3DEC

3 Dimensional Distinct Element Code

Optional Features

©2016
Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. Phone: (1) 612-371-4711
Mill Place Fax: (1) 612-371-4717
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 450 Email: software@itascacg.com
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55401 USA Web: www.itascacg.com
First Edition May 1999
First Revision September 1999
Second Edition January 2003
First Revision August 2005
Third Edition December 2007
Fourth Edition (3DEC Version 5.0) July 2013
First Revision (3DEC Version 5.2) November 2016
Optional Features Contents - 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 THERMAL OPTION
1.1 Numerical Thermal Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
1.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
1.1.2 Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
1.1.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
1.1.2.2 Mathematical Model Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
1.1.2.3 Numerical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
1.1.2.4 Solving Thermal-Only and Thermal-Mechanical Problems . . . 1 - 13
1.1.3 Heat Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 16
1.1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 16
1.1.3.2 Mathematical Model Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 16
1.1.3.3 Numerical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 17
1.1.3.4 Stability and Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 18
1.1.3.5 Solving Thermal Convection Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 19
1.1.4 Input Instructions for Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 21
1.1.4.1 3DEC Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 21
1.1.4.2 FISH Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 26
1.1.5 Systems of Units for Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 27
1.1.6 Verification Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 29
1.1.6.1 Conduction in a Plane Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 29
1.1.6.2 Heating of a Hollow Cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 39
1.1.6.3 Infinite Line Heat Source in an Infinite Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 48
1.1.6.4 One-Dimensional Thermal Transport by Conduction and Convec-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 61
1.1.7 Application Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 67
1.1.7.1 Thermal Convection in a Fracture at Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 67
1.2 Analytical Thermal Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 82
1.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 82
1.2.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 83
1.2.2.1 The Temperature Due to a Distribution of Heat Sources . . . . . . 1 - 83
1.2.2.2 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 84
1.2.2.3 Thermally Induced Stress Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 85
1.2.3 Application in 3DEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 86
1.2.4 Input Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 86
1.2.4.1 Preparing to Solve a Thermal Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 86
1.2.4.2 Defining Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 87
1.2.4.3 Initial and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 89
1.2.4.4 Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 90
1.2.4.5 Calculating the Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 90

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Contents - 2 Optional Features

1.2.4.6 Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 90
1.2.5 Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 91
1.2.5.1 A Single Non-decaying Point Heat Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 91
1.2.5.2 Superposition of Several Non-decaying Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 93
1.2.5.3 Lines and Grids of Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 96
1.2.5.4 Decaying Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 101
1.2.5.5 Thermomechanical Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 103
1.2.6 An Example Problem – Waste Repository Drift Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 112
1.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 117

2 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.2 Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
2.2.1 General Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
2.2.2 Rayleigh Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
2.2.3 Example of Different Damping Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
2.2.4 Guidelines for Selecting Rayleigh Damping Parameters for Dynamic Anal-
ysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
2.3 Natural Modes of Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 10
2.3.1 Example Problems (from Cundall et al. (1979), pp. 71-73) . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 11
2.4 Wave Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 17
2.5 Partial Density Scaling for Dynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 27
2.5.1 Example of Partial Density Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 27
2.6 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 32
2.6.1 Nonreflecting Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 32
2.6.2 Free-Field Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 34
2.6.2.1 Example Using Dynamic Free Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 36
2.7 Application of Dynamic Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 42
2.7.1 Baseline Correction of Input Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 43
2.8 Calculation of Natural Frequencies and Modes of Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 45
2.9 Verification Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 49
2.9.1 Slip on a Joint Induced by a Propagating Harmonic Shear Wave . . . . . . 2 - 49
2.9.1.1 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 49
2.9.1.2 Analytic Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 49
2.9.1.3 Numerical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 51
2.9.1.4 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 52
2.9.1.5 Dynamic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 53
2.9.1.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 53

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Line Source in an Infinite Elastic Medium with a Discontinuity . . . . . .

2.9.2 2 - 61
2.9.2.1 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 61
2.9.2.2 Analytic Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 61
2.9.2.3 Model Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 63
2.9.2.4 Properties of Joints and Continuous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 64
2.9.2.5 Dynamic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 65
2.9.2.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 66
2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 79

3 STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2 Interior Support (The STRUCTURE liner Command) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3.2.1 Structural Liner Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.2.2 Summary of Commands Associated with Liner Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
3.2.3 Example Application – Structural Liner in Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
3.2.4 Limitations of the 3DEC Liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 12
3.2.5 Structural Element Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 13
3.3 Structural Finite Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 14
3.3.1 Element Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 14
3.3.1.1 Notation Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 14
3.3.1.2 Geometry Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 14
3.3.1.3 Displacements and Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 15
3.3.1.4 Stresses and Nodal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 17
3.3.1.5 Gravity Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.3.1.6 Concentrated Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.3.2 Element Implementation in 3DEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.3.3 Contact Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 19
3.3.4 Application of Boundary Loads and Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 19
3.3.5 Solution Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 20
3.3.6 Generation and Use of FE Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 21
3.3.7 Shape Functions and Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 22
3.3.8 Commands and Keywords for Finite Element Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 25
3.3.9 Example of Creating a Finite Element Base Model of a Dam in 3DEC 3 - 28
3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 53

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TABLES
Table 1.1 Comparison of features available with numerical vs analytical formulations . . 1-1
Table 1.2 System of SI units for thermal problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 27
Table 1.3 System of Imperial units for thermal problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 27
Table 1.4 Property and parameter values for the example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 62
Table 1.5 Temperature distribution in the vicinity of several sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 95
Table 2.1 Moduli appropriate to various deformation modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 12
Table 2.2 Comparison of theoretical and calculated (3DEC) dynamic period T of oscilla-
tion for three modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 13
Table 2.3 Natural frequencies (Hz) of bending modes for the square pillar . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 47
Table 2.4 Medium properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 52
Table 2.5 Discontinuity properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 52
Table 2.6 Material properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 64
Table 2.7 Discontinuity properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 65
Table 3.1 Summary of structural element liner commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Table 3.2 Systems of units – structural elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 13
Table 3.3 Nodal coordinates in master element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 22
Table 3.4 Coordinates of slave nodes in master element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 23
Table 3.5 Definition of the element faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 23

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FIGURES
Figure 1.1 3DEC grid for conduction in a plane sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 30
Figure 1.2 Comparison of temperatures for the explicit-solution algorithm (Tables 2, 4
and 6 = analytic solution; Tables 1, 3 and 5 = 3DEC solution) . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 34
Figure 1.3 Comparison of temperatures for the implicit-solution algorithm (Tables 2, 4
and 6 = analytic solution; Tables 1, 3 and 5 = 3DEC solution) . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 38
Figure 1.4 3DEC grid for heating of a hollow cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 41
Figure 1.5 Temperature distribution at steady state for heating of a hollow cylinder . . . 1 - 47
Figure 1.6 Radial stress distribution at steady state for heating of a hollow cylinder . . . 1 - 47
Figure 1.7 3DEC model for an infinite line heat source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 49
Figure 1.8 Temperature distribution at 1 year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 51
Figure 1.9 Radial displacement distribution at 1 year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 51
Figure 1.10 Radial and tangential stress distributions at 1 year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 52
Figure 1.11 Analytical and numerical temperature profiles, compared to conduction solu-
tion at steady state – case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 63
Figure 1.12 Analytical and numerical temperature profiles, compared to conduction solu-
tion at steady state – case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 63
Figure 1.13 3DEC block geometry for thermal convection in a fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 68
Figure 1.14 3DEC block discretization for thermal convection in a fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 68
Figure 1.15 Flow velocity in the fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 69
Figure 1.16 Fluid pressure distribution in the fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 70
Figure 1.17 Fluid temperature contours at steady state – case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 71
Figure 1.18 History of fluid temperature at 5 monitoring points – case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 72
Figure 1.19 History of rock temperature at 3 monitoring points – case 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 72
Figure 1.20 Fluid temperature contours at steady state – case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 73
Figure 1.21 History of fluid temperature at 5 monitoring points – case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 74
Figure 1.22 History of rock temperature at 3 monitoring points – case 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 74
Figure 1.23 Fluid temperature contours at steady state – case 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 75
Figure 1.24 History of fluid temperature at 5 monitoring points – case 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 76
Figure 1.25 History of rock temperature at 3 monitoring points – case 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 76
Figure 1.26 Adiabatic and isothermal boundaries and their 3DEC representations . . . . . . 1 - 85
Figure 1.27 A grid of heat sources, input with the command
GRID (10, 10, 10) (20, 20, 20) (20, 0, 10) &
TYP=1 STR=10 N12=5 N23=6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 89
Figure 1.28 Temperature distribution around a constant heat source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 93
Figure 1.29 Temperature distribution around a decaying heat source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 102
Figure 1.30 Conceptual representation of 3DEC block for modeling effect of point heat
source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 105
Figure 1.31 3DEC model for instantaneous point source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 107
Figure 1.32 Radial stress (Szz ) on z-axis (x = y = 0) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 108

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Figure 1.33 Tangential stresses Sxx and Syy along z-axis (x = y = 0) after 1 day . . . . . . . . 1 - 109
Figure 1.34 Tangential stresses Sxx and Syy along z-axis (x = y = 0) after 3 days . . . . . . . 1 - 110
Figure 1.35 z-displacement along z-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 111
Figure 1.36 Conceptual model of repository drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 113
Figure 1.37 3DEC model of repository drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 113
Figure 1.38 Model of drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 114
Figure 1.39 Temperatures and displacements on drift center line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 114
Figure 2.1 Variation of normalized critical damping ratio with angular frequency . . . . . 2-4
Figure 2.2 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for a single block contacting on a
rigid base with gravity suddenly applied (no damping) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Figure 2.3 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for a single block contacting on a
rigid base with gravity suddenly applied (mass and stiffness damping) . . 2-7
Figure 2.4 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for a single block contacting on a
rigid base with gravity suddenly applied (mass damping only) . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Figure 2.5 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for a single block contacting on a
rigid base with gravity suddenly applied (stiffness damping only) . . . . . . 2-8
Figure 2.6 Plot of velocity spectrum versus frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Figure 2.7 Comparison of fundamental wavelengths for bars with varying end conditions 2 - 11
Figure 2.8 Column of variably sized blocks subjected to triangular-shaped impulse load
at base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 18
Figure 2.9 Input wave (solid) at base and calculated wave (dashed) at top of column of
rigid block model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 19
Figure 2.10 Column of variably sized blocks subdivided into finite difference zones . . . . 2 - 19
Figure 2.11 Input wave (solid) at base and calculated wave (dashed) at top of column of
deformable block model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 20
Figure 2.12 Unfiltered velocity history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 25
Figure 2.13 Unfiltered power spectral density plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 25
Figure 2.14 Filtered velocity history at 15 Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 26
Figure 2.15 Results of filtering at 15 Hz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 26
Figure 2.16 View of model with small, thin blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 28
Figure 2.17 Velocities at the bottom and top of the model, for analysis without any density
scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 29
Figure 2.18 Velocities at the bottom and top of the model, for analysis with partial density
scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 29
Figure 2.19 Model for seismic analysis of surface structures and free-field mesh . . . . . . . 2 - 35
Figure 2.20 Model of dam with free field blocks visible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 37
Figure 2.21 x-velocity histories at model base and dam crest using viscous boundaries . 2 - 38
Figure 2.22 x-velocities of the base and dam crest using free field boundaries . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 39
Figure 2.23 The baseline correction process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 43
Figure 2.24 Square pillar model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 46
Figure 2.25 Transmission and reflection of incident harmonic wave at a discontinuity . . 2 - 49
Figure 2.26 Geometry for the problem of slip induced by harmonic shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 51

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Optional Features Contents - 7

Figure 2.27 3DEC block model showing internal discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 52

Figure 2.28 Shear stress vs time at Points A and B for the case of an elastic discontinuity
(cohesion = 2.5 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 54
Figure 2.29 Shear stress vs time at Points A and B for the case of an elastic discontinuity
(cohesion = 0.5 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 54
Figure 2.30 Shear stress vs time at Points A and B for the case of an elastic discontinuity
(cohesion = 0.1 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 55
Figure 2.31 Shear stress vs time at Points A and B for the case of an elastic discontinuity
(cohesion = 0.02 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 55
Figure 2.32 Comparison of transmission, reflection and absorption coefficients . . . . . . . . 2 - 56
Figure 2.33 Problem geometry for an explosive source near a slip-prone discontinuity . . 2 - 61
Figure 2.34 Dimensionless analytical results of slip history at Point P (dimensionless slip
= (4hρβ 2 /mo )δu, dimensionless time = tβ/ h) (Day 1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 62
Figure 2.35 Problem geometry and boundary conditions for numerical model . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 63
Figure 2.36 3DEC model showing semicircular source and “joined” blocks used to provide
appropriate zoned discretization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 64
Figure 2.37 Input radial velocity time history prescribed at r = 0.05 h (dimensionless
velocity = (h2 ρβ/mo )v, dimensionless time = τβ/ h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 66
Figure 2.38 Comparison of dimensionless slip at Point P with Coulomb joint model (di-
mensionless slip = (4hρβ 2 /mo )δu, dimensionless time = τβ/ h) . . . . . . . . 2 - 67
Figure 3.1 Local stiffness matrix for structural element representation of excavation sup-
port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Figure 3.2 Lumped mass representation of structure used in explicit formulation . . . . . . 3-3
Figure 3.3 Demonstration of interface slip and large displacement capabilities of explicit
structural element formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Figure 3.4 Triangular and plate-bending element subject to “in-plane” and bending ac-
tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Figure 3.5 Tunnel with unstable roof block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 11
Figure 3.6 Vertical displacement history of unstable block without liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 11
Figure 3.7 Vertical displacement history of unstable block with liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 12
Figure 3.8 Dam panels of 3DEC blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 28
Figure 3.9 Dam panels extruded to model base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 29
Figure 3.10 Base blocks extruded in the upstream and downstream directions . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 30
Figure 3.11 Dam with abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 31
Figure 3.12 Completed dam with fault in right abutment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 32
Figure 3.13 Dam with displaced fault in abutment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 36

