electronic circuitry
● For example, a company's local network connects employees' computers
and devices like printers and scanners.
● Employees will be able to share information using the network and also
use the common printer/ scanner via the network. Data to be transferred or
communicated from one device to another comes in various formats like
audio, video, etc.
● Digitization is the process of converting information, such as text, numbers,
photo, or music, into digital data that can be manipulated by electronic
devices.
Representing Textual data:

● Data in text format is represented using bit patterns (combinations of two

binary bits - 0 and 1).
● Textual data is nothing but a string, and a string is a collection of characters.
Each character is given a specific number according to an international
standard called Unicode.
● The process of allocating numbers to characters is called "Coding," and these
numbers are called "codes".
● Now, these codes are converted into binary bits to represent the textual data in
a pattern of bits, and these bits are transferred as a stream via the network to
other devices.
ASCII

● ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange, pronounced “ASK ee”) requires seven
bits for each character.
● ASCII codes are used for numerals, such as Social Security numbers and phone numbers.
● Plain, unformatted text is sometimes called ASCII text and is stored in a text file with a name ending
in .txt.
● On Apple devices these files are labeled “Plain Text.” In Windows, these files are labeled “Text
Document”.
● Extended ASCII is a superset of ASCII that uses eight bits for each character.
● For example, Extended ASCII represents the uppercase letter A as 01000001.
● Using eight bits instead of seven bits allows Extended ASCII to provide codes for 256 characters.
Unicode:
It is the universal standard of character encoding. It gives a unique code to almost all the characters in every language spoken in
the world. It defines more than 1 40 000 characters.

It even defined codes for emojis. The first 128 characters of Unicode point to ASCII characters.

ASCII is yet another character encoding format, but it has only 128 codes to 128 characters. Hence, ASCII is a subset of
Unicode.
Representing Number System
We are introduced to concept of numbers from a very early age. To a computer, everything is a
number, i.e., alphabets, pictures, sounds, etc., are numbers. Number system is categorized into four
types −

● Binary number system consists of only two values, either 0 or 1

● Octal number system represents values in 8 digits.
● Decimal number system represents values in 10 digits.
● Hexadecimal number system represents values in 16 digits.
Bits and Bytes
Bits − A bit is a smallest possible unit of data that a computer can recognize or use. Computer
usually uses bits in groups.

Bytes − group of eight bits is called a byte.

The following table shows conversion of Bits and Bytes −
Representing Image
Image data is also transferred as a stream of bits like textual data. An image, also called a
picture, is a collection of little elements called "Pixels".

A single pixel is the smallest addressable element of a picture, and it is like a dot with a size of
1/96 inch/ 0.26 mm.

The dimensions of an image are given by the number of pixels along the height of the image X
Number of pixels along the width of the image.
Representing Audio
Transferring an audio signal is different from other formats.
Audio is broadcasting recorded sound or music. An audio signal is generated
as an analog wave, converted into digital format to be stored in a computer
by representing the wave amplitude at moments in bits.
Another parameter is the sample rate.
It represents the number of samples or, in other words, samples saved.
Representing Video
A video is a collection of frames; each frame is a picture with the same or different dimensions.
These frames/ images are represented as matrices, as we discussed above. All the frames/
images are displayed continuously, one after the other, to show a video in movement. To
represent a video, The computer will analyze data about the video like:

1. FPS (Frames per second)

2. Duration of the video
3. Image resolution (Number of pixels Horizontally X Vertically)
4. Bit depth (Number of bits required to represent a pixel -> number of colors)

A video is mostly combined with an audio component, like a film or a video game.
Data Flow
● Data Flow refers to the transfer of data from one device to another device
through a network.
● Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur
between individual devices that are interconnected.
● This transmission mode is defined in the physical layer.
The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:

○ Simplex mode
○ Half-duplex mode
○ Full-duplex mode
Simplex:
○ In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
○ A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot
send the data.
○ This transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the two-way
exchange of data.
○ Example: Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only
accept the data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
○ Another example of simplex modes are loudspeakers, TV broadcasting, TV remote, etc.
○ The main advantage of Simplex mode uses the full capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
Advantage of Simplex mode:

○ In simplex mode, the station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication
channel, so that more data can be transmitted at a time.

Disadvantage of Simplex mode:

○ Communication is unidirectional, so it has no inter-communication between devices.

Half-Duplex
○ In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and
receive the data as well.
○ Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
○ The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
○ In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs,
then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
○ A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode. In Walkie-talkie, one party
speaks, and another party listens. After a pause, the other speaks and first party listens.
Speaking simultaneously will create the distorted sound which cannot be understood.
Advantage of Half-duplex mode:

○ In half-duplex mode, both the devices can send and receive the data and also can utilize the
entire bandwidth of the communication channel during the transmission of data.

Disadvantage of Half-Duplex mode:

○ In half-duplex mode, when one device is sending the data, then another has to wait, this
causes the delay in sending the data at the right time.
Full Duplex
The communication between the sender and receiver can occur together in the
full-duplex transmission mode.

The sender and receiver can send or receive the data at the same time.

The full-duplex transmission mode is the two-way road in which traffic can go both ways
at the same time.
Full-duplex can be best understood with an example of a telephone. When two people
talk on a telephone, both are free to speak and listen at the same time.
Advantage of Full-duplex mode:

○ Both the stations can send and receive the data at the same time.

Disadvantage of Full-duplex mode:

○ If there is no dedicated path exists between the devices, then the capacity of the
communication channel is divided into two parts.