LECTURE NOTE

on

EEE 403: ELECTRICAL MACHINES II

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Compiled by

Bukola Babatunde ADETOKUN (PhD)

Contents
Course Outline ................................................................................................................................ 3
Course Grading ............................................................................................................................... 3
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES ..................................................................................................... 4
Synchronous Generators ................................................................................................................. 4
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 4
2. Construction and Principle of Operation .................................................................................... 4
3. The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator .................................................................. 7
4. Armature Reaction and Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator ................................... 7
5. Power and Torque in Synchronous Generators ........................................................................ 15
6. Parameter Estimation of Synchronous Generators ................................................................... 18
6.1 Open Circuit Test ................................................................................................................ 18
6.2 Short Circuit Test ................................................................................................................ 18
7. Terminal Characteristics of Synchronous Generators .............................................................. 20
8. Parallel operation of Synchronous Generators (Alternators) .................................................... 24
8.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 24
8.2. Necessity of Parallel Operation of Alternators .................................................................. 24
8.3. Requirements for Parallel Operation of Alternators .......................................................... 25
8.4. Synchronising Alternators .................................................................................................. 26
8.5. Shifting of Load ................................................................................................................. 26
9. Important Notes on Synchronous Motors ................................................................................. 27
10. Worked Examples ................................................................................................................... 30
11. Further Reading ...................................................................................................................... 37
12. Reference Textbooks .............................................................................................................. 38

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Course Outline

Synchronous generator

1. Synchronous generator construction and principle of operation

2. Armature reaction and equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator
3. Power and torque in synchronous generators.
4. Measuring synchronous generator model parameters: Open circuit and short circuit tests,
short-circuit ratio.
5. Terminal characteristics of synchronous generator
6. Parallel operation of synchronous generators
7. Synchronous generator transients: Transient stability of synchronous generators, short-
circuit transients in synchronous generators.

Synchronous motor

1. Principle of operation and applications.

Course Grading

Assessment Method Percent Weight

Class Participation 5%
Class Quiz 5%
Assignments 10%
Mid-semester Exam 20%
Examination 60%
Total 100%

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 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Synchronous Generators

1. Introduction

Synchronous generators or alternators are synchronous machines used to convert mechanical

power to ac electric power.

2. Construction and Principle of Operation

In a synchronous generator, a rotor magnetic field is produced either by designing the rotor as
a permanent magnet or by applying a dc current to a rotor winding to create an electromagnet.
The rotor of the generator is then turned by a prime mover, thereby producing a rotating
magnetic field within the machine. This rotating magnetic field induces a three-phase set of
voltages within the stator windings of the generator.

Two terms commonly used to describe the windings on a machine are field windings and
armature windings. In general, the term field windings applies to the windings that produce the
main magnetic field in a machine, and the term armature windings applies to the windings where
the main voltage is induced. For synchronous machines, the field windings are on the rotor, so
the terms rotor windings and field windings are used interchangeably. Similarly, the terms stator
windings and armature windings are used interchangeably.

The rotor of a synchronous generator is essentially a large electromagnet. The magnetic poles on
the rotor can be of either salient or non-salient construction. The term salient means “protruding”
or “sticking out,” and a salient pole is a magnetic pole that sticks out radially from the shaft of
the rotor. On the other hand, a non-salient pole is a magnetic pole with windings embedded flush
with the surface of the rotor. A non-salient-pole rotor is shown in Figure 1. Note that the
windings of the electromagnet are embedded in notches on the surface of the rotor. A salient-
pole rotor is shown in Figure 2. Note that here the windings of the electromagnet are wrapped
around the pole itself, instead of being embedded in notches on the surface of the rotor.

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Nonsalient-pole rotors are normally used for two- and four-pole rotors, while salient-pole rotors
are normally used for rotors with four or more poles.

Because the rotor is subjected to changing magnetic fields, it is constructed of thin laminations to
reduce eddy current losses.