3DEC Version 5.2

Contents - 8 Optional Features

EXAMPLES
Example 1.1 Conduction in a plane sheet – explicit solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 31
Example 1.2 Conduction in a plane sheet – implicit solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 35
Example 1.3 Heating of a hollow cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 41
Example 1.4 Infinite line heat source in an infinite medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 52
Example 1.5 Exponential integral function – “exp int.3dfis” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 59
Example 1.6 FISH function – “fxface.3dfis” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 60
Example 1.7 One-dimensional thermal transport by conduction and convection . . . . . . . 1 - 64
Example 1.8 Thermal convection in a fracture at depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 77
Example 1.9 Single non-decaying point heat source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 92
Example 1.10 Temperature distribution in the vicinity of several sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 93
Example 1.11 Data file for point sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 96
Example 1.12 Data file for lines of sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 99
Example 1.13 Data file for grids of sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 100
Example 1.14 Temperatures due to a single decaying heat source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 101
Example 1.15 Thermomechanical verification of 3DEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 105
Example 1.16 Waste repository drift model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 115
Example 2.1 Data file for Rayleigh damping example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Example 2.2 Data file for confined compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 13
Example 2.3 Data file for unconfined compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 14
Example 2.4 Data file for shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 15
Example 2.5 Column of variably sized rigid blocks subjected to impulse load at base . . 2 - 20
Example 2.6 Column of variably sized deformable blocks subjected to impulse load at
base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 22
Example 2.7 No density scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 30
Example 2.8 Partial density scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 31
Example 2.9 Dynamic free field boundary example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 39
Example 2.10 Elastic vibration modes of a square pillar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 47
Example 2.11 MILR3D.3DDAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 56
Example 2.12 MILR3D.3DFIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 59
Example 2.13 DAY3D.3DDAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 67
Example 2.14 DAY3D.3DFIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 69
Example 2.15 VEL INP.3DFIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 72
Example 2.16 ANA SLP.3DFIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 74
Example 3.1 Structural liner in tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
Example 3.2 Finite element model of a dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 37

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1-1

1 THERMAL OPTION

Introduction
The thermal option in 3DEC allows the simulation of transient heat conduction. There are two
separate formulations of the thermal logic. The first is a numerical formulation using the explicit
or implicit finite difference method. This method is more accurate for short times, and includes
thermal-mechanical fluid coupling. The second is an analytical formulation that uses superposition
of point heat sources in an infinite medium. This method is suitable for long thermal times, and is
very fast. The comparative features of the two methods are:

Table 1.1 Comparison of features available with numerical vs analytical

formulations
feature numerical analytical
thermal mechanical coupling yes yes
thermal fluid coupling yes no
thermal convection in fluid yes no
temperature boundary yes no
thermal flux boundary yes no
thermal convection boundary yes no
adiabatic boundary yes yes
nonhomogeneous thermal block properties yes no
heat sources yes yes

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1-2 Optional Features

1.1 Numerical Thermal Formulation

1.1.1 Introduction

The thermal option of 3DEC allows simulation of transient heat conduction in materials, and
development of thermally induced displacements and stresses. This option has the following specific
features:
1. Any of the mechanical models may be used with the thermal model.
2. Temperature, flux, convective and adiabatic boundary conditions may be prescribed.
3. Heat sources may be inserted into the material as either point sources or volume sources.
These sources may decay exponentially with time.
4. Both explicit- and implicit-solution algorithms are available.
5. The thermal option provides for one-way coupling to the mechanical stress calculations
through the thermal expansion coefficients.
6. Temperatures can be accessed via FISH.
7. Coupling between fluid flow in fractures and the thermal logic is available.
The thermal option also allows modeling of transient thermal convection in fractures filled with
a moving fluid. In this version of the code, fluid thermal expansion is not considered in the fluid-
thermo-mechanical coupling.
This section contains descriptions of the thermal formulation and the 3DEC input commands for
thermal analysis. Thermal conduction is considered in Section 1.1.2; thermal convection is reviewed
in Section 1.1.3. Recommendations for solving thermal problems are also provided, along with
several verification problems. Refer to these examples as a guide to creating 3DEC models for
thermal analysis and coupled thermal-stress or thermal-fluid flow analysis.

1.1.2 Heat Conduction

1.1.2.1 Introduction

The logic for heat conduction through a solid is available for deformable blocks. (It is not activated
for rigid blocks.) By default, convection is off and heat is conducted across the blocks using an
interpolation procedure. (The fractures are not seen by the flow of heat in this case.) Fluid-thermal
coupling can also be activated. (This topic is addressed in Section 1.1.3.)

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THERMAL OPTION 1-3

1.1.2.2 Mathematical Model Description

The variables involved in heat conduction in 3DEC are temperature and the three components of
the heat flux. These variables are related through the energy-balance equation and transport laws
derived from Fourier’s law of heat conduction. Substitution of Fourier’s law into the energy-balance
equation yields the differential equation of heat conduction, which may be solved for particular ge-
ometries and properties, given specific boundary and initial conditions. Thermal volumetric-strains
are introduced into the incremental mechanical constitutive laws to account for thermomechanical
coupling.
Conventions and Definitions
As a notation convention, the symbol ai denotes component i of the vector [a] in a Cartesian system
of reference axes; Aij is component (i, j ) of tensor [A]. Also, f,i is used to represent the partial
derivative of f with respect to xi . (f can be a scalar variable or a vector component.)
The Einstein summation convention applies only to indices i, j and k, which take the values 1, 2,
3 for components that involve spatial dimensions. The indices may take any values when used in
matrix equations.
SI units are used to illustrate parameters and dimensions of variables. See Section 1.1.5 for con-
versions to other systems of units.
The following dimensionless numbers are useful in the characterization of transient heat conduction.
Characteristic length:

volume of solid
Lc = (1.1)
surf ace area exchanging heat

Thermal diffusivity:

k
κ= (1.2)
ρ Cv

where: k is the thermal conductivity;

ρ is the density; and
Cv is the specific heat at constant volume.

Characteristic time:

L2c
tc = (1.3)
κ

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1-4 Optional Features

Energy-Balance Equation
The differential expression of the energy balance has the form

∂ζ
−qi,i + qv = (1.4)
∂t

where qi is the heat-flux vector in [W/m2 ], qv is the volumetric heat-source intensity in [W/m3 ],
and ζ is the heat stored per unit volume in [J /m3 ]. In general, temperature changes may be caused
by changes in both energy storage and volumetric strain, . And the thermal constitutive law relating
those parameters may be expressed as

 
∂T ∂ζ ∂
= Mth − βth (1.5)
∂t ∂t ∂t

where Mth and βth are material constants, and T is temperature.

In 3DEC, we consider a particular case of this law for which βth = 0 and Mth = ρC1 v . ρ is the mass
density of the medium in [kg/m3 ], and Cv is the specific heat at constant volume in [J /kg ◦ C].
The hypothesis here is that strain changes play a negligible role in influencing the temperature – a
valid assumption for quasi-static mechanical problems involving solids and liquids. Accordingly,
we may write

∂ζ ∂T
= ρ Cv (1.6)
∂t ∂t

Substitution of Eq. (1.6) in Eq. (1.4) yields the energy-balance equation

∂T
−qi,i + qv = ρCv (1.7)
∂t

Note that for nearly all solids and liquids, the specific heats at constant pressure and at constant
volume are essentially equal. Consequently, Cv and Cp can be used interchangeably.
Transport Law
The basic law that defines the relation between the heat-flux vector and the temperature gradient is
Fourier’s law. For a stationary, homogeneous, isotropic solid, this constitutive law is given in the
form

qi = −kT,i (1.8)

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THERMAL OPTION 1-5

where T is the temperature [◦ C] and k is the thermal conductivity in [W/m◦ C].

Boundary and Initial Conditions
Substitution of Eq. (1.8) for qi in Eq. (1.7) yields the differential equation for heat conduction. Initial
conditions correspond to a given temperature field. Boundary conditions are generally expressed in
terms of temperature or the component of the heat-flux vector normal to the boundary. In this version
of 3DEC, four types of conditions are considered. These correspond to: (1) given temperature; (2)
given component of the flux normal to the boundary; (3) convective boundaries; and (4) insulated
(adiabatic) boundaries.
In 3DEC, a convective boundary condition has the form

qn = h(T − Te ) (1.9)

where qn is the component of the flux normal to the boundary in the direction of the exterior normal,
h is the convective heat-transfer coefficient [W/m2 ◦ C], T is the temperature of the boundary surface
and Te is the temperature of the surrounding fluid [◦ C]. Note that in the numerical formulation used
in 3DEC, boundaries are adiabatic by default.
Mechanical Coupling – Thermal Strains
Solving thermal-stress problems requires reformulation of the incremental stress-strain relations,
which is accomplished by subtracting from the total strain increment that portion due to temperature
change. Because free thermal expansion results in no angular distortion in an isotropic material,
the shearing-strain increments are unaffected. The thermal-strain increments associated with the
free expansion corresponding to temperature increment T have the form

ij = αt T δij (1.10)

where αt [1/◦ C] is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion, and δij is the Kronecker delta.
The differential equation of motion and the rate of strain-velocity relations are based upon mechan-
ical considerations, and are unchanged for thermomechanics.

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1-6 Optional Features

1.1.2.3 Numerical Formulation

The energy-balance equation (Eq. (1.7)) and Fourier’s law (Eq. (1.8)) are solved in 3DEC using a
finite-difference approach based on a medium discretization into zones (tetrahedra). The numerical
scheme rests on a nodal formulation of the energy-balance equation. This formulation is equivalent
to the mechanical formulation (presented in Section 1 in Theory and Background) that leads to
the nodal form of Newton’s law. It is obtained by substituting the temperature, heat-flux vector and
temperature gradient for velocity vectors, stress tensors and strain-rate tensors, respectively. The
resulting system of ordinary differential equations is solved using two modes of discretization in
time, corresponding to explicit and implicit formulations. The principal results are summarized
below.
Finite-Difference Approximation to Space Derivatives
By convention, the nodes of a tetrahedron are referred to locally by a number from 1 to 4, face n is
opposite node n, and the superscript (f ) relates to the value of the associated variable on face f .
A linear temperature variation is assumed within a tetrahedron; the temperature gradient, expressed
in terms of nodal values of the temperature by application of the Gauss divergence theorem, may
be written as

1  l (l) (l)
4
T,j = − T nj S (1.11)
3V
l=1

where [n](l) is the exterior unit vector normal to face l, S is the face surface area and V is the
tetrahedron volume.
Nodal Formulation of the Energy-Balance Equation
The energy-balance Eq. (1.7) may be expressed as

qi,i + b∗ = 0 (1.12)

where

∂T
b∗ = ρCv − qv (1.13)
∂t

is the equivalent of the instantaneous “body forces” used in the mechanical node formulation. First
consider a single tetrahedron. Using this analogy, the nodal heat Qne [W ], n = 1,4, in equilibrium
with the tetrahedron heat flux and body forces, may be expressed as

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THERMAL OPTION 1-7

qv V dT n
Qne = Qnt − + mn Cvn (1.14)
4 dt

where

(n)
qi ni S (n)
Qnt = (1.15)
3

and

ρV
mn = (1.16)
4

In principle, the nodal form of the energy-balance equation is established by requiring that, at each
global node, the sum of equivalent nodal heat (−Qne ) from all tetrahedra meeting at the node and
nodal contribution (Qnw ) of applied boundary fluxes and sources be zero.
The components of the tetrahedron heat-flux vector in Eq. (1.15) are related to the temperature
gradient by means of the transport law (see Eq. (1.8)). In turn, the components of the temperature
gradient can be expressed in terms of the tetrahedron’s nodal temperatures, using Eq. (1.11).
In order to save computer time, a zone formulation is adopted in 3DEC. At each node, n, of a
particular zone, the sum, Qnz , of contributions from all tetrahedra belonging to the zone and meeting
at the node is formed and divided by two for two overlays. Local zone matrices, [M], that relate
nodal zone values, Qnz , to nodal zone temperatures, T n (n = 1,4), are assembled. These matrices
being symmetrical, 10 components are computed and saved at the beginning of the computation,
and updated every 10 steps in large-strain mode. By definition of zone matrices, we have

Qnz = Mnj T j (1.17)

where [T ] is the local vector of nodal zone temperatures.

In turn, global nodal values, QnT , are obtained by superposition of zone contributions. Taking some
liberty with the notation, we write for each global node n,

QnT = Cnj T j (1.18)

where [C] is the global matrix, and [T ] is, in this context, the global vector of nodal temperatures.

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1-8 Optional Features

Returning to our previous consideration, we write

 
− Qne + Qnw = 0 (1.19)


where, for simplicity of notation, the sign is used to represent summation of the contributions
at global node n of all zones meeting at that node. Using Eq. (1.14) in Eq. (1.19), we obtain, after
some manipulations,

dT n 1   
= − Qn
T + Qn
app (1.20)
dt [mCp ]n

where QnT is a function of the nodal temperatures defined in Eq. (1.18), and Qnapp is the known
contribution of applied volume sources, boundary fluxes and point sources, defined as

   qv V n
Qnapp =− + Qw (1.21)
4

Eq. (1.20)
 is the nodal form of the energy-balance equation at node n; the right-hand side term,
QnT + Qnapp , is referred to as the “out-of-balance heat.” One such expression holds at each global
node involved in the discretization. Together they form a system of ordinary differential equations
that is solved in 3DEC using both explicit and implicit finite-difference schemes. The domain of
application of each scheme is discussed below.
Explicit Finite-Difference Formulation
In the explicit formulation, the temperature at a node is assumed to vary linearly over a time interval,
t: the derivative in the left-hand side of Eq. (1.20) is expressed using forward finite differences;
and the out-of-balance heat is evaluated at time t. Starting with an initial temperature field, nodal
temperatures at incremental time values are updated, provided the temperature is not fixed, using
the expression

n
T<t+t> = T<t>
n
+ T<t>
n
(1.22)

where

  
n
T<t> = χ n QnT <t> + Qnapp<t> (1.23)

and

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t
χn = − (1.24)
[mCp ]n

Numerical stability of the explicit scheme can only be achieved if the timestep remains below a
limiting value.
Stability Criterion
To derive the stability criterion, we consider the situation in which a node, n, in an assembly of
zones is given a temperature perturbation, T0 , from a zero initial state. Using Eq. (1.18), we obtain

QnT = Cnn T0 (1.25)

If node n belongs to a convective boundary, we have


Qnapp = Dnn To (1.26)

where Dnn is used to represent the temperature coefficient in the global convective term at node n.
After one thermal timestep, the new temperature at node n is (see Eqs. (1.22) through (1.24))


t
n
T<t> = T0 1 −  (Cnn + Dnn ) (1.27)
[mCp ]n

To prevent alternating signs of temperatures as the computation is repeated for successive t, the
coefficient of T0 in the preceding relation must be positive. Such a requirement implies that


[mCp ]n
t < (1.28)
Cnn + Dnn

The value of the timestep used in 3DEC is the minimum nodal value of the right-hand side in
Eq. (1.28), multiplied by the safety factor of 0.8.
To assess the influence of the parameters involved, it is useful to keep in mind the following
representation of the critical timestep. If Lc is the smallest tetrahedron characteristic length, we
may write an expression of the form

