Class 11

Computer Science Note

Prepared By Er. Lalit Prasad Joshi
(Electronics, Communication and Information Engineer)
 UNIT-1
Computer System and Organization(CSO)
 TOPICS OF UNIT-1
• Basic computer organisation: Introduction to Computer System, hardware, software,
input device, output device, CPU, memory (primary, cache and secondary), units of
memory (bit, byte, KB, MB, GB, TB, PB)
• Types of software: System software (Operating systems, system utilities, device
drivers), programming tools and language translators (assembler, compiler, and
interpreter), application software
• Operating System(OS): functions of the operating system, OS user interface
• Boolean logic: NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, XOR, truth tables and De Morgan’s
laws, Logic circuits .
• Number System: Binary, Octal, Decimal and Hexadecimal number system;
conversion between number systems
• Encoding Schemes: ASCII, ISCII, and Unicode (UTF8, UTF32)
• The way we used to live around 25-30 years ago is very different from how we live today.
• A modern cannot even imagine life, without email, Internet, print outs, playing music on
computers or student age smartphones, photos just a click away in the form of smartphones
and so on.
• In short, in every aspect of life around us, we see computers play a role directly or indirectly.
• Hardware:
The physical electronic components of a computer are called hardware, e.g.,
keyboard, CPU, monitor, printer etc.
• Software:
These are the recorded instructions and programs that govern the working of a
computer. Recall that a program is a set of instructions to carry out a specific task or
achieve a special work goal.
A computer system comprises of five basic components
(i) Input Unit:
It is responsible for taking input for the computer. The input devices attached to the
computer system make the input unit.
(ii) Output Unit:
It is responsible for taking input for the computer. The output devices attached
to the computer system make the output unit.
(iii) Central Processing Unit (CPU): It is responsible for processing the data and
instructions. It comprises of two parts:
(a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). It is responsible for carrying out the
arithmetic instructions (add, subtract, multiply, divide) and making logic
decisions (greater than, less than, equal to).
(b) Control Unit: It is responsible for controlling and supervising the
processing.
(iv) Primary Memory. It is the internal volatile memory where data and
instructions are stored during processing.
(v) Secondary Storage Unit: It refers to the external storage devices which
provide permanent memory to the computer system. The components of a
computer system make the physical structure of a computer whereas the
logical structure of a computer system is defined as Computer Organisation.
Fig: 2 Basic Component of Computer
System
Fig: 1 Basic Component of Computer
System
• The input unit is formed by the input devices attached to the computer. Examples of
input devices and media are: keyboard, mouse, magnetic ink character reader (MICR),
optical mark reader (OMR), optical character reader (OCR), joystick etc.
• The input unit is responsible for taking input and converting it into computer
understandable form (the binary code).
• Since a computer operates on electricity, it can understand only the language of
electricity i.e., either ON or OFF or high voltage or low voltage.
• That means a computer can understand two stages ON/OFF or High/Low voltage or the
binary language that uses just two symbols: 1 for ON and 0 for OFF.
• An input unit takes the input and converts it into binary form so that it can be
understood by the computer.
• All the inputs consisted of data (on which the action was to be performed) as well as
the instruction (the action to be taken).
• The computer input also consists of data and instructions.
• For example, if the given input to the computer is Add 2 and 3 then data consists of
2 and 3 and instruction is Add. Similarly, if the given input is Print "Hello World"
then data consists of "Hello World“ and instruction is Print
• The input unit is comprised of different input devices that take the input in different
forms and pass them in digital form to CPU for processing.
• Some common input devices are :
(i) Keyboard: Keyboard is a typewriter like device which is used to type in the
letters, digits and commands. For visually challenged people, Braille keyboards are
also available these days.
(ii) Mouse: Mouse is pointing device with either a roller on its base or some laser
mechanism. Mouse controls movement of pointer (also called mouse pointer) on
screen.
(iii) Microphone (Mic): We can send sound input to computer through a special
input device called microphone or mic in short. A mic converts the sound received
into computer's format, which is called digitized sound or digital audio.
Output Unit
• The output unit is formed by the output devices attached to the computer.
The output coming from the CPU is in the form of electronic binary signals
which needs conversion in some form which can be easily understood by
human beings i.e., characters, graphical or audio visual form. This function of
conversion is performed by output units.
• Output Unit converts the output in binary form to human readable form.
(i) Monitors:
 Monitor (or "screen") is the most common form of output from a
computer.
 It displays information in a similar way to that shown on a television
screen.
 The picture on a monitor is made up of thousands of tiny coloured dots
called pixels. For visually challenged people, Braille monitors are also
available these days.
 ii) Printers
Printers are the devices that deliver information by means of printed characters etc.
Unlike old style printers, which print on a paper, these days 3D printers print
characters on paper. Printers come in variety of forms, e.g., inkjet, laserjet, dotmatrix.
3D printers are also available which can print/create 3D models.
(iii) Speakers
Speakers receive the sound in form of electric current from the sound card and then
convert it to sound format audible to user.