(a)

(b)

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 Figure 1: (a) Non-salient pole rotor (b) Salient pole rotor

A dc current must be supplied to the field circuit on the rotor if it is an electromagnet. Since the
rotor is rotating, a special arrangement is required to get the dc power to its field windings. There
are two common approaches to supplying this dc power:

1. From an external dc source to the rotor by means of slip rings and brushes.

2. From a special dc power source mounted directly on the shaft of the synchronous generator.

Slip rings and brushes create a few problems when they are used to supply dc power to the field
windings of a synchronous machine. They increase the amount of maintenance required on the
machine, since the brushes must be checked for wear regularly. In addition, brush voltage drop
can be the cause of significant power losses on machines with larger field currents. Despite these
problems, slip rings and brushes are used on all smaller synchronous machines, because no other
method of supplying the dc field current is cost-effective.

On larger generators and motors, brushless exciters are used to supply the dc field current to the
machine. A brushless exciter is a small ac generator with its field circuit mounted on the stator
and its armature circuit mounted on the rotor shaft. The three-phase output of the exciter
generator is rectified to direct current by a three-phase rectifier circuit also mounted on the shaft
of the generator, and is then fed into the main dc field circuit. By controlling the small dc field
current of the exciter generator (located on the stator), it is possible to adjust the field current on
the main machine without slip rings and brushes. Since no mechanical contacts ever occur
between the rotor and the stator, a brushless exciter requires much less maintenance than slip
rings and brushes.

To make the excitation of a generator completely independent of any external power sources, a
small pilot exciter is often included in the system. A pilot exciter is a small ac generator with
permanent magnets mounted on the rotor shaft and a three-phase winding on the stator. It
produces the power for the field circuit of the exciter, which in turn controls the field circuit of
the main machine. If a pilot exciter is included on the generator shaft, then no external electric
power is required to run the generator.

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3. The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous Generator

Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical frequency
produced is locked in or synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the generator. This
implies that the rotor turns at the same speed as the magnetic field. The rate of rotation of the
magnetic fields in the machine is related to the stator electrical frequency by:

where fse = electrical frequency, in Hz; nm = mechanical speed of magnetic field, in r/min (equals
speed of rotor for synchronous machines); P = number of poles.

Since the rotor turns at the same speed as the magnetic field, this equation relates the speed of
rotor rotation to the resulting electrical frequency.

4. Armature Reaction and Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Generator

At no-load, the only field (mmf) acting in the synchronous generator is the main field ‘Fm’. When
load is connected to the alternator, current flows through the armature (stator) windings and
produces a field (mmf) called armature field Fa. This field affects the main magnetic field Fm.
Thus, the effect of the armature field on the main magnetic field is known as armature reaction.
In fact, in synchronous generators the armature reaction produces the same effect as if a
reactance is connected in series with the winding and hence is called armature reaction
reactance.

The current flowing through the armature conductors depends upon the power factor of the load.
Therefore, the armature reaction can be studied at three extreme conditions of the p.f., i.e., unity
(purely resistive load), zero lagging (purely inductive load) and zero leading (purely capacitive
load).

It can be summarized that:

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 1. For unity power factor, the armature field Fa is perpendicular to the main magnetic field
Fm and produces cross-magnetising effect. It is also clear from the position of the two
fields that armature field Fa lags behind the main magnetic field Fm by 90° causing the
same effect as it is being caused by a pure inductance. Thus, for a non-inductive load (at
unity p.f.) the effect of armature reaction is cross-magnetising i.e., it distorts the main
field.
2. The armature field Fa acts in opposite direction to that of main magnetic field Fm and
produces demagnetising effect. It is also clear from the position of the two fields that
armature field Fa lags behind the main magnetic field Fm by 180° i.e., it lags by 90°
because of a pure inductive load and 90° because of armature reaction. Thus, with a pure
inductive load (at zero p.f. lagging) the effect of armature reaction is demagnetising i.e.,
it weakness the main field.
3. The armature field Fa acts in the same direction as that of the main magnetic field Fm and
produces magnetising effect. It is also clear from the position of the two fields that the
armature field Fa is in phase with the main magnetic field Fm. In fact, the armature field
was to lead the main field by 90° due capacitive load but it falls back to its original
position due to armature reaction. Hence, the armature field acts in phase with the main
field. Thus, with a pure capacitive load (at zero p.f. leading) the effect of armature
reaction is magnetising i.e., it strengthens the main field.