 −1
1 κ h
tcr = + (1.29)
m L2c ρ Cv Lc

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where tcr is the critical timestep, κ, h, ρ and Cv are defined previously in Section 1.1.2.2, and m
is a constant, larger than unity, which depends on the medium geometrical discretization (e.g., m =
6 for a regular discretization in cubes – see Karlekar and Desmond 1982).
The critical timestep in Eq. (1.29) corresponds to a measure of the characteristic time needed for
the diffusion “front” to propagate throughout the tetrahedron. To estimate the time needed for the
front to propagate throughout a particular domain, a similar expression can be used, provided Lc is
interpreted as the characteristic length of the domain under consideration. Consider the case where
no convection occurs. By taking the ratio of characteristic times for the domain and the tetrahedron,
it may be seen that the number of steps needed to model the propagation of the diffusion process
throughout that domain is proportional to the ratio of square characteristic lengths for the domain
and the tetrahedron. That number may be so large that the use of the explicit method alone could
become prohibitive.
On the other hand, the advantage of this first-order method is that the calculated timestep is usually
small enough to follow nodal temperature fluctuations accurately.
Implicit Finite-Difference Formulation
The requirement that t should be restricted in size to ensure stability sometimes results in an ex-
tremely small timestep – of the order of a fraction of a second, especially when transient conduction
in multiple layers is involved. The implicit formulation eliminates this restriction, but it involves
solving simultaneous equations at each timestep.
The implicit formulation in 3DEC uses the Crank-Nicolson method, in which the temperature at
a node is assumed to vary quadratically over the time interval t. In this method, the derivative
dT /dt in Eq. (1.20) is expressed using a central-difference formulation corresponding to a half-
timestep while the out-of-balance heat is evaluated by taking average values at t and t + t. In this
formulation, we have

n
T<t+t> = T<t>
n
+ T<t>
n
(1.30)

where

 
1
n
T<t> =χ n
QnT <t+t> + QnT <t> + Qnapp (1.31)
2

and

 1  n 
Qnapp = Qapp<t+t> + Qnapp<t> (1.32)
2

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From the definition Eq. (1.18), we may write

j
QnT <t> = Cnj T<t> (1.33)

and

j
QnT <t+t> = Cnj T<t+t> (1.34)

Using Eq. (1.22), this last expression becomes

j
QnT <t+t> = QnT <t> + Cnj T<t> (1.35)

After substitution of Eq. (1.35) into Eq. (1.31), we obtain, using Eq. (1.33),

 
j 1 j
n
T<t> =χ n
Cnj T<t> + Cnj T<t> + Qnapp (1.36)
2

Finally, regrouping terms:

   
χn j j
δnj − Cnj T<t> = χ n Cnj T<t> + Qnapp (1.37)
2

For simplicity of notation, we define the known matrix [A] and vector [b<t> ] as

χn
Anj = δnj − Cnj (1.38)
2

and

  
j
bn<t> = χ n Cnj T<t> + Qnapp (1.39)

With this convention, we may write Eq. (1.37) in the form

j
Anj T<t> = bn<t> (1.40)

Such an equation may be written for each of the nodes involved in the grid. The resulting system
of equations is solved in 3DEC using Jacobi’s iterative method. In this approach, temperature
increments at iteration r + 1 and node n are calculated using the recurrence relation,

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1  j <r>

n<r+1>
T<t> = T<t>
n<r>
+ −Anj T<t> + bn<t> (1.41)
Ann

where Einstein’s notation convention applies to j indices only. Using the definition Eq. (1.38) of
[A], Eq. (1.41) takes the form


1 χn j <r>
n<r+1>
T<t> = n<r>
T<t> + χn
Cnj T<t> − T<t>
n<r>
+ bn<t> (1.42)
1− 2 Cnn
2

The initial approximation is chosen such that

n<0>
T<t> =0 (1.43)

n<1> is calculated using the same formula as that used in the

Hence, the first approximation T<t>
n
explicit scheme divided by 1 − χ2 Cnn . (Note that in 3DEC, temperature-dependent boundary
conditions (contained in bn ) are updated in the implicit iterative procedure.)
In 3DEC, a minimum of 3 and a maximum of 500 iterations are considered, and the criterion for
detection of convergence has the form

   
max  T<t>
n<r+1> n<r> 
− T<t> < 10−2 max  T<t>
n<r> 
(1.44)
n n

The magnitude of the timestep must be selected in relation to both convergence and accuracy of the
implicit scheme. Although the Crank-Nicolson method is stable for all positive values of t (for
no convection), the convergence of Jacobi’s method is not unconditionally guaranteed unless the
matrix [A] is strictly diagonally dominant – i.e., when

   

n
   
 Akj  <  Akk  (1.45)
   
j =1
j =k

for 1 ≤ i ≤ n (see Dahlquist and Bjorck 1974). According to the definition Eq. (1.38) of Anj and
Eq. (1.24) of χ n , this sufficient condition is always fulfilled for sufficiently small values of t. If
convergence of Jacobi’s method is not achieved, an error message is issued. It is then necessary
to either reduce the magnitude of the implicit timestep, or use the explicit method. (The explicit
timestep may be used as a lower bound.)
Also, although the implicit method is second-order accurate, some insight may be needed to select
the appropriate timestep. Indeed, its value must remain small compared to the wavelength of

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any nodal temperature fluctuation. Typically, the explicit method is used earlier in the run or
in its perturbed stages, while the implicit method is preferred for the remainder of the simulation.
(Alternatively, the implicit method could be used with the explicit timestep value for extra accuracy.)
Computation time and computer memory are two factors that must be taken into consideration when
selecting the implicit approach in 3DEC. In the implicit method, a set of equations must be solved
at each timestep requiring a minimum of three iterations. The amount of calculation required for
one iterative step is approximately equal to that needed for one timestep in the explicit scheme.
Also, intermediate values must be stored in the iterative procedure, requiring more memory to be
allocated than in the explicit scheme. Those inconveniences, however, can be more than offset by
the much larger timestep generally permitted by the implicit method, or by the gain in accuracy
allowed.
Thermal-Stress Coupling
The heat transfer may be coupled to thermal-stress calculations at any time during a transient
simulation. The coupling occurs in one direction only (i.e., the temperature may result in stress
changes, but mechanical changes in the body resulting from force application do not result in
temperature change). This restriction is not believed to be of great significance here since the
energy changes for quasi-static mechanical problems are usually negligible. The stress change in
a triangular zone is given by (from Eq. (1.10))

σij = −3K αt T δij (1.46)

The preceding assumes a constant temperature in each triangular zone, which is interpolated from
the surrounding gridpoints. This stress is added to the zone stress state prior to application of the
constitutive law.
Mechanical properties can also be made a function of temperature change by accessing temperature
and property values via FISH.
1.1.2.4 Solving Thermal-Only and Thermal-Mechanical Problems

3DEC has the ability to perform thermal-only and coupled thermal-mechanical and thermal-fluid
flow analyses. The forms of the coupled interactions are described in Section 1.1.2.4. In all cases,
the first step in the command procedure is to issue a CONFIG thermal command so that extra memory
can be assigned for the thermal calculation. Then, a choice must be made between explicit and
implicit thermal algorithms. By default, the explicit algorithm will be selected, but the implicit
mode of calculation may be activated or deactivated at any stage of the thermal-only or coupled
calculation using the command SET th implicit on or SET th implicit off. In the explicit mode, the
thermal timestep will be calculated automatically, but a smaller timestep can be selected using the
SET thdt command. The magnitude of the timestep must be specified by the user in the implicit
mode. This is done by issuing a SET thdt command. The thermal model and properties must be
specified for any zones that conduct heat. The density must also be specified. Initial and boundary
conditions are assigned to complete the thermal problem setup. Flux boundary conditions, for
instance, are assigned through a range to the boundaries of the thermal domain. The thermal

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domain in a thermal-mechanical simulation is defined by the assembly of zones with a non-null

thermal model.
Thermal-Only Analysis
The command SET mech off (or SET fluid off if CONFIG fluid is specified) is used to request a
thermal-only calculation. The STEP (or CYCLE) command may then be given to execute a given
number of thermal steps. To stop the calculation when a particular thermal time is reached, a SOLVE
thtime command may be issued.
The thermal properties isotropic thermal conductivity and specific heat are assigned with the com-
mands PROPERTY conductivity and PROPERTY spec heat, respectively.
A steady-state thermal solution can be obtained simply by issuing the SOLVE command. By default,
the thermal calculation will be performed until the ratio of the unbalanced heat flux at a gridpoint
divided by the applied heat flux magnitude falls below the value of 10−5 for all gridpoints in the
model. This limiting ratio produces a steady-state heat flux condition for most thermal analyses.
The ratio can be adjusted with the SOLVE ratio (or SET ratio) command.
The thermal timestep and total thermal time are printed to the screen when STEP or SOLVE is given.
The timestep and other thermal calculation-mode information can be obtained with the LIST thermal
command.
Thermal-Mechanical Analysis
The thermal option can be combined with the mechanical calculation to perform a
thermal-mechanical analysis with 3DEC. All the features of the thermal calculation, including
transient and steady-state heat transfer, and thermal solution by either explicit or implicit algo-
rithm, are available in a thermal-mechanical calculation.
The thermal-mechanical coupling is provided by the influence of temperature change on the volu-
metric change of a zone (see Eq. (1.10)). The linear thermal expansion coefficient is assigned via
the PROPERTY thexp command.
Thermal-mechanical analysis may be performed with any of the built-in mechanical models in
3DEC.
There are two issues that must be taken into consideration when performing a thermal-mechanical
analysis. The first one is concerned with the different time scales associated with the thermal and
mechanical processes. Because timesteps correspond to the time needed for the information to
propagate from one node to the next, their formulation can be used to compare time scales.
Typically, the timesteps associated with the mechanical process are of the form


ρ
tmech = Lc (1.47)
K + (4/3)G

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where:K = bulk modulus;

G = shear modulus;
ρ = density; and
Lc = characteristic length.

Hence, the ratio of thermal-to-mechanical timestep may be expressed as (see Eq. (1.29), assuming
no convection and m = 1)


tther K + 4/3G Lc
= (1.48)
tmech ρ κ

where κ is the thermal diffusivity. For nonmetals, this property is of the order of 10−6 m2 /s, at
most. For rock and soil, ρ is of the order of 103 kg/m3 , while K + (4/3)G is approximately
1010 N/m2 . Using those orders of magnitude in Eq. (1.48), it may be observed that the ratio of
thermal-to-mechanical time scales is of the order 105 Lc . This ratio remains very large, even if Lc
is of the order of 1 mm. In practice, mechanical effects can be assumed to occur instantaneously
when compared to diffusion effects. This is also the approach adopted in 3DEC, where no time is
associated with any of the mechanical steps taken in association with the thermal steps.
The second issue concerns the thermal-mechanical coupling in 3DEC. This coupling occurs only
in one direction: temperature changes cause thermal strains to occur, which influence the stresses;
while the thermal calculation is unaffected by the mechanical changes taking place.
In most modeling situations, the initial mechanical conditions correspond to a state of equilibrium
that must first be achieved before the coupled analysis is started. If the medium is elastic and the
thermal-mechanical response must be investigated, for instance, at a certain thermal time, a thermal-
only calculation may be performed until the desired time (SET thermal on mech off). The thermal
calculation may then be turned off, and the mechanical calculation on, using the SET thermal off
and SET mech on commands. Following this, the system may be cycled to mechanical equilibrium
before the response is analyzed.
For nonlinear mechanical models (i.e., when plasticity is involved), the thermal changes must be
communicated to the mechanical module at closer time intervals, to respect the path-dependency of
the system. Typically, at small dimensionless thermal time, a certain number of mechanical steps
must be taken for each thermal step to allow the system to adjust according to the different time
scales involved. At large dimensionless thermal time, if the system approaches thermal equilibrium,
several thermal timesteps may be taken without significantly disturbing the mechanical state of the
medium. A corresponding numerical simulation may be controlled manually by alternating between
thermal-only and mechanical-only modes.
In a third approach, the STEP command may be used while both mechanical and thermal modules
are on (SET thermal on mech on). In this option, one mechanical step will be taken for each
thermal step. Here, thermal steps are assumed to be so small that one mechanical step is enough
to re-equilibrate the system mechanically after each thermal step is taken. Section 1.1.4.1 may be
consulted for a complete list of available command options.

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1.1.3 Heat Convection

1.1.3.1 Introduction

In the convection logic, it is assumed that fluid flow occurs within the fractures, which are satu-
rated with fluid, and that the rock matrix is impermeable to fluid flow (3DEC approach). Heat is
transported by convection by the fluid, and by conduction within it. Heat can also be transported
by conduction in the rock, as described in the previous section. The fluid has its own temperature,
which will generally be different than the rock. Heat transfer between the fluid in the fractures and
the contacting rock (fluid-thermal coupling) may take place according to Newton’s law of cooling.
The logic for heat transfer within the fluid, and coupling to heat transfer within the rock, is presented
in the following section.
1.1.3.2 Mathematical Model Description

Heat convection in the flow planes is described by the following equations. Heat is transported by
conduction in the fracture fluid, according to Fourier’s law:

qfT = −kfT ∇T (1.49)

where qfT is specific heat flux in the fluid, and kfT is fluid thermal conductivity. The energy-balance
equation for the fluid obeys the equation

∂Tf
ρf Cf + ∇ · qfT + ρf Cf q f · ∇Tf + Af h(Tf − Ts ) = 0 (1.50)
∂t

where ρf Cf is fluid density times specific heat; q f is specific fluid discharge; Af is contact area
per unit fluid volume; h is fluid/rock heat transfer coefficient; and Tf , Ts are the temperature of
fluid and solid block, respectively.
For the solid blocks, flow of fluid is neglected; transport of heat obeys Fourier’s law:

q T = −k T ∇T (1.51)

where q T is specific heat flux, and k T is rock thermal conductivity. The energy balance is

∂Ts
ρs Cs + ∇ · qsT − As h(Tf − Ts ) = 0 (1.52)
∂t

where ρs Cs is solid density times specific heat; and As is contact area per unit volume of solid (seen
from the fluid, there is contact on 2 sides: A+ − +
s , As , and Af = As + As ).
−

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The coupling between thermal and fluid flow is assumed to be weak for this development (i.e.,
fluid pressure generation by fluid thermal expansion is neglected compared to the other effects).
Also, the dependence of fluid properties (viscosity, density) on temperature is not directly taken
into account in the current formulation. Finally, fluid thermal expansion is not considered in the
thermal-mechanical coupling for the development.
1.1.3.3 Numerical Formulation

The logic for thermal conduction in the solid blocks is reported in Section 1.1.2. We focus here on
the implementation of heat convection in the fractures.
The numerical implementation of the heat equations for the fracture fluid is done using an explicit,
finite volume scheme. The implementation of heat conduction in the fluid is done using a scheme
similar to the one used to solve the flow transport and fluid mass conservation equations in the
fractures (the equations have a similar form). The numerical technique relies on the discretization
of the flow planes into triangular zones, in which temperature is assumed to vary linearly. The
numerical formulation in a flow plane follows along the lines of the FLAC thermal scheme (for
one overlay), and the reader is referred to the Thermal Option section in the Optional Features
volume of the FLAC Manual for a description of the technique. The difference here is that two
additional contributions are added to the out-of-balance flux at the nodes, before new temperatures
are evaluated for the thermal step.
The first contribution accounts for heat convection. It is calculated on a flow-zone basis. A heat
source term of the form ρf Cf Qf · ∇Tf A is computed at each thermal timestep, for a triangular
zone of area, A, using the information of fluid specific discharge, Qf , from the flow calculation,
and temperature gradient for the zone. (The symbol Qf stands for heat flux integrated over fracture
thickness. The temperature gradient is evaluated from nodal temperatures using the Gauss diver-
gence theorem.) The heat source term is divided into three equal parts, and one is added to the
out-of-balance flux at each node of the zone.
The second contribution accounts for heat exchange between the fracture fluid and the rock, accord-
ing to Newton’s law of cooling. It is calculated on a flow-node basis. The principle is as follows.
Let S be the nodal area allocated to the node in the flow plane. The fluid temperature at the flow
node is Tf . The temperature of the rock is Ts+ on one side, and Ts− on the other side. For the fluid,
the surface interaction term h(Tf − Ts+ )S + h(Tf − Ts− )S is added to the out-of-balance flux at the
flow node, at each thermal timestep. The contribution h(Tf − Ts+ )S is distributed, with reversed
sign to the nodes of the contacting block face on one side, and the same is done for h(Tf − Ts+ )S
on the other side. New nodal temperatures are calculated for the step using the standard approach.

