PREPARED BY : TOMAR SIR (BST SIR), HANSA MA’AM(HST MA’AM)

((i), (ii) and (iii) are discontinuous at x = c)

((iv) is continuous at x = c)

A function f (x) is continuous at a left end point x = a of its domain if lt + f ( x) = f (a) and continuous at a right end
x →a

point x = b of its domain if lt − f ( x) = f (b)

x →b

In general, a function “f(x)” is right-continuous from the right at a point x = c in its domain if lt + f ( x) = f (c) .It is
x →c

left continuous at c if lt − f ( x) = f (c)

x →c

 a function is continuous at a left end point “a” of its domain if it is right continuous at a and continuous at a right
end point “b” of its domain if it is left continous at b.

A function in continuous at an interior point “c” of its domain if and only if it is both right & left continuous at a

(i.e lt
x →c+
f ( x) = lt − f ( x) = f (c)
x →c
)
2. Continuity in an interval :

A function “f” is said to be continuous on an interval I in its domain if lt f ( x) = f (c) at every point “c” and if the
x →c

appropriate one-sided limits equal the function values at every point I may contain

OR

(a) A function f is said to be continuous in (a, b) if f is continuous at each & every point  (a, b).

(b) A function f is said to be continuous in a closed interval [a, b] if:

(i) f is continuous in the open interval (a, b),

(ii) f is right continuous at ‘a’ i.e. Limit

+
f(x) = f(a) = a finite quantity and
x →a

(iii) f is left continuous at ‘b’ i.e. Limit

+
f(x) = f(b) = a finite quantity.
x →b

Example:

i) f(x) = 4 − x2 is continuous on [-2,2] , at every domain point

1
ii) f(x) = is continuous on ( −,0)  ( 0, )
x
 −1, x  0
iii) f ( x) =  is continuous on ( −,0) and[0, ) i.e. f(x) is right continuous at origin but it is neither left
 1, x  0
continuous nor continuous there.

3. Types of discontinuity:

a) A function y=f(x) has infinite discontinuity at x = a if lt − f ( x) (or) lt + f ( x) is infinite

x →a x →a

1 1
examplei) f(x) = at x = 0 ii) f(x) =
x 2
x−2

b) A function y=f(x) has oscillating discontinuity at x=a if lt − f ( x) and lt + f ( x) lie in a certain range but do not
x →a x →a

approach to a definite value at x = a.

example:

1
i) y=sin   at x=0 has oscillating discontinuity at x=0
x

sin ( log e x ), x  0

ii) f ( x) =  x→a+ has oscillating discontinuity at x=0
 1, x = 0

c) f(x) has a removable discontinuity at x = a if lt − f ( x) and lt + f ( x) both exists finitely and their values are
x →a x →a

equal but not equal to f(a). Such a function can be made continuous by redefining the function at x = a so that
lt + f ( x) = lt − f ( x) = f(a) continuous.
x →a x →a

x2 − 2
example: f ( x ) = at x = 2
x− 2

d) A function f(x) is said to have discontinuity of first kind at x= a if lt + f ( x) , and lt − f ( x) exists, but not equal
x →a x →a

e) f(x) has jump discontinuity at x = a if lt − f ( x) and lt + f ( x) both exists finitely but their values are unequal and
x →a x →a

lt f ( x) − lt + f ( x) = jump of function at x = a
x →a − x →a

it is said to be non removable discontinuity of 1st kind

Note : A function having a finite number of jumps in a given interval is called a Piece Wise Continuous function in this
interval. For e.g. {x}, [x]

f) A function f(x) is said to have discontinuity of second kind at x= a, values of lt − f ( x) , and lt + f ( x) do not
x →a x →a

exist.
This type of discontinuity is always irremovable.

1 1
Example: f(x) = or g(x) = at x = 4 (Infinite discontinuity)
x−4 ( x − 4)
2

1
or f(x) =sin at x = 0. (Oscillatory discontinuity)
x

g) A function f can be discontinuous due to any of the following three reasons.

(i) Limit f(x) does not exist. i.e. Limit

−
f(x)  Limit
+
f(x) (figure (i))
x →c x →c x →c

(ii) f(x) is not defined at x = c (figure (ii))

(iii) Limit f(x)  f(c) (figure (iii))

x →c

Geometrically the graph of the function will exhibit a break at x = c.

4) Continuity of algebraic combination: If functions f and g are continous at x = c. Then following functions are
f
continous at x=c. a) f+g b) f-g c) f.g d) k.f k  R e)
g
( g (c)  0) f) ( f ( x) ) (provided f(x) is defined in an interval
m/ n

containing C, and m,n are integers).

8) Continuity of composites: If f(x) is continous at x = c and g(x) is continous at f(c) then g (f(x)) is continous at c.

10. Properties of a continuous function:

a) If f(x) is a continuous function and f(a) & f(b) possess opposite signs, then there exists atleast one root of f(x)=0 in
(a,b).or odd number of roots of f(x) = 0 in (a,b)

b) If f(x) is a continuous function on [a,b] and k is any real number between f(a) & f(b), then there exists at one
solution of the equation f(x) = k in (a,b). (Intermediate value theorem)OR

c) Any continuous function defined on a closed and bounded interval [a, b]

possesses intermediate value property on that interval.
If a function is discontinuous on [a, b], still the function can satisfy Intermediate valuetheorem

d) If f has a derivative at every point of the closed interval [a, b], then f takes
on every value between f(a) and f(b) , because then f becomes continuous

e) If f has a derivative at every point of the closed interval [a, b], then f' takes
on every value between f'(a) and f'(b) . Because Darboux’s theorem states that, although derivatives are not
continuous they still enjoy intermediate value property
f). If f and g have the intermediate value property on [a, b], then so has f+g on
that interval, may not have intermediate value property
h) If f(x) takes only rational continous or irrational values for all real values of x, (or) in a given interval and f(x) is
continous function, then f(x) must be constant function.