The above explanation reveals that

1. When generator supplies a load at unity pf, the armature reaction is cross-magnetising.

2. When generator supplies a load at zero pf lagging, the armature reaction in demagnetising.

3. When generator supplies a load at zero pf leading, the armature reaction is magnetising.

4. In all the cases, if the armature-reaction flux is assumed to act independently of the main field
flux, it induces voltage in each phase which lags the respective phase current by 90°. Hence,
armature reaction causes an armature reactance drop, given by XIA. The phase voltage on the
stator’s output terminal (say phase A of the stator terminal) is given as:

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Where EA is the internal generated voltage [that is the emf induced on the stator (armature) phase
windings by the rotating magnetic field of the rotor] and IA is the corresponding phase current
supplied by the armature windings. The simple equivalent circuit diagram is presented in Figure
2. Armature reaction has been modelled as an inductance in series with EA the Note that at no
load (IA = 0), Vϕ = EA

Figure 2: A simple equivalent circuit

The following terms are essential to define before presenting the complete equivalent circuit
diagram of synchronous generator

1. Synchronous reactance: The armature reaction effects and the self-inductance in the
machine are both represented by reactances, and it is customary to combine them into a
single reactance, called the synchronous reactance of the machine. Thus, the synchronous
reactance is a fictitious reactance which has the effect equivalent to the combined effects
of both the armature leakage reactance (XA) and armature reaction reactance X. It is
represented by XS.
XS = XA + X
2. Synchronous impedance: The vector sum of armature resistance (RA) and synchronous
reactance is known as Synchronous impedance. It is generally represented by ZS.
ZS = RA + jXS

Therefore, the final equation describing voltage Vϕ is given by

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 V  E A  I A RA  jI A X S

It is now possible to sketch the equivalent circuit of a three-phase synchronous generator. The
full equivalent circuit of such a generator is shown in Figure 3. This figure shows a dc power
source supplying the rotor field circuit, which is modeled by the coil’s inductance and resistance
in series. In series with RF is an adjustable resistor Radj which controls the flow of field current.
The rest of the equivalent circuit consists of the models for each phase. Each phase has an
internal generated voltage with a series reactance XS (consisting of the sum of the armature
reactance and the coil’s self-inductance) and a series resistance RA. The voltages and currents of
the three phases are 120° apart in angle, but otherwise the three phases are identical. These three
phases can be either Y- or Δ-connected as depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 3: The full equivalent circuit of a three-phase synchronous generator.

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The fact that the three phases of a synchronous generator are identical in all respects except for
phase angle normally leads to the use of a per-phase equivalent circuit. The per-phase equivalent
circuit of this machine is shown in Figure 5. In the figure, the internal field circuit resistance and
the external variable resistance have been combined into a single resistor RF. One important fact
must be kept in mind when the per-phase equivalent circuit is used: The three phases have the
same voltages and currents only when the loads attached to them are balanced. If the generator’s
loads are not balanced, more sophisticated techniques of analysis are required.

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Figure 4: The generator equivalent circuit connected in (a) Y and (b) Δ.

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 Figure 5: The per-phase equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator (Phase A values
indicated).

From the per-phase equivalent circuit shown in Figure 5, phasor diagram of an alternator can be
drawn. The phasor diagram depends upon the type of load. The load may be purely resistive,
inductive or capacitive. The phasor diagrams for the different load types are illustrated in Figure
5.