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1.1.3.4 Stability and Accuracy

The stability of the numerical scheme for solving the energy balance equation Eq. (1.50) is governed
by two numbers: the Peclet number for the grid, Peg , and the grid Courant number, Crg . For uniform
specific heat, Cf , and, in the absence of fluid/rock interaction, the energy balance equation can be
written in the form

∂Tf
= ∇ · (D∇T ) − q f · ∇T (1.53)
∂t

where, by definition,

kfT
D= (1.54)
ρf Cf

The grid Peclet number gives a measure of the relative effects of convection and conduction, and
is defined as

 qf 
Peg = (1.55)
D/l

where l is the grid size.

The grid Courant number is a measure of the advective distance covered by a fluid particle during
a thermal timestep t over l:

 q f  t
Crg = (1.56)
l

In the one-dimensional case, for instance, the classical constraints are Peg ≤ 2 and Crg ≤ 1 (see, for
example, Perrochet and Berod 1993). In the current implementation, the explicit fluid and thermal
timesteps are identical to those adopted in the conduction logic. The code thus sets no intrinsic
limit on the grid Peclet number. However, the accuracy is likely to be different for different number
values, and to be influenced by grid size and timestep.
Thus, the explicit timestep adopted by the code is not unconditionally stable; more research needs
to be done, and tests conducted, to resolve this issue. One recommendation for the user of this
development is, before embarking on a large run, to exercise and check the stability on the sim-
ple one-dimensional model presented in Section 1.1.6.4, using representative properties, specific
discharge and grid sizes planned for the problem. Although for most practical applications, the
heat conducted in the fluid will be small compared to the amount being advected, it is often ad-
vantageous, from a numerical point of view, to take conduction into account in the simulation. If

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instability occurs in the small model (see preceding stability criterion for grid Peclet and Courant
numbers), the grid size should be reduced until stability is achieved. The large model discretization
will then need to be reviewed in light of the stable grid size obtained for the small model.
1.1.3.5 Solving Thermal Convection Problems

To perform a coupled fluid-thermal calculation with 3DEC, fluid and thermal configurations must
be selected, using the command CONFIG thermal gw. The convection mode is selected (using SET
convection on) to allow heat to propagate in the fractures by conduction in the fluid, and by convec-
tion from the flow of fluid. The fluid thermal properties of specific heat and thermal conductivities
are assigned with the commands FLUID fspec heat and FLUID fth cond, respectively. The initial
fluid temperature and thermal boundary conditions for the fluid must be assigned independently
from the initial rock temperature and thermal boundary conditions for the rock. Fluid temperature
is initialized at knots of flow planes using the INSITU fluidtemp command. Three types of fluid
thermal boundary conditions can be applied in the fractures corresponding to fixed temperature
(BOUND fluidtemp), surface heat flux (BOUND flux) and joint heat source (BOUND knflux).
To model heat transfer between fluid and rock, the problem of heat conduction in the rock must be
set up using the approach described in Section 1.1.2. Also, the property of heat transfer coefficient
can be assigned using the FLUID fht coe command (see Section 1.1.7 for an example application).
Two commands (LIST tknot and LIST fluid) are available to print the temperature at knots in the flow
plane and fluid properties, respectively. Finally, a contour plot of fluid temperature can be produced
by issuing the command PLOT fluidtemp.
A list of commands specific to heat convection simulations is included below. (SI units are indicated
in parentheses.)
BOUND fluidtemp <val> <range>
fixes fluid temperature at a given value for knots in range. [C]
BOUND flux <val> <range>
fixes heat flux at a given value for knots in range. Flux is per
unit length of joint trace on boundary surface. [W/m2 ]
BOUND knflux <val> <range>
fixes heat point source at a given value for knots in range.
[W/m3 ]
FLUID fht coe <value> [W/(m2 C)]
fluid heat transfer coefficient (global value)
FLUID fspec heat <value>
fluid specific heat [J/(kg C)]

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FLUID fth cond <value>

fluid thermal conductivity [W/(mC)]
INSITU fluidtemp <val> tgradient <tx> <ty> <tz> <range>
initializes fluid temperature at knots in range. [C]
LIST fluid prints (global) fluid properties.
LIST tknot prints temperature information at flow knots.
PLOT fluidtemp plots contours of fluid temperature.
SET convection off
on
off for heat conduction in the rock (the fractures are not seen);
on for heat conduction in the rock, and heat convection in the
fractures.

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1.1.4 Input Instructions for Thermal Analysis

1.1.4.1 3DEC Commands

The following commands are provided to run thermal problems. Note that the thermal options
are invoked by new keywords used with existing commands in the standard mechanical code.
The command CONFIG thermal must be the first thermal command given before any other thermal
commands are invoked.

APPLY thermal keyword <keyword> value <keyword> <range>

The APPLY command is used to apply thermal boundary conditions to any external
or internal boundary of the model grid, or to interior gridpoints. The user must
specify the keyword type to be applied (e.g., flux), the numerical value (if required)
and the range over which the boundary conditions are to be applied. The range
can be given in several forms (see Section 1.1.3 in the Command Reference). If no
range is specified, then the command applies to the entire model. Optional keywords
may precede or follow the numerical value. The optional keywords for the APPLY
command are described in Section 1.3 in the Command Reference.
Three keyword types are used to apply thermal boundary conditions. The associated
keywords are given for each type.
Gridpoint-Type Keywords
psource v
A heat-generating source, v, is applied as a point source of the
specified strength (e.g., in W ) at each gridpoint in the specified
range. When a new source is applied to a gridpoint with an ex-
isting source, the new source strength replaces the existing source
strength.
Decay of the heat source can be represented by a FISH history
using the history keyword. See the flux keyword for an example.
temp t
Temperature is fixed at all gridpoints in the specified range. The
history keyword can be used to prescribe a temperature history.
(See the flux keyword for an example.)

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Zone-Type Keyword
vsource v
A heat-generating source, v, is applied as a volume source of the
specified strength (e.g., in W/m3 ) in each zone in the specified
range. When a new source is applied to a zone with the exist-
ing source, the new source strength replaces the existing source
strength.
Decay of the heat source can be represented by a FISH history
using the history keyword. See the flux keyword for an example.
Face-Type Keywords
convection v1 v2
v1 is the temperature, Te , of the medium to which convection
occurs.
v2 is the convective heat-transfer coefficient, h (e.g., in W/m2 ◦ C).
A convective boundary condition is applied over the range of faces
specified. The history keyword is not active for convection.
flux v
v is the initial flux (e.g., in W/m2 ).
A flux is applied over the range of faces specified. This command is
used to specify a constant flux into (v > 0) or out of (v < 0) a thermal
boundary of the grid. Decay of the flux can be represented by a
FISH history using the optional keyword history. For example,
the following FISH function performs an exponential decay of the
applied flux:
def decay
decay=exp(deconst*(thtime-thini))
end
set thini=0.0 deconst=-1.0
apply flux=10 hist=decay

BOUNDARY keyword <val> <range>

keyword
fluidtemp fixes fluid temperature at a given value for knots in range.
flux fixes heat flux at a given value for knots in range. Flux is per unit
length of joint trace on boundary surface.

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THERMAL OPTION 1 - 23

knflux fixes heat point source at a given value for knots in range.

CONFIG thermal
This command specifies extra memory to be assigned to each zone or gridpoint for
a thermal analysis.

FLUID keyword <value>

keyword
fht coe fluid heat transfer coefficient
fspec heat fluid specific heat
fth cond fluid thermal conductivity

HISTORY <nstep = n> temperature x y z

Temperature variables are sampled at gridpoint (x y z).
History of Thermal Time
thtime creates a history of thermal time for heat-transfer problems.

INITIALIZE keyword <keyword> value <grad gx gy gz> <range . . . >

temperature The temperature is initialized to the given value at all gridpoints
in the range specified.

INSITU fluidtemp <val> tgradient <tx> <ty> <tz> <range>

initializes fluid temperature at knots in range.

LIST keyword <keyword>

This command prints various thermal variables. The following keywords apply:
apply thermal calculation-applied conditions
fluid prints (global) fluid properties.
gridpoint temperature
gridpoint temperature

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 24 Optional Features

property thermal
thermal properties
tknot prints temperature information at flow knots.
zone thermal
zone temperatures and heat flux

PLOT flowplanecontour
temperature

PROPERTY mat n keyword value <keyword . . . >

This command assigns thermal properties for material n. The keywords required
to specify properties are listed below. Mass density must also be initialized for the
model grid using the density keyword. Units for thermal properties are listed in
Section 1.1.5.
conductivity isotropic thermal conductivity, k
spec heat specific heat, Cv
thexp coefficient of linear thermal expansion, αt

SET keyword <keyword value> . . .

This command is used to set thermal and coupling parameters in a 3DEC model.
The following keywords apply:
convection on
off
The coupling of fluid flow and thermal logic is turned on/off. The
default is off.
flow keyword <keyword value> . . .
on
off The fluid-flow calculation process is turned on or off.
The fluid-flow process is on by default when the CON-
FIG fluid command is given. The fluid-flow calculation
is turned off for a thermal-only calculation.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 25

mechanical keyword <keyword value> . . .

on
off
The mechanical calculation process is turned on or off. The me-
chanical process is on by default. The mechanical calculation is
turned off for a thermal-only calculation.
nther n
number of thermal sub-steps
th implicit on
off
The implicit solution scheme in the thermal model is turned on or
off. The default is off.
th time t
t is the thermal time.
thdt dt
t defines the thermal timestep. This timestep must be specified
for the implicit solution scheme. By default, 3DEC calculates the
thermal timestep automatically for the explicit solution scheme.
This keyword allows the user to choose a different timestep. If
3DEC determines that the user-selected value is too large for nu-
merical stability, the timestep will be reduced to a suitable value
when thermal steps are taken. The calculation will not revert to
the user-selected value until another SET thdt command is issued.
thermal on
off
The thermal calculation process is turned on or off. The thermal
process is on by default when the CONFIG thermal command is
given. The thermal calculation is turned off for a mechanical-only,
fluid-flow only or mechanical fluid-flow calculation.

SOLVE keyword value <keyword value> . . .

This command controls the automatic timestepping for thermal and coupled thermal-
mechanical calculations. A calculation is performed until the limiting conditions, as
defined by the following keywords, are reached.

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 26 Optional Features

clock t
t is the computer runtime limit, in minutes (default clock time is
unlimited time)
thtime t
t is the thermal “heating-time” limit for the thermal calculation.
1.1.4.2 FISH Variables

The following scalar variables are available in a FISH function to assist with thermal analysis:
thdt thermal timestep
thtime thermal time

The following 3DEC grid variables can be accessed and modified by a FISH function:
gp temp gridpoint temperature
fk temp flow knot temperature

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 27

1.1.5 Systems of Units for Thermal Analysis

All thermal quantities must be given in an equivalent set of units; no conversions are performed by
the program. Tables 1.2 and 1.3 present examples of consistent sets of units for thermal parameters.

Table 1.2 System of SI units for thermal problems

Length m m m cm
Density kg/m
3 3
10 kg/m
3 6
10 kg/m
3 6
10 g/cm
3

Stress Pa kPa MPa bar

Temperature K K K K
Time s s s s
Specific Heat J/(kg K) 10
−3 J/(kg K) 10
−6 J/(kg K) 10
−6 cal/(g K)

Thermal Conductivity W/(mK) W/(mK) W/(mK)

2 4
(cal/s)/cm K
Convective Heat-Trans. Coefficient W/(m K)
2 (W/m K)
2 W/(m K)
2 2
(cal/s)/(cm K)
Radiative Heat-Trans. Coefficient W/(m K )
2 4 W/(m K )
2 4 W/(m K )
2 4 (cal/s)/cm K
2 4

Flux Strength W/m

2 W/m
2 W/m
2 (cal/s)/cm
2

Source Strength W/m

3 W/m
3 W/m
3 (cal/s)/cm
3

Decay Constant s
−1 s
−1 s
−1 s
−1

Table 1.3 System of Imperial units for thermal problems

Length ft in
Density slugs/ft3 snails/in3
Stress lbf psi
Temperature R R
Time hr hr
Specific Heat (32.17)−1 Btu/(1b R) (32.17)−1 Btu/(1b R)
Thermal Conductivity (Btu/hr)/(ft R) (Btu/hr)/(in R)
Convective Heat-Transfer Coefficient (Btu/hr)/(ft2 R) (Btu/hr)/(in2 R)
Radiative Heat-Transfer Coefficient (Btu/hr)/(ft2 R4 ) (Btu/hr)/(in2 R4 )
Flux Strength (Btu/hr)/ft2 (Btu/hr)/in2
Source Strength (Btu/hr)/ft3 (Btu/hr)/in3
Decay Constant hr−1 hr−1

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 28 Optional Features

where:1K = 1.8 R;
1J = 0.239 cal = 9.48 × 10−4 Btu;
1J/kg K = 2.39 × 10−4 btu/1b R;
1W = 1 J/s = 0.239 cal/s = 3.412 Btu/hr;
1W/m K = 0.578 Btu/(ft/hr R); and
1W/m2 K = 0.176 Btu/ft2 hr R.