The CPU (Central Processing Unit)
• The CPU or the Central Processing Unit is the main control centre and processing
unit. It is also called brain of the computer as it guides, directs, controls and governs
the performance of a computer. The CPU has some sub-components that help in
carrying out the processing of a task. These are:
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The ALU performs all the four arithmetic (+, -,,/) and some logical (<, >,=, <=,>=,!=)
operations. When two numbers are required to be added, these numbers are sent
from memory to ALU where addition takes place and the result is put back in the
memory. In the same way, other arithmetic operations are performed (through ALU
only).
• For logical operations also, the numbers to be compared are sent from memory to
ALU where the comparison takes place and the result is returned to the memory.
The result of a logical operation is either TRUE or FALSE. These operations provide
the capability of decision-making to the computer.
• ALU performs arithmetic (+, -,,/) and logic operations.
Control Unit (CU)
• Directs the flow of data between the CPU and other components like memory, input/output
devices.
• Fetches instructions from memory.
• Decodes instructions to determine what actions are required.
• Controls execution by sending the right signals to the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and other
parts.
• Regulates timing and sequence of operations within the CPU.
• The CU gets program instructions from memory and executes them one after the other.
After getting the instructions from memory in CU, the instruction is decoded and interpreted
i.e., which operation is to be performed.
• Then the asked operation is carried out. After the work of this instruction is completed,
control unit sends signal to memory to send the next instruction in sequence to CU. The
control unit even controls the flow of data from input devices to memory and from memory
to output devices.
Registers
• Registers or processor registers are small units of data holding places. The CPU uses
registers to temporarily hold important processing-information during the time the
processing is taking place. CPU may store some part data or some memory address
or some instruction in its processor registers.
NOTE
• Modern days' smart machines (e.g., washing machines, microwave oven etc.) also
come with embedded CPUs. In fact, these embedded CPUs are more than the CPU
as these also contain little ROM, RAM and other required circuitry containing some
embedded instructions.
• These embedded CPUs with accompanying memory and embedded instructions are
called microcontrollers.
• Computer organization refers to the logical structure of a computer
describing how its components are connected to one another; how they
affect one another's functioning, and contribute to overall performance of
the computer.
The Memory [Main Memory/Primary Memory)
• The memory of a computer is more like a predefined working place, where it
temporarily keeps information and data to facilitate its performance.
• Each memory location has a unique memory address. When the task is performed,
it clears its memory and memory space is then available for the next task to be
performed.
• When the power is switched off, everything stored in the memory gets erased and
cannot be recalled.
• The memory of a computer can be thought of as 'cells'. Each of these cells is further
broken down into smaller parts known as bits . A bit means a binary digit ie., either
0 or 1. A number of bits together are used to store data instructions by their
combination.
• RAM is called Random Access Memory because any memory location can be
accessed directly and in any order (randomly) with the same speed, regardless of its
physical location.
• A bit is an elementary unit of the memory. Eight bits together form a byte. One byte is the
smallest unit which can represent a data item or a character. Other units of memory are KB,
MB, GB, TB etc.
• A group of 8 bits is called a byte and a group of 4 bits is called a nibble.
• Since computer's main memory (primary memory) is temporary, secondary memory space is
needed to store data and information permanently for later use.
• Some most common secondary storage media are the hard disk, CD-RWs, pen drive etc. The
secondary memory devices are also known as storage devices.
8 bits = 1 byte
1024 bytes = 1 KB (Kilobyte)
1024 KB = 1 MB (Megabyte)
1024 MB = 1 GB (Gigabyte)
1024 GB = 1 TB (Terabyte)
1024 TB = 1 PB (Petabyte)
1024 PB = 1 EB (Exabyte)
1024 EB = 1 ZB (Zettabyte)
1024 ZB = 1 YB (Yottabyte)
TYPES OF RAM
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM): These are made up of transistors and capacitors. Memory
Access Time is the amount of time taken by the computer to retrieve data from
memory or storage.
• Static RAM : These are made up of flip-flops1 and offer faster access times (about 10
nanoseconds) than DRAMs.
• Static RAMS are thus used in specialized applications while dynamic RAMS are used
in the primary storage sections of most computers.
TYPES OF ROM
1. PROM (Programmable ROM)
2. EPROM(Erasable Programmable ROM)
3. EEPROM(Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)
4. Flash EEPROM
5. Mask ROM
There are various types of ROM which are given below:
(i) PROM (programmable ROM): Also called OTP (One Time Programmable). PROM is a
user-programmable memory in which information is burnt using special equipment
called a ROM burner.
(ii) EPROM (erasable programmable ROM): In EPROM, one can program the memory
chip (through various mechanisms e.g., UV radiation) and erase it many times as
needed. The UV-EPROM can take up to 20 minutes for erasing EPROM contents.
(iii) EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable ROM).
In EEPROM, the EPROM is unlike UV-EPROM which erases fully. Erased electrically
which is faster. Also, with EEPROM, selective bytes can be erased
(iv) Flash EEPROM. It is like EEPROM but is very fast comparatively (the erasure of the
entire contents takes less than a second). Also, it erases fully and not selectively. (v)
Mask ROM. Mask ROM refers to a kind of ROM in which the contents are programmed
by the IC manufacturer. It is not a user-programmable ROM.