(a) Unity power factor

(b) Lagging power factor

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 (c) Leading power factor.

Figure 6: Phasor diagram at various load conditions

In drawing the phasor diagram (Refer to Figure 6), here are the steps to follow:

(i) The voltage Vϕ is taken as the reference vector.

(ii) Load current IA is drawn in phase with voltage vector Vϕ for purely resistive load. For
inductive load, it is drawn so that it lags behind the voltage vector by an angle ϕ. Whereas, for
capacitive load it leads the voltage vector by an angle ϕ. Where ϕ is the power factor angle.

(iii) Draw voltage drop vector IARA parallel to current vector from point A.

(iv) Draw voltage drop vector IAXS from point B perpendicular to vector AB since it is in
quadrature to current vector.

(v) Join point O and C, where OC is the internal generated voltage EA which is induced due to
the main field of the rotor. This is the same as the terminal voltage at no-load and is the vector
sum of VA, IARA and IAXS

From the phasor diagrams in Figure 6, we can derive an expression for EA for each case by
projecting the phasors to form various right-angled triangles.

For unity power factor,

V  I A RA    I A X S 2
2
EA 

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For lagging power factor,

V cos   I A RA   V sin   I A X S 

2 2
EA 

This can also be expressed as:

V  I A RA cos   I A X S sin     I A X S cos   I A RA sin  2

2
EA 

For leading power factor,

V cos   I A RA   V sin   I A X S 

2 2
EA 

This can also be expressed as:

V  I A RA cos   I A X S sin     I A X S cos   I A RA sin  2

2
EA 

Alternatively, these expressions can be derived from the equation, V  E A  I A RA  jI A X S . It is

left for the student or reader to verify this.

5. Power and Torque in Synchronous Generators

Not all the mechanical power going into a synchronous generator is converted to electrical power
output of the machine. The difference between input power and output power represents the
losses of the machine. A power flow diagram for a synchronous generator is shown in Figure 7.
The input mechanical power is the shaft power in the generator Pin = τappωm, while the power
converted from mechanical to electrical form internally is given by

Pconv   ind m  3E A I A cos 

where γ is the angle between EA and IA

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 Figure 7: Power flow diagram of a synchronous generator

The real electrical output power of the synchronous generator can be expressed in line quantities
as Pout  3VL I L cos  and in phase quantities as Pout  3V I A cos  . The reactive power output

can also be expressed as: Qout  3VL I L sin   3V I A sin  .

If the armature resistance RA is ignored (since XS >> RA), then a very useful equation can be
derived to approximate the output power of the generator. To derive this equation, examine the
phasor diagram in Figure 8. Figure 8 shows a simplified phasor diagram of a generator with the
stator resistance ignored. Notice that the vertical segment bc can be expressed as either EA sin δ
or XSIA cos θ. Therefore,

E A sin 
I A cos  
XS

Substituting this into Pout  3V I A cos  , we have

3V E A
Pout  sin 
XS

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 Figure 8: Simplified phasor diagram with armature resistance ignored.

Since the resistances are assumed to be zero, there are no electrical losses in this generator, and
therefore,

3V E A
Pconv  Pout  sin 
XS

This equation shows that the power produced by a synchronous generator depends on the angle δ
between Vϕ and EA. The angle δ is known as the internal angle or torque angle of the machine.
Notice also that the maximum power that the generator can supply occurs when δ = 90°. At δ =
90°, sin δ = 1, and

3V E A
Pmax 
XS

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The maximum power indicated by this equation is called the static stability limit of the generator.
Normally, real generators never even come close to that limit. Full-load torque angles of 20 to 30
degrees are more typical of real machines.

The corresponding expression for the induced torque in a synchronous generator can thus be
derived as:

Pconv 3V E A
 ind   sin 
m m X S

6. Parameter Estimation of Synchronous Generators

The parameters of a synchronous generator can be determined from open circuit test and short
circuit test. Students are expected to carry out these tests in the power and machine laboratory.