Note that temperatures may be quoted in the more common units of ◦ C (instead of K) or ◦ F (instead
of R), where:

Temp(◦ C) = 59 ∗ [Temp(◦ F) − 32];

Temp(◦ F) = [1.8 Temp(◦ C)] + 32;
Temp(◦ C) = Temp(K) − 273; and
Temp(◦ F) = Temp(R) − 460.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 29

1.1.6 Verification Examples

Several verification problems are presented to demonstrate the thermal model in 3DEC. The data
files for these examples are contained in the “\Options\Thermal” directory.
1.1.6.1 Conduction in a Plane Sheet

A plane sheet of thickness L = 1 m is initially at a constant temperature of 0◦ C. One side of the

sheet is exposed to a constant temperature of 100◦ C, while the other side is kept at 0◦ C. The
sheet eventually reaches an equilibrium state at a constant heat flux and unchanging temperature
distribution.
The analytical solution to this problem for the transient temperature distribution is given by Crank
(1975),

∞  
z 2  −κn2 π 2 t/L2 T2 cos(nπ) − T1 nπz
T (z, t) = T1 + (T2 − T1 ) + e sin (1.57)
L π n L
n=1

where: T1 is the temperature at one face of the sheet;

T2 is the temperature at the other face of the sheet;
L is the width of the sheet;
t is time;
z is distance across the sheet; and
κ is equal to k/(ρCp ), where
k is the thermal conductivity;
ρ is the density; and
Cp is the specific heat.

For T2 = 0, the solution becomes

∞  
T (z, t) z 2  −κn2 π 2 t/L2 sin nπL z
= 1− − e (1.58)
T1 L π n
n=1

The thermal conductivity for this example is 1.6 W/m◦ C, the specific heat is 0.2 J/kg◦ C, the mass
density of the material is 1000 kg/m3 , and the temperature, T , is 100◦ C.
The analytical solution is programmed as a FISH function for direct comparison to the numerical
results at selected thermal times. The analytical and numerical temperature results for these times
are stored in tables.

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 30 Optional Features

In the 3DEC model, the sheet is defined as a column of 25 zones. A constant temperature boundary
of 100◦ C is applied at the face located at z = 0, and a constant temperature boundary of 0◦ C is
applied at the face located at z = 1. The model grid is shown in Figure 1.1:

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0rGGG
pGrelG,lrG03:,G:S,0

 :0 
r

Figure 1.1 3DEC grid for conduction in a plane sheet

Example 1.1 contains the 3DEC data file for this problem using the explicit formulation to obtain
the solution. Example 1.2 contains the data file using the implicit formulation. The comparison of
analytical and numerical temperatures at three thermal times for the explicit solution is shown in
Figure 1.2; the comparison for the implicit solution is shown in Figure 1.3. Normalized temperature
(T /T1 ) is plotted versus normalized distance (z/L) in the two figures, where Tables 2, 4 and 6 contain
the analytical solution for temperatures, and Tables 1, 3 and 5 contain the 3DEC solutions. The
three thermal times are 1.455, 7.273 and 72.73 seconds for the explicit solution, and 1.455, 11.45
and 71.45 seconds for the implicit solution. The solution has reached the equilibrium thermal state
by the last time in each case. For both solution formulations, the difference between analytical and
numerical temperatures at steady state is less than 0.1%.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 31

Example 1.1 Conduction in a plane sheet – explicit solution

new
; ---------------------------------------------------------
; conduction in a plane sheet
; explicit solution
; ---------------------------------------------------------
config thermal
;
title
Thermal conduction in a plane sheet - explicit solution
;
poly reg 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 1
plot create plot ’Blocks’
plot block
plot reset
;
prop mat 1 dens 1000.0
prop mat 1 k 6667 g 4000
prop jmat 1 jkn 1000 jks 1000
;
prop mat 1 cond 1.6 spec_heat 0.2
prop mat 1 thexp 1e-5
;
gen quad ndiv 1 1 25 single_quad
;
apply thermal temp 100 range z -0.01 0.01
apply thermal temp 0 range z 0.99 1.01
;
hist thtime
hist temp 0 0 0
hist temp 0 0 0.5
hist temp 0 0 1
;
set mech off
set thermal on
;
list apply
list grid therm
;
; --- fish constants ---
def cons
c_cond = 1.6 ; conductivity
c_dens = 1000. ; density
c_sph = 0.2 ; specific heat

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 32 Optional Features

length = 1. ; wall thickness

t1 = 100. ; wall temperature, face 1
tabn = -1
tabe = 0
overl = 1. / length
d = c_cond / (c_dens * c_sph)
dol2 = d * overl * overl
top = 2. / pi
pi2 = pi * pi
n_max = 100 ; max number of terms -exact solution
teps = 1.e-5 ; small value compared to 1
end
def num_sol
tabn = tabn + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
ib_ = block_head
loop while ib_ # 0
gp_ = b_gp(ib_)
loop while gp_ # 0
rad = sqrt(gp_x(gp_)ˆ2 + gp_y(gp_)ˆ2) * overl
if rad < 1.e-4 then
x = gp_z(gp_) * overl
table(tabn,x) = gp_temp(gp_) / t1
end_if
gp_ = gp_next(gp_)
end_loop
ib_ = b_next(ib_)
end_loop
end
def ana_sol
tabe = tabe + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
ib_ = block_head
loop while ib_ # 0
gp_ = b_gp(ib_)
loop while gp_ # 0
rad = sqrt(gp_x(gp_)ˆ2 + gp_y(gp_)ˆ2) * overl
if rad < 1.e-4 then
x = gp_z(gp_) * overl
n = 0
nit = 0
tsum = 0.0
tsumo = 0.0
converge = 0

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 33

loop while n < n_max

n = n + 1
fn = float(n)
term = sin(pi*x*fn) * exp(-tp2*fn*fn) / fn
tsum = tsumo + term
dddd = abs(term)
if dddd < 1.0e-20 then
nit = n
table(tabe,x) = 1. - x - top * tsum
converge = 1
n = n_max
else
tsumo = tsum
end_if
end_loop
if converge = 0 then
ii = out(’ not converged: x= ’ + string(x) + ’ t = ’ + string(thtime))
exit
end_if
end_if
gp_ = gp_next(gp_)
end_loop
ib_ = b_next(ib_)
end_loop
end
;
; --- settings ---
set mech off
set thermal on
; --- test ---
cyc 20
@cons
@num_sol
@ana_sol
cyc 80
@num_sol
@ana_sol
cyc 900
@num_sol
@ana_sol
;
list apply
list grid thermal
;
table 1 name ’3DEC 0.3 sec’
table 3 name ’3DEC 1.5 sec’

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 34 Optional Features

table 5 name ’3DEC 15 sec’

table 2 name ’Analytical 0.3 sec’
table 4 name ’Analytical 1.5 sec’
table 6 name ’Analytical 15 sec’
plot create plot ’Table’
pl table 1 style mark 2 3 style mark 4 line style dash &
5 style mark 6 line style dot &
xaxis label ’Z/L’ yaxis label ’T/T1’
ret


E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0rGGG 
pGrelG,lrG03:,G:S,04

r0,0Gi,0 
p04    0Gi,0
,0,0riS0
.04    0riS0 
S0,0rS00
e04    0rS00














          


Figure 1.2 Comparison of temperatures for the explicit-solution algorithm

(Tables 2, 4 and 6 = analytic solution; Tables 1, 3 and 5 = 3DEC
solution)

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 35

Example 1.2 Conduction in a plane sheet – implicit solution

new
; ---------------------------------------------------------
; conduction in a plane sheet
; implicit solution
; ---------------------------------------------------------
config thermal
;
title
Thermal conduction in a plane sheet - implicit solution
;
poly reg 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 1
plot create plot ’Blocks’
plot block
plot reset
;
prop mat 1 dens 1000.0
prop mat 1 k 6667 g 4000
prop jmat 1 jkn 1000 jks 1000
;
prop mat 1 cond 1.6 spec_heat 0.2
prop mat 1 thexp 1e-5
;
gen quad ndiv 1 1 25 single_quad
;
apply thermal temp 100 range z -0.01 0.01
apply thermal temp 0 range z 0.99 1.01
;
hist thtime
hist temp 0 0 0
hist temp 0 0 0.5
hist temp 0 0 1
;
set mech off
set thermal on
;
list apply
list grid therm
;
; --- fish constants ---
def cons
c_cond = 1.6 ; conductivity
c_dens = 1000. ; density
c_sph = 0.2 ; specific heat

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 36 Optional Features

length = 1. ; wall thickness

t1 = 100. ; wall temperature, face 1
tabn = -1
tabe = 0
overl = 1. / length
d = c_cond / (c_dens * c_sph)
dol2 = d * overl * overl
top = 2. / pi
pi2 = pi * pi
n_max = 100 ; max number of terms -exact solution
teps = 1.e-5 ; small value compared to 1
end
def num_sol
tabn = tabn + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
ib_ = block_head
loop while ib_ # 0
gp_ = b_gp(ib_)
loop while gp_ # 0
rad = sqrt(gp_x(gp_)ˆ2 + gp_y(gp_)ˆ2) * overl
if rad < 1.e-4 then
x = gp_z(gp_) * overl
table(tabn,x) = gp_temp(gp_) / t1
end_if
gp_ = gp_next(gp_)
end_loop
ib_ = b_next(ib_)
end_loop
end
def ana_sol
tabe = tabe + 2
t_hat = thtime * dol2
tp2 = t_hat * pi2
ib_ = block_head
loop while ib_ # 0
gp_ = b_gp(ib_)
loop while gp_ # 0
rad = sqrt(gp_x(gp_)ˆ2 + gp_y(gp_)ˆ2) * overl
if rad < 1.e-4 then
x = gp_z(gp_) * overl
n = 0
nit = 0
tsum = 0.0
tsumo = 0.0
converge = 0

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 37

loop while n < n_max

n = n + 1
fn = float(n)
term = sin(pi*x*fn) * exp(-tp2*fn*fn) / fn
tsum = tsumo + term
dddd = abs(term)
if dddd < 1.0e-20 then
nit = n
table(tabe,x) = 1. - x - top * tsum
converge = 1
n = n_max
else
tsumo = tsum
end_if
end_loop
if converge = 0 then
ii = out(’ not converged: x= ’ + string(x) + ’ t = ’ + string(thtime))
exit
end_if
end_if
gp_ = gp_next(gp_)
end_loop
ib_ = b_next(ib_)
end_loop
end
;
; --- settings ---
set mech off
set thermal on
; --- test ---
cyc 20
@cons
@num_sol
@ana_sol
;
; --- then switch to implicit ---
set th_implicit on
set thdt 1.e-1
cyc 15
@num_sol
@ana_sol
cyc 151
@num_sol
@ana_sol
;
list apply

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 38 Optional Features

list grid thermal

;
table 1 name ’3DEC 0.3 sec’
table 3 name ’3DEC 1.5 sec’
table 5 name ’3DEC 15 sec’
table 2 name ’Analytical 0.3 sec’
table 4 name ’Analytical 1.5 sec’
table 6 name ’Analytical 15 sec’
plot create plot ’Table’
pl table 1 style mark 2 3 style mark 4 line style dash &
5 style mark 6 line style dot &
xaxis label ’Z/L’ yaxis label ’T/T1’
ret


E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0r-e 
pGrelG,lrG0-:,G:S.0y

r0,0Gi,0 
p0y    0Gi,0
,0,0riS0
.0y    0riS0 
S0,0rS00
e0y    0rS00














          


Figure 1.3 Comparison of temperatures for the implicit-solution algorithm

(Tables 2, 4 and 6 = analytic solution; Tables 1, 3 and 5 = 3DEC
solution)

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 39

1.1.6.2 Heating of a Hollow Cylinder

A hollow cylinder of infinite length is initially at a constant temperature of 0◦ C. The inner radius
of the cylinder is exposed to a constant temperature of 100◦ C, and the outer radius is kept at 0◦ C.
The problem is to determine the temperatures and thermally induced stresses in the cylinder when
the equilibrium thermal state is reached.
Nowacki (1962) provides the solution to this problem in terms of the temperatures and radial,
tangential and axial stresses at the steady-state thermal state:

T (r) ln(b/r)
= (1.59)
Ta ln(b/a)

σr (r) ln(b/r) (b/r)2 − 1
= − − (1.60)
mGTa ln(b/a) (b/a)2 − 1

σt (r) ln(b/r) − 1 (b/r)2 + 1
= − + (1.61)
mGTa ln(b/a) (b/a)2 − 1
   
σa (r) 2 ln(b/r) − 2(λ+G)
λ
λ 2
= − + (1.62)
mGTa ln(b/a) 2λ + G (b/a)2 − 1

where: T = temperature;
r = radial distance from the cylinder center;
a = inner radius of the cylinder;
b = outer radius of the cylinder;
Ta = temperature at the inner radius;
σr = radial stress;
σt = tangential stress;
σa = axial stress;
3Kαt
m = λ+2G ;

λ = K − 23 G;
K is the bulk modulus;
G is the shear modulus; and
αt is the linear thermal expansion coefficient.