Cache Memory
• Pronounced as cash, the cache memory is a special high-speed storage mechanism.
• It can be either a reserved section of main memory or an independent high-speed
storage device or even on CPU chip.
• Whenever some data is required, the CPU first looks in the cache, if it is there or not.
• If the data is found in cache, CPU does not access memory and hence the process
becomes very fast.
• Cache Memory is a high speed memory available inside CPU.
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
1. System Software
2. Application Software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
• A computer is mere a machine that knows nothing of itself. Rather it requires
instructions for each and everything it performs. These instructions are provided to
it through software.
• The software that controls internal computer operations (viz. reading data from
input devices, transmitting processed information to the output devices, checking
system components, converting data/instructions to computer understandable form
etc.) is known as system software.
• The system software can further be classified into two categories:
1. Operating System
2. Language Processor.
• Major components of a computer system are:
1. The Hardware
2. The Operating System
3. The Application program routines (compiler, linkers, database management
systems, utility programs)
4. The Humanware (users)
OPERATING SYSTEM
• An Operating System is a program which acts as an interface between a user and
the hardware (i.e., all computer resources).
• Hardware provides the basic computing resources, the application program routines
define the ways in which these resources are used to solve the computing problems
of the users and the Operating System controls and coordinates the use of the
hardware among the various application programs for the various users.
• There are different types of operating systems available today to carry to varied type
of requirements. These are: Single user OS, Multiuser OS, Time sharing OS, Real time
OS, Multiprocessing OS, Distributed OS etc.
Language Processors
• A language processor is a special type of a computer software that can translate the
source code into an object code or machine code. Here you should know the
meaning of the terms source code or object code.
• A source code refers to the program-code written by a programmer in a high level
programming language (HLL) such as in C, Java, C++ etc.
• An object code refers to a code usually in machine language or binary code, a
language that computer can understand easily and run on hardware.
There are three types of language processors: assembler, compiler and interpreter.
(i) Assembler: This language processor converts the program written in assembly
language into machine language.
(ii) Interpreter : An interpreter is a type of system software that translates and executes
instructions written in a computer program line-by-line, unit by unit etc.
(iii) Compiler : A Compiler is another type of system software that translates and
executes instructions written in a computer program in one go.
The translated machine code runs fast (faster execution time) as now computer does
not require any type of conversion to run it; unlike source code which requires
conversion into object/machine code before it can be executed.
 APPLICATION SOFTWARE
• This type of software refer to one specific application. For instance, a software that
can perform railway reservation functions cannot prepare result for a school.
• These are the programs written by programmers to enable computer to perform a
specific task such as processing words, inventory control, handling calculations and
figures, medical accounting, financial accounting, result preparation, railway
reservation, billing etc.
• Application software can further be subdivided into four categories:
1. Packaged Software
2. Customised Software
3. Utilities Software
4. Developer tools
ENCODING SCHEMES
 Character encoding is the process of converting characters, such as letters,
numbers, punctuation, and symbols, into a format that can be stored,
transmitted, and processed by computers.
 This conversion is essential because computers can only understand binary
data (0s and 1s).
 Character encoding assigns numerical values, known as code points, to
each character, allowing them to be represented digitally.
 Some of the commonly encoding schemes are:-
1. ASCII
2. ISCII
3. Unicode (UTF8, UTF32)
ASCII
 ASCII read as askee. It stands for American Standard Code For
Information Interchange.
 The ASCII standard was first published in 1963 as ASA X3.4-1963, and it
was revised ten times between 1967 and 1986.
 ASCII is an 7-bit code standard and so it has 27 = 128 possible code
groups. So this is more than enough to represent all of the standard
keyboard characters and control functions such as ENTER, SPACE,
RETURN etc.
 The ASCII table is broken down into three sections.
1. Non-printable, system codes between 0 and 31.
2. Lower ASCII, between 32 and 127.
3. Higher ASCII, between 128 and 255.
ISCII CODE
 ISCII (Indian Script Code for Information Interchange) is the abbreviation
for the Indian Script Code for Information Interchange.
 ISCII is a method of encoding that can be used to encode a wide range of
Indian languages, both written and spoken.
 To ease transliteration across multiple writing systems, ISCII adopts a single
encoding mechanism.
 ISCII was established in 1991 by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS). It has
a character count of roughly 256 and employs an 8-bit encoding technique.
 From 0-127, the first 128 characters are the same as in ASCII. The following
characters, which range from 128 to 255, represent characters from Indian
scripts.
UNICODE
 Unicode Characters are translated and stored in computer systems as
numbers (bit sequences) that the processor can handle.
 Hundreds of different encoding techniques allocated a number to each
letter or character in the globe before Unicode.
 Many of these methods used code pages with only 256 characters and
each of which required 8 bits of storage.
 The types of Unicode are UTF-8 and UTF-32