6.1 Open Circuit Test

To perform open circuit test, the terminals of the synchronous generator are kept open and is
rotated by the prime-mover at synchronous speed. A DC supply is given to the field winding
through a rheostat. A voltmeter is connected across the terminals of the alternator to measure
open circuit voltage EAo and an ammeter is connected in the field circuit to measure field current
IF The field current IF (excitation) is gradually varied (increased in steps) and the voltage across
the terminals of the alternator EA is recorded for every change in the field current. A graph of EA
against IF is called the open circuit characteristics (O.C.C.) of the machine. A typical O.C.C.
curve is shown in Figure 9. The curve rises steeply and then flattened due to saturation of the
magnetic circuit.

6.2 Short Circuit Test

To perform short circuit test, the terminals of the alternator are short-circuited by an ammeter
and its rotor is rotated by the prime-mover at synchronous speed. The field current If is gradually
increased and the short circuit current ISC is recorded for every change in the field current with
the help of ammeter connected across the alternator terminals. A graph of ISC against If obtained

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is called short circuit characteristics (S.C.C.). The S.C.C. curve so obtained is shown in Figure 9
and it is a straight line.

It should be noted that both the O.C.C. and S.C.C. curves are drawn on a common field current

If as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Open circuit and short circuit characteristics

The equivalent circuit diagram during short circuit test and the resulting phasor diagram are
shown in Figure 10.

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Figure 10: (a) The equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator during the short-circuit test. (b)
The resulting phasor diagram.

It is obvious that

EA
ZS   RA2  X S2
IA

Since XS ≫ RA, then an approximate value of the synchronous reactance can be obtained as:

E A V ,OC
XS  
I A I A, SC

If it is important to know a winding’s resistance as well as its synchronous reactance, the

resistance can be approximated by applying a dc voltage to the windings while the machine is
stationary and measuring the resulting current flow. The use of dc voltage means that the
reactance of the windings will be zero during the measurement process. This technique is not
perfectly accurate, since the ac resistance will be slightly larger than the dc resistance (as a result
of the skin effect at higher frequencies).

7. Terminal Characteristics of Synchronous Generators

We will briefly look at the effect of changing loads on the terminal voltage of a synchronous
generator. Since we are dealing with a synchronous generator, the operating speed is constant

20
and the rotor flux in the generator is assumed constant unless their field current is explicitly
changed.

An increase in the load is an increase in the real and/or reactive power drawn from the generator.
Such an increase in load increases the load current drawn from the generator. Because the field
resistor has not been changed, the field current is constant, and therefore the flux ϕ is constant.
Since the prime mover also keeps a constant speed ω, the magnitude of the internal generated
voltage EA = Kϕω is constant.

If EA is constant, just what does vary with a changing load? The way to find out this is to
construct phasor diagrams showing an increase in the load, keeping the constraints on the
generator in mind. Figure 11 depicts the effects of load changes using phasor diagrams.

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Figure 11: The effect of an increase in generator loads at constant power factor upon its terminal
voltage, (a) Lagging power factor; (b) unity power factor; (c) leading power factor.

The effect of an increase in generator loads of a synchronous generator is depicted in Figure 12

and can be summarized as follows:

1. If lagging loads (+Q or inductive reactive power loads) are added to a generator, Vϕ and the
terminal voltage VT decrease significantly.

2. If unity-power-factor loads (no reactive power) are added to a generator, there is a slight
decrease in Vϕ and the terminal voltage.

3. If leading loads (-Q or capacitive reactive power loads) are added to a generator, Vϕ and the
terminal voltage will rise.