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 40 Optional Features

The analytical solutions for temperature and stresses are programmed as FISH functions in the
3DEC data file. The analytical and numerical results can then be compared directly in tables.
The following properties are prescribed for this example:
Geometry
inner radius of cylinder (a) 1.0 m
outer radius of cylinder (b) 2.0 m

Material Properties
density (ρ) 2000 kg/m3
specific heat (Cp ) 880.0 J/kg ◦ C
thermal conductivity (k) 4.2 W/m ◦ C
linear thermal expansion coefficient (αt ) 5.4 × 10−6 / ◦ C
shear modulus (G) 28.0 GPa
bulk modulus (K) 48.0 GPa

A thin quarter-section of the cylinder is modeled with 3DEC. Figure 1.4 shows the 3DEC grid.
A constant-temperature boundary of 100◦ C is specified for the inner radius of the model; the
temperature at the outer radius is specified to be 0◦ C.
The 3DEC model can be run as either an uncoupled or a coupled thermal-mechanical analysis. For a
thermal-elastic analysis, it is more efficient to perform an uncoupled analysis. This is demonstrated
by running both uncoupled and coupled models for this problem. We first run the model in an
uncoupled mode: the thermal calculation is performed first to reach the equilibrium heat-flux state;
then the thermally induced mechanical stresses are calculated. The 3DEC data file is listed in
Example 1.3.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 41

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
07G7r
pGrelG,lrG0-8,G8S70

 80 
r

Figure 1.4 3DEC grid for heating of a hollow cylinder

Example 1.3 Heating of a hollow cylinder

new
; ---------------------------------------------------------
; heating of a hollow cylinder
; ---------------------------------------------------------
config thermal
title
Heating of a hollow cylinder
;
def genb
xc = 0.0
zc = 0.0
ya = 0.0
yb = 0.1
dang = pi / (12.0 * 2.0)
dr = 0.1
ri = 1.0
re = 2.0
loop i (1, 12)
ang = dang * float(i-1)
angn = dang * float(i)
rr = ri

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 42 Optional Features

rrn = re
x1 = xc + rr * cos(ang)
z1 = zc + rr * sin(ang)
x2 = xc + rrn * cos(ang)
z2 = zc + rrn * sin(ang)
x3 = xc + rrn * cos(angn)
z3 = zc + rrn * sin(angn)
x4 = xc + rr * cos(angn)
z4 = zc + rr * sin(angn)
command
poly prism &
a @x1 @ya @z1 @x2 @ya @z2 @x3 @ya @z3 @x4 @ya @z4 &
b @x1 @yb @z1 @x2 @yb @z2 @x3 @yb @z3 @x4 @yb @z4
endcommand
endloop
end
;
@genb

plot create plot ’Blocks’

plot block
plot reset
;
join
;
gen quad ndiv 1 1 20 single_quad
;
prop mat 1 dens 2000.0
prop mat 1 k 48e9 g 28e9
prop jmat 1 jkn 1000 jks 1000
;
prop mat 1 cond 4.2 spec_heat 880
prop mat 1 thexp 5.4e-6
;
bou zvel 0.0 range z -0.01 0.01
bou xvel 0.0 range x -0.01 0.01
bou yvel 0.0 range y -0.01 0.01
bou yvel 0.0 range y 0.09 0.11
;
apply thermal temp 100 range cyl end1 0 -0.01 0 end2 0 0.11 0 rad 0.99 1.01
apply thermal temp 0 range cyl end1 0 -0.01 0 end2 0 0.11 0 rad 1.99 2.01
;
hist thtime
hist temp 1 0 0
hist temp 1.5 0 0
hist temp 2 0 0

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 43

hist temp 0 0 1.5

hist szz 1 0 0
hist szz 1.5 0 0
hist szz 2 0 0
;
; --- settings ---
; uncoupled analysis
set mech off
set thermal on
solve
;
set mech on
set thermal off
solve
step 1000
;
set thermal on
;
; coupled analysis
; set mech on
; set thermal on
; set mech ratio 1e-3
; set thermal ratio 1e-3
; set mech substep 10000 auto ; slave
; solve
;
; --- fish constants ---
def gcons ; geometrical constants
c_b = 2.
n1 = 10
y1 = 1. / float(n1)
eps = 1.e-4
y1m = y1 - eps
y1p = y1 + eps
end
@gcons
;
def cons
c_g = 28e9 ; shear modulus
c_k = 48e9 ; bulk modulus
c_al = 5.4e-6 ; coefficient of thermal expansion
t1 = 100. ; boundary temperature
oc1 = 1. / ln(c_b)
oc2 = 1. / (c_b * c_b - 1.)
oc3 = 0.5 * (c_k - c_g * 2. / 3.)/(c_k + c_g / 3.)
c_mmu = c_g * (3. * c_k * c_al) / (c_k + 4. * c_g / 3.)

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 44 Optional Features

tab1 = 1 ; numerical temperature

tab2 = 2 ; analytical temperature
tab3 = 3 ; numerical radial stress
tab4 = 4 ; analytical radial stress
tab5 = 5 ; numerical tangential stress
tab6 = 6 ; analytical tangential stress
tab7 = 7 ; numerical axial stress
tab8 = 8 ; analytical axial stress
end
@cons
def num_solt
ib_ = block_head
loop while ib_ # 0
gp_ = b_gp(ib_)
loop while gp_ # 0
rad = sqrt(gp_y(gp_)ˆ2 + gp_z(gp_)ˆ2)
if rad < 1.e-4 then
x = gp_x(gp_)
table(tab1,x) = gp_temp(gp_) / t1
end_if
gp_ = gp_next(gp_)
end_loop
ib_ = b_next(ib_)
end_loop
end
def ana_solt
nn = 0
ib_ = block_head
loop while ib_ # 0
gp_ = b_gp(ib_)
loop while gp_ # 0
rad = sqrt(gp_y(gp_)ˆ2 + gp_z(gp_)ˆ2)
if rad < 1.e-4 then
x = gp_x(gp_)
table(tab2,x) = ln(c_b / x) * oc1
nn = nn + 1
end_if
gp_ = gp_next(gp_)
end_loop
ib_ = b_next(ib_)
end_loop
;
; nn = 11
;
end
def num_solst ; table tab1 must be available

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 45

ns = 1
loop while ns < nn
x = (xtable(tab1,ns) + xtable(tab1,ns+1)) * 0.5
; p_z = z_near(x,0.,0.)
p_z = z_near(x,0.05,0.)
xc = z_x(p_z)
zc = z_z(p_z)
ra2 = xc*xc + zc*zc
ra = sqrt(ra2)
xtable(tab3,ns) = ra
val=(z_sxx(p_z)*xc*xc + z_szz(p_z)*zc*zc + 2.*z_sxz(p_z)*xc*zc)/ra2
ytable(tab3,ns) = val / (c_mmu * t1)

xtable(tab5,ns) = ra
val=(z_sxx(p_z)*zc*zc + z_szz(p_z)*xc*xc - 2.*z_sxz(p_z)*xc*zc)/ra2
ytable(tab5,ns) = val / (c_mmu * t1)

xtable(tab7,ns) = ra
val=z_syy(p_z)
ytable(tab7,ns) = val / (c_mmu * t1)

xtable(9,ns) = ra
val=((z_szz(p_z) - z_sxx(p_z))*xc*zc + z_sxz(p_z)*(xc*xc-zc*zc))/ra2
ytable(9,ns) = val / (c_mmu * t1)

ns = ns + 1
end_loop
end
def ana_solst ; table tab1 must be available
ns = 1
loop while ns < nn
x = (xtable(tab1,ns) + xtable(tab1,ns+1)) * 0.5
p_z = z_near(x,0.,0.)
xc = z_x(p_z)
zc = z_z(p_z)
ra = sqrt(xc*xc + zc*zc)
xtable(tab4,ns) = ra
val = c_b / ra
ytable(tab4,ns) = - (ln(val)*oc1 - (val * val - 1.)*oc2)

xtable(tab6,ns) = ra
ytable(tab6,ns) = - ((ln(val)-1.)*oc1 + (val * val + 1.)*oc2)

xtable(tab8,ns) = ra
ytable(tab8,ns) = - ((2.*ln(val)-oc3)*oc1 + 2.*oc3*oc2)

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1 - 46 Optional Features

ns = ns + 1
end_loop
end
;
@num_solt
@ana_solt
table 1 name ’3DEC’
table 2 name ’Analytical’
plot create plot ’Table
plot table 1 style mark 2 xaxis label ’Radius’ &
Yaxis Label ’Temperature (T/Ta)’
@num_solst
@ana_solst
;
table 3 name ’3DEC Radial Stress’
table 4 name ’Analytical Radial Stress’
table 5 name ’3DEC Tangential Stress’
table 6 name ’Analytical Tangential Stress’
table 7 name ’3DEC Axial Stress’
table 8 name ’Analytical Axial Stress’
plot create plot ’Table2’
pl table 3 style mark 4 5 style mark 6 line style dash &
7 style mark 8 line style dot &
xaxis label ’Radius’ yaxis label ’Stress’
;
ret

Numerical and analytical results are compared in Figures 1.5 and 1.6. The figures show plots of
tables for temperature and stress distributions through the cylinder at steady state. The plotted
values are normalized: temperature is normalized by dividing by Ta ; and stress is normalized by
dividing by mGTa . Figure 1.5 shows the temperature distribution at steady state for the numerical
and analytical solutions. The agreement is very good, with an error of less than 0.1%. A comparison
of results for radial, tangential and axial stress distributions at steady state is provided in Figure 1.6.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 47


E
pGre00   0 u0 i
07G7r 
pGrelG,lrG0-8,G8S70y

r0, 
p0y   



 dr l t













         
 

Figure 1.5 Temperature distribution at steady state for heating of a hollow

cylinder

E
pGre004   0 u0 i 
07G7r
pGrelG,lrG0-8,G8S-0R


,0,yT40  0
.0R    0  0 
S0,yT40    0
e0R    0    0
70,yT40R  0 
-0R    0R  0


















        

 

Figure 1.6 Radial stress distribution at steady state for heating of a hollow
cylinder

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1 - 48 Optional Features

1.1.6.3 Infinite Line Heat Source in an Infinite Medium

An infinite line heat source with a constant heat-generating rate is located in an infinite elastic
medium with constant thermal properties. Nowacki (1962) provides the solution to this problem
for the transient values of temperature, radial and tangential stress and radial displacement:

T 1
= E1 (ξ ) (1.63)
a 4π

σr 1 1 − e−ξ
= E1 (ξ ) + (1.64)
bG −4π ξ

σt 1 1 − e−ξ
= E1 (ξ ) − (1.65)
bG −4π ξ

ur 1 1 − e−ξ
= r E1 (ξ ) + (1.66)
bL 8π ξ

r2
where: ξ = 4κt ;
r = radial distance to the line source;
k
κ = ρCp ;

a = qk ;
9K
b = αt a 3K+4G ;
L = unit length; and
 ∞ −u
E1 (ξ ) = ξ e u du is the exponential integral.

The material properties and initial and boundary conditions for this example are defined:

Material Properties
density (ρ) 2000 kg/m3
shear modulus (G) 30 GPa
bulk modulus (K) 50 GPa
specific heat (Cp ) 1000 J/kg ◦ C
thermal conductivity (k) 4 W/m ◦ C
linear thermal expansion coefficient (αt ) 5 × 10−6 /◦ C

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 49

Initial/Boundary Conditions
initial uniform temperature 0◦ C
initial stress state no stresses

Line Heat Source

energy release per unit length (q) 1600 W/m

It is assumed that the material properties are temperature-independent, the thermal output of the
source is constant (no decay), and the line heat source is of infinite length.
1
The 3DEC grid for this problem is a radial sector of 192 of a cylindrical disk. The axis of the line
heat source coincides with the y-axis of the model. The grid is radially graded in the xz-plane; a
single layer of zones is used in the y-direction. The model is shown in Figure 1.7. A FISH function
(fxface.fis) is used to apply the roller boundaries at the inclined boundary.

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
03,GGG
pGrelG,lrG03:,p:p,0

 :0 

Figure 1.7 3DEC model for an infinite line heat source

The line heat source is represented in 3DEC by a series of point sources. The intensity of the
point-source strength, qp , is adjusted to produce an equivalent intensity to the line heat source, Q.
For a quarter-symmetry model and one zone thickness, the relation between qp and Q is

QL 1
qp = · (1.67)
2 192

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 50 Optional Features

where L = length of the line source represented in the model.

The constant heat source is applied at the gridpoints along the y-axis; the boundaries of the model
are kept adiabatic to represent thermal symmetry planes. The grid is extended to a distance of 500 m
from the y-axis to simulate infinity. The far boundary is mechanically fixed; the boundaries along
the x-axis and z-axis are fixed to represent shear-free symmetry planes.
An uncoupled analysis is recommended because the material is elastic. The problem is first ther-
mally solved to an age of one year (SET mech off) using the implicit-solution algorithm, and then
stepped to mechanical equilibrium (SET thermal off mech on). The heat source produces uniform
motion in one direction for this problem. This case is better-suited to combined damping than
local damping (see Section 1.2.3.2 in Theory and Background). The 3DEC data file is listed in
Example 1.4.
The dimensionless form of the analytical solutions in Eqs. (1.63) to (1.66) is programmed as FISH
functions in Example 1.4. The analytical and numerical values can then be compared directly in
tables. The analytical solutions for temperature and radial displacement are programmed in the
FISH function ana soltu, and for radial and tangential stresses in ana solst. The exponen-
tial integral function used in the analytical solutions is programmed as a separate FISH function
contained in file “EXP INT.FIS” (see Example 1.5). The dimensionless values for the numerical
results for temperature and displacement are calculated in the FISH function num soltu, and
for radial and tangential stresses in num solst. The numerical values for dimensionless tem-
perature, radial stress, tangential stress and radial displacement are stored in Tables 1, 3, 5 and 7,
respectively. The analytical values for dimensionless temperature, radial stress, tangential stress
and radial displacement are stored in Tables 2, 4, 6 and 8, respectively.
The results for temperature, radial displacement and radial and tangential stress distributions at 1
year are presented in the table plots in Figures 1.8 through 1.10. The difference between numerical
and analytical solutions for temperature is less than 2%. The comparison is also good for displace-
ments and for stresses; the difference is generally less than 2% within 100 m of the heat source.
The fixed outer boundary has an influence on the numerical results further from the source, but the
agreement is still reasonable.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 51

E 
pGre00)   0 u0 i
03,GGG 
pGrelG,lrG03:,p:p,0d
 
rr0,y)0  0c MrGGC
rp0    0  0c MrGGC





 dlbrl














        

 dlbl

Figure 1.8 Temperature distribution at 1 year

E 
pGre00   0 u0 i
03,GGG
pGrelrrlGp0.4GG4GG0!