11) Point function: Point function is a function whose domain and range set consists only one element is
discontinuous. ( example: f ( x ) = 2− x + x−2 )

DIFFERENTIABILITY:
1) Let f(x) be a real valued function defined on an interval (a, b) and let c  (a, b) .Then f(x) issaid to be differentiable
f ( x ) − f (c )
at x = c, iff lim exists finitely which implies
x →c x−c
f ( x ) − f (c ) f ( x ) − f (c ) + −
= lim− (i.e R.H.D = L.H.D f (c ) = f (c ) )
1 1
lim+
x →c x−c x →c x−c

2) Let hand derivative and Right hand derivative of a function f(x) at a point x = c are defined as
f (c) − f (c − h ) f ( c + h ) − f ( c ) and
f ' ( c − ) = lim+ = lim−
h →0 h h →0 h
f (c + h ) − f (c) f (c) − f (c − h ) f ( c ) − f ( x ) respectively
f ' ( c + ) = lim+ = lim_ = lim+
h →0 h h →0 h x →a c−x

3) f(x) is differentiable at a point P iff there exists a unique tangent at P (other than verticaltangent)
f (a + g ( h )) − f (a + p ( h ))
4) If f is differentiable at x = a, then lim = f ' ( a ) , where lim p ( h ) = lim g ( h ) = 0 .
h →0 g (h) − p (h) h →0 h →0

5) Differentiability over an interval:

f(x) is said to be differentiable over an open interval if it is differentiable at each point of the interval and f(x) is said
to be differentiable over a closed interval [a, b] if:

(i) ( ) ( )
for the points a and b, f ' a + and f ' b− exist finitely

(ii) ( ) ( )
for any point c such that a < c < b, f ' c+ &f ' c− exist finitely and are equal.

Example:

6. Relation between differentiability &continuity :

(i) If f ' ( x ) exists, then f(x) is continuous at x = a.

(ii) If f(x) is differentiable at every point of its domain of definition, then it is continuous in that domain.
Note: The converse of the above result is not true i.e. “ if ‘f’ is continuous at x = a, then ‘f’ is differentiable at x = a is
not true.

Example: the functions f(x) = x − 2 is continuous at x = 2 but not differentiable at x = 2.

( )
If f(x) is a function such that R.H.D = f ' a + = ( )
and L.H.D = f ' a − = m

Case : I

If = m = some finite value, then the function f(x) is differentiable as well as continuous.

Case: II

If  m = but both have some finite value, then the function f(x) is non – differentiable but it is continuous.

Case : III

If at least one of the or m is infinite, then the function is non – differentiable but we can not say about continuity
of f(x).

7) Every polynomial function, the exponential function y = a , a  0 , Constant function, sine and cosine functions
x

are always differentiable.

The logarithmic, trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions are differentiable in their domain

8) If f(x) & g(x) are differentiable at x = a, then the functions f(x)  g(x), f(x).g(x) will also be differentiable at x = a &
if g(a)  0, then the function f(x) / g(x) will also be differentiable at x = a.

9) If f(x) is not differentiable at x = a & g(x) is a differentiable at x = a, then the product function F(x) = f(x) .g(x) can
still be differentiable at x = a

11) If f(x) & g(x) both are non – differentiable at x = a, then the sum function F(x) = f(x) + g(x) may be a differentiable
function. E.g. f(x) = x & g(x) = − x .

12) The composition of differentiable function is a differentiable function.

13) If f(x) is differentiable at x = a then |f(x)| is not necessarily to be differentiable at x = a.

Example: x3 is differentiable at x = 0 and f(x) = x3 is also differential at x = 0

14) If both f(x) and g(x) are differentiable functions on R, then the function defined as
h(x) = maximum {f(x), g(x)} is not always is differentiable on R
15) If both f(x) and g(x) are differentiable functions at x = x0, then the function defined
as h(x) = maximum {f(x), g(x)} is not differentiable at x = x0 . It is,provided
f ( x0 )  g ( x0 )
Some standard results:
16. If [x] denotes the integral part of x and f(x) = [n + p sin x], 0 < x < , n  I and p is a
prime number, then the number of points where f(x) is not differentiable is 2p – 1

17. y = f ( x ) be a real valued twice differentiable function defined on R, then

3
d 2 y  dx  d 2 x
  + =0
dx 2  dy  dy2

18. Let f(x) be a non negative differentiable function such that f 1 ( x )  f ( x)x  0 and

f (0) = 0 then f(x) = 0 (constant function)

3
19. Let a function f : R → R be satisfying f ( x) − f ( y)  x − y for all real numbers x, y ,

then f(x) is a constant function.

−1
20. The function y = sin (cos x) is not differentiable at x = n , n  Z , is particular at x = 

xn xn
21. lim = 0 " x > 0 , because, for any x > 0, we can choose sufficiently larger n such that is small.
n® ¥ n! n!

·
1
sin  
cos   x  does not exist.
22. Lt does not exist and Lt
 →0  x →0 1
sin  
x

PREPARED BY : TOMAR SIR (BST SIR), HANSA MA’AM(HST MA’AM)