Figure 12: Terminal voltage characteristics of synchronous generators

A convenient way to compare the voltage behavior of two generators is by their voltage
regulation. The voltage regulation (VR) of a generator is defined by the equation

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where Vnl is the no-load voltage of the generator and Vfl is the full-load voltage of the generator.
A synchronous generator operating at a lagging power factor has a fairly large positive voltage
regulation, a synchronous generator operating at a unity power factor has a small positive voltage
regulation, and a synchronous generator operating at a leading power factor often has a negative
voltage regulation.

Voltage regulation of an alternator can be determined by the following methods:

(i) Synchronous impedance method or emf method.

(ii) Ampere-turn method or mmf method.
(iii)Zero power factor method or Potier method.

It is left for the reader/student to read up these methods.

Normally, it is desirable to keep the voltage supplied to a load constant, even though the load
itself varies. How can terminal voltage variations be corrected for? The obvious approach is
to vary the magnitude of EA to compensate for changes in the load. Recall that EA = Kϕω. Since
the frequency should not be changed in a normal system, EA must then be controlled by varying
the flux in the machine.

For example, suppose that a lagging load is added to a generator. Then the terminal voltage will
fall, as was previously shown. To restore it to its previous level, decrease the field resistor RF. If
RF decreases, the field current will increase. An increase in IF increases the flux, which in turn
increases EA, and an increase in EA increases the phase voltage and terminal voltage. This idea
can be summarized as follows:

1. Decreasing the field resistance in the generator increases its field current.
2. An increase in the field current increases the flux in the machine.
3. An increase in the flux increases the internal generated voltage EA = Kϕω.
4. An increase in EA increases Vϕ and the terminal voltage of the generator.

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The process can be reversed to decrease the terminal voltage. It is possible to regulate the
terminal voltage of a generator throughout a series of load changes simply by adjusting the field
current.

8. Parallel operation of Synchronous Generators (Alternators)

8.1. Introduction

To meet with the ever increasing demand of electrical power, it is economical and advisable to
run a number of generating units in parallel. Although a single large unit utilised to meet load
demand is more economical, however, this reduces the reliability of power supply. In fact, there
are a number of good reasons to use number of smaller units operating in parallel to meet with
the existing demand. In the present scenario, not only the number of units placed at one
generating station are operated in parallel rather all the other units placed at the other generating
stations which are interconnected are also operating in parallel with each other. Figure 13 depicts
two generators to be connected in parallel to supply a load

Figure 13: A generator being paralleled with a running power system

8.2. Necessity of Parallel Operation of Alternators

In modern power generating stations, where huge power is generated, several alternators are
operated in parallel. When two or more synchronous generators are connected to the same

24
busbar, they are said to be connected in parallel. Why is it necessary to operate synchronous
generators in parallel? Such practice is considered necessary for the following reasons:

1. Physical size: The output power of modern power stations is so high that it is difficult to build
a single unit of that capacity.

2. Reliability or continuity of service: Several small units are more reliable than a single large
unit because if one unit fails, the continuity of supply can be maintained by operating the other
units.

3. Repair and maintenance: Repair and maintenance of a unit is more convenient and
economical if a large number of smaller units are installed at the power station.

4. Size and cost of stand-by unit: Since each unit is of smaller size, the cost of stand by unit is
small.

5. Extension of power plant: The additional unit can be installed as and when the load demand
increases.

6. Operating efficiency: The load on the power station varies greatly both during day and night as
well as during the different seasons. Thus the number of units operating at a particular time can
be easily varied depending upon the load at that time. This keeps the machines loaded up to their
rated capacity and hence results in increase in efficiency of operation as the efficiency of an
electrical machine is maximum at or near rated capacity.

8.3. Requirements for Parallel Operation of Alternators

The following are the requirements for the parallel operation of alternators:

1. Output voltage rating: The output voltage rating of all the alternators must be the same

2. Output frequency: The rated speed of all the machines should be such that they produce the
same frequency (f = PNs/120).

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3. Phase sequence: The generators must have the same phase sequence and the phase angles of
the “a” phases must be equal.

4. Output wave shape: The output wave form of all the alternators must be the same, although
their kVA rating may be different.