 
80   0  0    
30    0  0    


  d d-te-


















          
 d-tT

Figure 1.9 Radial displacement distribution at 1 year

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 52 Optional Features

E 
pGre00   0 u0 i
03,GGG
pGrelG,lrG03:,p:p.0y 

,0,0  0 
.0    0  0
S0,0    0
e0    0    0 





dlbel















       
 dlb

Figure 1.10 Radial and tangential stress distributions at 1 year

Example 1.4 Infinite line heat source in an infinite medium

new
; ---------------------------------------------------------
; infinite line source in an infinite medium
;
; ---------------------------------------------------------
config thermal
;
title
Infinite line source in an infinite medium
;
set atol 0.001
;
def gcons ; geometrical constants
c_b = 500.
n1 = 48
n2 = 24
y1 = 1.
eps = 1.e-4
meps = - eps
y1m = y1 - eps
y1p = y1 + eps

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 53

end
@gcons
;
def genb
xc = 0.0
zc = 0.0
ya = 0.0
yb = y1
dang = pi / (float(n2) * 2.0)
;
rr = 1.0
dr = 1.0
loop i (2,n1)
dr = dr * 1.1
rr = rr + dr
endloop
dr1 = 500.0 / rr
;
loop i (1, n1)
i1 = i
ang = 0.0
angn = dang
if i = 1
rr = 0.0
dr = dr1
else
rr = rrn
dr = dr * 1.1
endif
rrn = rr + dr
x1 = xc + rr * cos(ang)
z1 = zc + rr * sin(ang)
x2 = xc + rrn * cos(ang)
z2 = zc + rrn * sin(ang)
x3 = xc + rrn * cos(angn)
z3 = zc + rrn * sin(angn)
x4 = xc + rr * cos(angn)
z4 = zc + rr * sin(angn)
if i = 1
command
poly prism &
a @x1 @ya @z1 @x2 @ya @z2 @x3 @ya @z3 &
b @x1 @yb @z1 @x2 @yb @z2 @x3 @yb @z3
endcommand
else
command

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1 - 54 Optional Features

poly prism &

a @x1 @ya @z1 @x2 @ya @z2 @x3 @ya @z3 @x4 @ya @z4 &
b @x1 @yb @z1 @x2 @yb @z2 @x3 @yb @z3 @x4 @yb @z4
endcommand
endif
endloop
end
;
@genb
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
;
; split block to refine mesh near source
jset dip 90 dd 90 or 0.25 0.0 0.0
;
join
;
gen ed 10 range x 0 0.5
gen quad ndiv 1 1 1 single_quad
;
prop mat 1 dens 2000.0
prop mat 1 k 5.0e10 g 3.0e10
prop jmat 1 jkn 1000 jks 1000
;
prop mat 1 cond 4.0 spec_heat 1000
prop mat 1 thexp 5.0e-6
;
bou zvel 0.0 range z -0.001 0.001
bou xvel 0.0 range x -0.001 0.001
bou yvel 0.0 range y -0.01 0.01
bou yvel 0.0 range y 0.99 1.01

; point source strength for 1/48 of quarter space

def ppp
ppp = 1600.0 * 0.5 / (float(n2) * 4.0)
end
@ppp
;
apply thermal psource @ppp range x -0.001 0.001
;
hist thtime
hist temp 0 0 0
hist temp 1 0 0
hist temp 5 0 0
hist temp 10 0 0

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THERMAL OPTION 1 - 55

hist temp 500 0 0

hist xdis 1 0 0
hist xdis 10 0 0
hist xdis 10 0 0
hist xdis 500 0 0
hist sxx 1 0 0
hist sxx 10 0 0
hist sxx 10 0 0
;
; --- settings ---
; uncoupled analysis
set mech off
set thermal on
set th_implicit on
set thdt 500
step 63000

save ils_year0.3dsav
rest ils_year0.3dsav

;
; apply roller boundaries on plane at angle DANG
call fxface.3dfis
def fxnnn
ang = dang
fxfacenx = -sin(dang)
fxfaceny = 0.0
fxfacenz = cos(dang)
end
@fxnnn
;
set fishcall 10 @fxface
set mech on
set thermal off
step 20000
save ils_year1.3dsav
;
def cons
c_g = 3.e10 ; shear modulus
c_k = 5.e10 ; bulk modulus
c_al = 5.e-6 ; coefficient of thermal expansion
c_tk = 4. ; conductivity
c_cp = 1e3 ; specific heat
q_q = 1600. ; line source intensity
c_density = 2.e3
kappa = c_tk / (c_density * c_cp)

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 56 Optional Features

o4c = 1. / (4. * kappa)

o4p = 1. / (4. * pi)
o8p = o4p * 0.5
val = c_k / c_g
c_nu = (3.*val-2.)/(6.*val+2.)
c_eta = c_al * c_g * (1.+c_nu)/(1.-c_nu)
a_a = q_q / c_tk
b_b = c_eta * a_a
c_c = b_b * 1.0 / c_g
a_a = 1. / a_a
b_b = 1. / b_b
c_c = 1. / c_c
tab1 = 1 ; numerical temperature
tab2 = 2 ; analytical temperature
tab3 = 3 ; numerical radial stress
tab4 = 4 ; analytical radial stress
tab5 = 5 ; numerical tangential stress
tab6 = 6 ; analytical tangential stress
tab7 = 7 ; numerical radial displacement
tab8 = 8 ; analytical radial displacement
tab11 = 11 ; numerical temperature (x<100)
tab12 = 12 ; analytical temperature (x<100)
tv = thtime
ii = out(’ thtime = ’ +string(thtime))
end
@cons
;
call exp_int.3dfis
;
def num_soltu
nn = 0
ib_ = block_head
loop while ib_ # 0
gp_ = b_gp(ib_)
loop while gp_ # 0
rad = sqrt(gp_y(gp_)ˆ2 + gp_z(gp_)ˆ2)
if rad < 1.e-4 then
x = gp_x(gp_)
if x > 1.0e-4
table(tab1,x) = gp_temp(gp_) * a_a
nn = nn + 1
if x < 100.0
table(tab11,x) = table(tab1,x)
endif
endif
table(tab7,x) = gp_xdis(gp_) * c_c

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 57

end_if
gp_ = gp_next(gp_)
end_loop
ib_ = b_next(ib_)
end_loop
nn = 48
end
def ana_soltu
ib_ = block_head
loop while ib_ # 0
gp_ = b_gp(ib_)
loop while gp_ # 0
rad = sqrt(gp_y(gp_)ˆ2 + gp_z(gp_)ˆ2)
if rad < 1.e-4 then
x = gp_x(gp_)
if x = 0.0 then
table(tab2,x) = 0.0
table(tab8,x) = 0.0
else
e_val = x * x * o4c / tv
val = exp_int
table(tab2,x) = val * o4p
table(tab8,x) = (val + (1.-exp(-e_val))/e_val) * x * o8p
if x < 100.0
table(tab12,x) = table(tab2,x)
endif
; nn = nn + 1
end_if
end_if
gp_ = gp_next(gp_)
end_loop
ib_ = b_next(ib_)
end_loop
end

def num_solst ; table tab1 must be available

ns = 1
loop while ns < nn
x = (xtable(tab1,ns) + xtable(tab1,ns+1)) * 0.5
p_z = z_near(x,0.,0.)
xc = z_x(p_z)
zc = z_z(p_z)
ra2 = xc*xc + zc*zc
if ra2#0
ra = sqrt(ra2)
xtable(tab3,ns) = ra

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 58 Optional Features

val = (z_sxx(p_z)*xc*xc + z_szz(p_z)*zc*zc + 2.*z_sxz(p_z)*xc*zc)/ra2

ytable(tab3,ns) = val * b_b
xtable(tab5,ns) = ra
val = (z_sxx(p_z)*zc*zc + z_szz(p_z)*xc*xc - 2.*z_sxz(p_z)*xc*zc)/ra2
ytable(tab5,ns) = val * b_b
endif
ns = ns + 1
end_loop
end
def ana_solst ; table tab1 must be available
ns = 1
loop while ns < nn
x = (xtable(tab1,ns) + xtable(tab1,ns+1)) * 0.5
if x#0
p_z = z_near(x,0.,0.)
xc = z_x(p_z)
zc = z_z(p_z)
ra2 = xc*xc + zc*zc
ra = sqrt(ra2)
if ra2#0
e_val = ra2 * o4c / tv
val1 = exp_int
if e_val#0
val2 = (1. - exp(-e_val)) / e_val
xtable(tab4,ns) = ra
ytable(tab4,ns) = - (val1 + val2) * o4p
xtable(tab6,ns) = ra
ytable(tab6,ns) = - (val1 - val2) * o4p
endif
endif
endif
ns = ns + 1
end_loop
end

@num_soltu
@ana_soltu
@num_solst
@ana_solst

save ils.3dsav
;
table 1 name ’3DEC temperature’
table 2 name ’analytical temperature’
table 3 name ’3DEC radial stress’
table 4 name ’analytical radial stress’

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 59

table 5 name ’3DEC tangential stress’

table 6 name ’analytical tangential stress’
table 7 name ’numerical radial displacement’
table 8 name ’analytical radial displacement’
table 11 name ’3DEC temperature (radius<100)’
table 12 name ’analytical temperature (radius<100)’
plot create plot Temperature1
plot table 1 style mark 2 xaxis label ’Radius’ yaxis label ’Temperature’
;pause key
plot create plot Temperature2
plot table 11 style mark 12 xaxis label ’Radius’ &
yaxis label ’Temperature’
;pause key
plot create plot RadDisp
plot table 7 style mark 8 xaxis label ’Radius’ &
yaxis label ’Radial displacement’
;pause key
plot create plot Stress
plot table 3 style mark 4 5 style mark 6 xaxis label ’Radius’ &
yaxis label ’Stress’
ret

Example 1.5 Exponential integral function – “exp int.3dfis”

; --- Exponential integral E1(e_val) ---
; Input : e_val
;
def exp_int
if e_val < 0.0 then
ii=out(’ Argument of Exponential function must be positive’)
exit
end_if
if e_val = 0.0 then
exp_int = 1.e12
exit
endif
if e_val < 1. then
e_e1 = ((.00107857 * e_val - 0.00976004) * e_val + .05519968) * e_val
e_e1 = ((e_e1 - .24991055) * e_val + .99999193) * e_val
exp_int = e_e1 - .57721566 - ln(e_val)
else
e_e1 = .250621 + e_val * (2.334733 + e_val)
e_e1 = e_e1 / (1.681534 + e_val * (3.330657 + e_val))
exp_int = e_e1 * exp(-e_val) / e_val

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 60 Optional Features

end_if
end

Example 1.6 FISH function – “fxface.3dfis”

; =========================================================
;
; --- fix faces normal to vector ---
;
; vector : (fxfacenx, fxfaceny, fxfacenz)
; tolerance : fxfacetol
; default = 1.5e-4 (1 degree)
;
; =========================================================
;
;
def fxface0
fxfacenx = 1.0
fxfaceny = 0.0
fxfacenz = 0.0
fxfacetol = 1.5e-4 ; 1.5e-4 = 1.0-cosine(1 degree)
iwr = 0
end
@fxface0
;
; =========================================================
def fxface
;
dd = fxfacenx*fxfacenx + fxfaceny*fxfaceny + fxfacenz*fxfacenz
if dd <= 0.0
ii=out(’ error in fxface : zero normal ’)
exit
else
fxfacenx = fxfacenx / dd
fxfaceny = fxfaceny / dd
fxfacenz = fxfacenz / dd
endif
; --- block number ---
ib_ = fc_arg(0)
if ib_ <= 0
ii=out(’ error in fxface : zero block number ’)
endif
fa_ = b_face(ib_)
loop while fa_ # 0
vnx = face_nx(fa_)

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 61

vny = face_ny(fa_)
vnz = face_nz(fa_)
dd = vnx*fxfacenx + vny*fxfaceny + vnz*fxfacenz
dd1 = 1.0 - dd
if dd1 < fxfacetol
loop j (1,3)
gp_ = face_gp(fa_,j)
;
gpvx = gp_xvel(gp_)
gpvy = gp_yvel(gp_)
gpvz = gp_zvel(gp_)
dd = gpvx*fxfacenx + gpvy*fxfaceny + gpvz*fxfacenz
gp_xvel(gp_) = gp_xvel(gp_) - dd * fxfacenx
gp_yvel(gp_) = gp_yvel(gp_) - dd * fxfaceny
gp_zvel(gp_) = gp_zvel(gp_) - dd * fxfacenz
;
endloop
endif
fa_ = face_next(fa_)
end_loop
end
; =========================================================

1.1.6.4 One-Dimensional Thermal Transport by Conduction and Convection

This validation problem illustrates the effect of forward and backward convection, at steady-state,
on the conduction temperature profile in a saturated plane sheet. The saturated sheet has thickness
a, and length L, and is modeled in 3DEC by a horizontal fracture of aperture a. The fracture is
located in a block that is kept adiabatic for the simulation. A system of axes is defined, with the
x-axis pointing to the right along the fracture plane, and the origin located on the left boundary of
the model. The temperature boundary conditions correspond to fixed temperatures: T1 at x = 0, and
T2 at x = L. There is a constant fluid flux in the sheet, corresponding to a fixed boundary pressure
P1 to the left, and P2 to the right of the model.
At steady state, the one-dimensional form of the energy balance equation may be expressed as

d 2 T̂ d T̂
2
− Pe =0 (1.68)
d x̂ d x̂

where T̂ = (T − T1 )/T1 , x̂ = x/L, and Pe is the problem Peclet number. The Peclet number is
defined as

Pe = ρf Cf qL/kfT (1.69)

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 62 Optional Features

where ρf is fluid density, Cf is fluid specific heat, q is fluid specific discharge and kfT is fluid
thermal conductivity. The specific discharge is given by the formula

a 2 dp
q=− (1.70)
12μ dx

where μ is fluid viscosity.