5. Speed-load characteristics: The drooping speed-load characteristics of the prime-movers of

the alternators should be the same so that alternators share the load in their proportion as per
their output (kVA) rating.

8.4. Synchronising Alternators

The procedure for connecting an alternator in parallel with another or with common bus-bars to
which a number of alternators are already connected, is called synchronising of alternators.

For proper synchronising of alternators, the following conditions must be fulfilled:

1. The terminal voltage of the incoming alternator must be equal to that of the bus-bar voltage.
2. The voltage of the incoming alternator should be in phase opposition to the bus-bar voltage.
This implies that there will be no circulating current between the windings of the alternators
already connected to bus-bars and the incoming alternator.
3. The speed of the incoming alternator must be such that its frequency is equal to that of bus-
bar frequency.
4. In case of three-phase alternators the phase of the incoming alternator must be identical with
the phase of the bus-bars. In other words, the phase sequence of the incoming alternator must
be same as that of the bus-bars.

For synchronising of three-phase alternators, two methods are used i.e., (i) By using lamps, (ii)
By using synchroscope.

8.5. Shifting of Load

After fulfilling all the necessary conditions of synchronising, the synchronising switch is closed
and the alternator is said to be connected in parallel with the other alternators already connected
to the bus-bars, by closing the synchronising switch. The incoming alternator is connected in

26
parallel with the existing alternator but at this instant, the incoming alternator is not delivering
any load (current) to the bus-bars. The load is shifted from the existing alternator to the incoming
alternator by increasing the mechanical power input to the prime-mover of the incoming
alternator and simultaneously reducing the mechanical power input to the prime-mover of
existing alternator. In case of steam machines this may be readily done by admitting more steam
(by opening the steam inlet valve) to the steam-turbine of incoming alternator and
simultaneously closing the steam valve of existing alternator. Thus, any load can be shifted to
incoming alternator from existing alternator. Generally it is shifted as per their respective ratings.

If the existing alternator is to be disconnected from the bus-bars the process continues till all the
load is shifted to the incoming alternator as indicated by the ammeter and wattmeters in the
circuits. Then the line circuit breaker (main switch) and field breaker (field switch) of the
existing alternator are opened.

The most important point to be emphasized is that load cannot be shifted from one machine to
the other by adjusting the excitation. Once the alternator is connected to the bus-bars, the change
in excitation only changes the power factor of the alternator it does not affect the load sharing.

9. Important Notes on Synchronous Motors

1. A synchronous motor is basically and functionally the opposite of a synchronous generator. It

takes in electrical power and converts it to mechanical power. For a given frequency, it operates
only at one speed called synchronous speed given by the expression NS = 120 f÷ P.

2. A synchronous motor is inherently not self-starting. Some of the methods used for starting the
synchronous motor includes (a) Use of an auxiliary motor (a small induction motor called pony
motor) (b) Provision of damper winding on the rotor poles.

3. At no-load it draws a very small current from the mains to meet the internal losses of the
motor. With the increase in load, the torque angle δ increases due to which motor draws more
current from the mains. After the input current reaches maximum (torque angle δ is nearly 90°)
no further increase in load is possible. If the motor is further loaded it goes out of synchronism
and stops.

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4. It can be operated under a wide range of power factors both lagging and leading. With
decrease in excitation, synchronous motor draws more current from the supply mains at lower
(lagging) power factor. Thus, the motor operates as an inductor. However, when synchronous
motor is over excited, it draws more current at a leading power factor from the supply mains,
thereby operating as a capacitor. A synchronous motor operating under this condition is also
called synchronous condenser. This property of a synchronous motor makes it very essential in
the industry for power factor improvement since most loads are inductive in nature.

5. The following are the important applications of synchronous motors:

(a) Power factor correction: They are used to improve the power factor of large industries and at
power substations to improve the power factor.

(b) Voltage regulation: They are used to control the voltage at the end of transmission lines by
varying their excitation. When operated in this manner, it is called a synchronous phase modifier
or reactor.

(c) Constant-speed drive applications: They are used in textile mills, cement factories, mining
industries and rubber mills because of their high efficiency and constant speed. Synchronous
motors are mostly used to drive equipment which are operated at continuously constant speed
such as centrifugal pumps, centrifugal fans, air compressors, motor-generator sets, blowers, etc.

6. Comparison between synchronous and induction motor is provided in the table below

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10. Worked Examples

Example 0

A three-phase, Y-connected alternator supplies a load of 10MW at 0.85pf lagging and at 11kV
terminal line voltage. Its resistance is 0.1 ohm per phase and synchronous reactance is 0.66 ohm
per phase. Calculate the value of the generated emf.

Solution

∴ line emf = 11,486V

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Example 1

A single-phase 100 kVA, 600V, 50 Hz alternator has an effective armature resistance and
synchronous reactance of 0·072 and 0·18 ohms respectively. At rated terminal voltage and kVA
load, determine the internal induced emf at (i) unity p.f. (ii) 0·75 p.f. lagging; (iii) 0·75 p.f.
leading.

Solution

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Example 2

A three-phase star connected 1200 kVA, 3300 V, 50 Hz, alternator has armature resistance of
0·25 ohm per phase. A field current of 40A produces a short circuit current of 200A and an open
circuit emf of 1100 V between lines. Calculate regulation on full load with 0·8 power factor
lagging.

Solution

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Example 3

A 762 kVA, 2200 V, 50 Hz, three-phase, star connected alternator has an effective resistance of
0.6ohm per phase. A field current of 30 A produces a full-load current on short circuit and a line
to line emf of 1039 V on open circuit. Determine the power angle of the alternator when it
delivers full load at 0.8 p.f. lagging. Also determine the short circuit ratio (SCR) of the
alternator.

Solution

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Example 4

A lighting load of 2000 kW and a motor load of 4000 kW at 0.8 pf lagging are supplied by two
alternators operating in parallel. If one of them is delivering a load of 2400 kW at 0.95 pf
lagging, what will the output and pf of the other alternator?

Solution

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Example 5

Two similar 400V, three-phase, 50 Hz, alternators share equal power jointly delivered to a
balanced three-phase, 50 kW, 0·8 p.f. lagging load, If p.f. of one machine is 0·95 lagging, find
the current supplied by the other machine.

Solution

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Example 6

Two alternators working in parallel supply the following loads:

(i) Lighting load of 600 kW;
(ii) Inductive load of 800 kW at 0·9 p.f. lagging;
(iii) Capacitive load of 800 kW at 0·8 p.f. leading.
One alternator is supplying 1000 kW at 0·85 p.f. lagging. Calculate the kW output and p.f. of the
other alternator.

Solution

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Example 7

A motor-generator set used for providing variable frequency a.c supply consists of a three-
phase, 10-pole synchronous motor and a 24-pole three-phase synchronous generator. The
motor-generator set is fed from a 25Hz, three phase a.c supply. A 6-pole, three-phase induction
motor is electrically connected to the terminals of the synchronous generator and runs at a slip
of 5%. Determine:
(a) The frequency of the generated voltage of the synchronous generator
(b) The induction motor speed
(c) Frequency of the rotor currents

Solution

(a)

(b)

(c) The frequency of the rotor current = sfs = 0.05 × 60 = 3 Hz

11. Further Reading

This material only covers cylindrical, non-salient synchronous machine. It is left for the
student/reader to read up on salient-pole synchronous machine.

In addition, read up special purpose machines such as stepper motor, tachogenerator etc

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12. Reference Textbooks

The materials presented in this note have been taken largely from the following listed textbooks
and it is intended for classroom teaching only.
1. S.K Sahdev (2018), Electrical Machines, Cambridge University Press.
2. Stephen J Chapman (2012) Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill

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