The solution (with boundary conditions T̂ = 0 at x̂ = 0, and T̂ = T̂2 at x̂ = 1) is

ePe x̂ − 1
T̂ = T̂2 (1.71)
ePe − 1

The values for the model properties and parameters are listed in Table 1.4:

Table 1.4 Property and parameter values for the example

ρf 1000 kg/m3
Cf 4200 J/kg/C
kfT 0.6 W/m/C
μ 10−3 Pa.sec
a 10−4 m
L 4m
T1 150 C
T2 130 C
P1 Case 1: 0.2 Pa, case 2: 0 Pa
P2 Case 1: 0 Pa, case 2: 0.2 Pa

The Peclet number for the simulation has a magnitude of 1.17. The thermal flux is oriented to
the right. Two simulations are carried out: case 1 is for convection and conduction acting in the
same direction (flow to the right); and case 2 for flow to the left (convection and conduction acting
in opposite directions). The 3DEC temperature profile for steady-state conduction-convection is
compared to the analytical solution in Figures 1.11 and 1.12. As may be seen from these figures,
the match is very good for this particular simulation. The steady-state conduction solution (straight
line) is also sketched on the plots. Compared to the conduction solution, the effect of fluid flow is
seen to displace the temperature curves in the direction of the flow.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 63


E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0rGGG 
pGrelG,lrG03:,p:pS0d

rG0, 
rr0d   
rp00


 cb2l













        
 

Figure 1.11 Analytical and numerical temperature profiles, compared to con-

duction solution at steady state – case 1


E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0rGGG 
3gp,gpGre0r:p,:.30!

rG0, 
rr0y   
rp00

 cb2l














        
 

Figure 1.12 Analytical and numerical temperature profiles, compared to con-

duction solution at steady state – case 2

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 64 Optional Features

The data file is listed in Example 1.7:

Example 1.7 One-dimensional thermal transport by conduction and convection

new
title
Conduction/advection in a fracture
config thermal gw
def setup
_rhow = 1000
_cw = 4200.0
_kt = 0.6
_visc = 1e-3
_a = 1e-4
_x1 = -2.0
_x2 = 2.0
_t1 = 150.0
_t2 = 130.0
_right = 1
; for flow to the left set _right = 0
_right = 0
if _right = 1 then
_p1 = 0.2
_p2 = 0.0
else
_p1 = 0.0
_p2 = 0.2
endif
; --- for no flow (no convection), use:
; _p1 = 0.0
; _p2 = 0.0
;
_L = _x2 - _x1
_perm = _aˆ2/(12.0*_visc)
_q = -_perm*(_p2-_p1)/_L
_Pe = _rhow*_cw*_q*_L/_kt
end
@setup
;
poly reg @_x1 @_x2 -1 1 -1 1
jset dip 0 dd 0
;
prop jmat=1 azero=@_a ares=1e-5 amax=1e-3
fluid bulk=2e9 density=@_rhow visc=@_visc
; --- new fluid properties ---
fluid fspec_heat=@_cw fth_cond=@_kt fht_coe=0

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 65

; --- fluid flow settings ---

gen edge 1.0
;
prop mat 1 dens 1400 k 6e9 g 4e9
prop mat 1 kn 1e9 ks 1e9
prop mat 1 thexp 1.0e-5 cond 0.2 spec_heat 800
;
hist thtime
hist temp -2 1 1
hist temp 0 1 1
hist temp 0 -1 -1
hist temp 2 1 1
; --- initial and boundary thermal conditions for the fluid ---
insitu fluidtemp @_t2
boun fluidtemp @_t2 range x 2.0
boun fluidtemp @_t1 range x -2.0
; --- establish steady state flow field ---
insitu pp 0
boun pp @_p2 range x 2.0
boun pp @_p1 range x -2.0
set flow on therm off mech off
cycle 500
plot flowplanecontour pp
plot set dip 0 dd 0
pause key
plot flowplanecontour temperature
; --- run the thermal simulation ---
set convection on
set flow off therm on mech off
cyc 500
save adv.sav
; --- check results ---
ca flow.fin
def _ftemp
pnt = knot_head
loop while pnt # 0
_y = fmem(pnt+$knxyz+1)
if _y < -0.99 then
_x = fmem(pnt+$knxyz)
_t = fmem(pnt+$knottt)
table(10,_x) = _t
_xhat = (_x+2.0)/_L
if _p1 = _p2 then
term = _xhat
else
term = (exp(_Pe*_xhat)-1.0)/(exp(_Pe)-1.0)

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 66 Optional Features

endif
_anat = _t1+(_t2-_t1)*term
table(11,_x) = _anat
table(12,_x) = _t1+(_t2-_t1)*_xhat
end_if
pnt = xmem(pnt)
end_loop
end
@_ftemp
table 10 name ’3DEC’
Table 11 name ’Analytic’
Table 12 name ’Steady State’
title
1D conduction/convection
plot table 10 style mark 11 12 xaxis label ’Location’ &
yaxis label ’Temperature’
ret

The stability of the numerical convection algorithm implemented in 3DEC can be appreciated by
exercising the data file for various values of the grid Peclet and Courant numbers. For example,
by varying grid density and specific discharge, the values of grid Peclet and Courant numbers for
which the algorithm is stable may be derived (see Section 1.1.3.4 on numerical stability).

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 67

1.1.7 Application Examples

1.1.7.1 Thermal Convection in a Fracture at Depth

The 3DEC thermal-fluid coupling algorithm was used to analyze thermal conduction and convection
in a single fracture at depth.
The properties were
Rock
Density 2700 kg/m3
Bulk modulus 6 × 109 Pa
Shear modulus 4 × 109 Pa
Thermal conductivity 2.8 W/m/◦ C
Specific heat 800 J/kg/◦ C

Fracture
Normal stiffness 1 × 109 Pa/m
Shear stiffness 1 × 109 Pa/m
Aperture 2 × 10−5 m

Fluid
Density 1000 kg/m3
Bulk modulus 2 × 109 Pa
Viscosity 1 × 10−3 Pa.sec
Thermal conductivity 0.6 W/m/◦ C
Specific heat 4200 J/kg/◦ C

Fluid-rock heat transfer coefficient 1, 10, 100 W/m2 /◦ C.

The in situ conditions, intended to simulate a depth of 4500-5000 m, were
Vertical stress 10 × 106 Pa
Fluid pressure 5 × 106 Pa
Rock temperature 190 ◦ C
Fluid temperature 190 ◦ C

A cubic domain of 0.5 × 0.5 × 0.5 m was modeled, with the fracture placed on the plane at y = 0.
The block geometry is shown in Figure 1.13, and the block discretization in Figure 1.14.

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 68 Optional Features

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0erSGG
pGrelrGlpS0rr3pG3r,0

 30 
r

Figure 1.13 3DEC block geometry for thermal convection in a fracture

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0erSGG
pGrelrGlpS0rr3pG3r,0

 30 
r

Figure 1.14 3DEC block discretization for thermal convection in a fracture

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 69

In the first stage, the in situ conditions were applied without fluid flow or temperature gradients. In
the second stage, fluid flow at the in situ temperature was simulated by applying an inflow into the
fracture of 2 × 10−7 m3 /s/m at the boundary x = −0.25 m, and an equal outflow at the boundary
x = 0.25 m. These boundary conditions produced a uniform flow velocity of 0.01 m/s in the fracture,
as shown in Figure 1.15. The corresponding fluid pressure distribution is presented in Figure 1.16.

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0erSGG
pGrelG,lrG0-8,,8r509
u
 80GiGrGGre3
 80rier3G5

Figure 1.15 Flow velocity in the fracture

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 70 Optional Features

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0erSGG
pGrelrGlpS0rr4p.4r508
i!i
SiG5SGnGe
SiGeGGnGe
SiG.GGnGe
SiGpGGnGe
SiGGGGnGe
.i:-GGnGe
.i:eGGnGe
.i:.GGnGe
.i:pSGnGe

Figure 1.16 Fluid pressure distribution in the fracture

In the third stage, the injection fluid temperature was fixed at 50◦ C at the boundary x = −0.25 m.
At the outflow boundary, the fluid temperature was left free. The rock temperature was fixed at
190◦ C on all of the model outer boundaries.
Three values were considered for the heat transfer coefficient, h:
(i) Case 1: h = 1 W/m2 /◦ C
In this case, the fluid temperature is progressively reduced along the fracture, reaching a value
of about 150◦ C at the outflow boundary. The final distribution of fluid temperatures is shown in
Figure 1.17.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 71

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0erSGG
pGrelG,lrG0-8,,8r-0+
 
ri.e-5nGp
ri.SGGnGp
ri.GGGnGp
ri,SGGnGp
ri,GGGnGp
ripSGGnGp
ripGGGnGp
rirSGGnGp
rirGGGnGp
riGSGGnGp
riGGGGnGp
3iSGGGnGr
3iGGGGnGr
-iSGGGnGr
-iGGGGnGr
5iSGGGnGr
5iGGGGnGr
eiSGGGnGr
eiGGGGnGr
SiSGGGnGr
SiGGGGnGr

Figure 1.17 Fluid temperature contours at steady state – case 1

The history of fluid temperature at 5 points along the fracture is presented in Figure 1.18. The rock
temperature histories at 3 locations along the fracture are shown in Figure 1.19 (on a different time
scale). The maximum drop of rock temperature is about 4◦ C near the center of the joint, as the rock
temperature is kept fixed at 190◦ C on the model boundaries, including the fluid outflow boundary
at x = 0.25 m.

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 72 Optional Features

E 
pGre00   0 u0 i
0erSGG 
pGrelG,lrG0-8,,8r-04
" 
rG0"  00#0M0lGirS
rr0"  00#0M0lGirG
rp0"  00#0M00GiGG
r,0"  00#0M0lGirG 
r.0"  00#0M0lGipS
$i0

e  e2aH

















           
e2ao

Figure 1.18 History of fluid temperature at 5 monitoring points – case 1

E 
pGre00   0 u0 i
0erSGG 
pGrelG,lrG0-8,,8r-04
" 
p0"  00#0M0lGir 
,0"  00#0M00GiG
.0"  00#0M00Gir 
$i0

e  e2uH














     

e2us

Figure 1.19 History of rock temperature at 3 monitoring points – case 1

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 73

(ii) Case 2: h = 10 W/m2 /◦ C

For this value of the heat transfer coefficient, the heat flux from the rock to the fluid is higher.
The fluid temperature approaches the rock temperature of 190 ◦ C a short distance from the inflow
boundary. The final distribution of fluid temperatures is shown in Figure 1.20:

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0erSGG
pGrelG,lrG0-8,,8r307
 
ri-33pnGp
ri-GGGnGp
ri5GGGnGp
rieGGGnGp
riSGGGnGp
ri.GGGnGp
ri,GGGnGp
ripGGGnGp
rirGGGnGp
riGGGGnGp
3iGGGGnGr
-iGGGGnGr
5iGGGGnGr
eiGGGGnGr
SiGGGGnGr

Figure 1.20 Fluid temperature contours at steady state – case 2

The history of fluid temperature at the same 5 points along the fracture is presented in Figure 1.21.
The rock temperature histories at 3 locations along the fracture are plotted in Figure 1.22.

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 74 Optional Features

E
pGre00v   0 u0 i
0erSGG
pGrelG,lrG0-8,,8r30= 
"
rG0"  00#0A0lGirS
rr0"  00#0A0lGirG
rp0"  00#0A00GiGG 
r,0"  00#0A0lGirG
r.0"  00#0A0lGipS
$i0

e  e2aH












           
e2ao

Figure 1.21 History of fluid temperature at 5 monitoring points – case 2


E
pGre00v   0 u0 i
0erSGG
pGrelG,lrG0-8,,8r30= 
"
p0"  00#0A0lGir
,0"  00#0A00GiG 
.0"  00#0A00Gir
$i0

e  e2uH











     

e2us

Figure 1.22 History of rock temperature at 3 monitoring points – case 2

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 75

(iii) Case 3: h = 100 W/m2 /◦ C

The larger value of the heat transfer coefficient increases the heat flux from the rock to the fluid.
The fluid temperature approaches the rock temperature of 190◦ C more rapidly than in the previous
case. The final distribution of fluid temperatures is shown in Figure 1.23:

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0erSGG
pGrelG,lrG0-8,,8r307
 
ri3GGGnGp
ri-GGGnGp
ri5GGGnGp
rieGGGnGp
riSGGGnGp
ri.GGGnGp
ri,GGGnGp
ripGGGnGp
rirGGGnGp
riGGGGnGp
3iGGGGnGr
-iGGGGnGr
5iGGGGnGr
eiGGGGnGr
SiGGGGnGr

Figure 1.23 Fluid temperature contours at steady state – case 3

The history of fluid temperature at 5 points along the fracture is presented in Figure 1.24, and
the rock temperature histories at 3 locations are presented in Figure 1.25. (Note that the rock
temperature is kept at 190◦ C on all model boundaries.)

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 76 Optional Features

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0erSGG 
pGrelG,lrG0-8,,8pG04
"
rG0"  00#0M0lGirS 
rr0"  00#0M0lGirG
rp0"  00#0M00GiGG
r,0"  00#0M0lGirG
r.0"  00#0M0lGipS 
$i0

e  e2aH













           
e2ao

Figure 1.24 History of fluid temperature at 5 monitoring points – case 3

E
pGre00   0 u0 i

0erSGG
pGrelG,lrG0-8,,8pG04

"
p0"  00#0M0lGir
,0"  00#0M00GiG 
.0"  00#0M00Gir
$i0

e  e2uH

















     

e2us

Figure 1.25 History of rock temperature at 3 monitoring points – case 3

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 77

Example 1.8 Thermal convection in a fracture at depth

new
; ---------------------------------------------------------
; 2 block test, fluid/rock heat transfer
; domain : 5.00x5.00x5.00 m
; depth : z=0 corresponds to a depth of 4750 m
; ---------------------------------------------------------
config thermal gw
;
poly reg -0.250 0.250 -0.250 0.250 -0.250 0.250
jset dip 0 dd 0 or 0 0 0
;
; joint/fluid properties
prop jmat 1 azero 1e-4 ares 2e-5 amax 1e-3
fluid bulk 2e9 density 1000 visc 1e-3
; --- fluid thermal properties ---
fluid fspec_heat 4200.0 fth_cond 0.6 fht_coe 10
;
gen ed 0.08
;
; rock properties
prop mat 1 dens 2700 k 6e9 g 4e9
prop jmat 1 jkn 1e9 jks 1e9
prop mat 1 thexp 1.0e-5 cond 2.8 spec_heat 800
;
; --- rock temperature : initial and boundary conditions ---
ini temp 190
apply thermal temp 190 range x -0.25
apply thermal temp 190 range x 0.25
apply thermal temp 190 range y -0.25
apply thermal temp 190 range y 0.25
apply thermal temp 190 range z -0.25
apply thermal temp 190 range z 0.25
;
; --- intial fluid temperature ---
insitu fluidtemp 190
; --- insitu stresses and fluid pp ---
insitu stress 0,0,-10e6 0,0,0
insitu pp 5e6
; --- mechanical boundary conditions ---
bound stress 0 0 -10e6 0 0 0 range z .24 .26
bound xvel 0 range x -0.25
bound xvel 0 range x 0.25
bound yvel 0 range y -0.25

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 78 Optional Features

bound yvel 0 range y 0.25

bound zvel 0 range z -0.25
; --- histories ---
hist thtime ;hist1
hist temp -0.1 0.0 0.0 ;hist2
hist temp 0.0 0.0 0.0 ;hist3
hist temp 0.1 0.0 0.0 ;hist4
hist zdis 0.0 0.0 0.250 ;hist5
hist syy 0.0 0.0 0.0 ;hist6
hist label 2 ’Location at X = -0.1’
hist label 3 ’Location at X = 0.0’
hist label 4 ’Location at X = 0.1’
; --- initial state ---
cy 500
;
save thf4a.3dsav
;
; --- fluid flow at uniform temperature ---
; fluid flow: boundary conditions
; aperture = 2e-5 m
; velocity = 1e-2 m/s
; discharge = 2e-7
;
bou disch 2e-7 range x -.251 -.249
bou disch -2e-7 range x .249 .251
;
set flow on therm off mech on
;
hist fluid_pp 0 0 0 ;hist7
hist fluid_pp 0.250 0 0 ;hist8
hist fluid_pp -0.250 0 0 ;hist9
;
cy 1000
hist fluid_temp -0.150 0 0 ;hist10
hist fluid_temp -0.100 0 0 ;hist11
hist fluid_temp 0 0 0 ;hist12
hist fluid_temp 0.100 0 0 ;hist13
hist fluid_temp 0.250 0 0 ;hist14
hist label 10 ’Location at X = -0.15’
hist label 11 ’Location at X = -0.10’
hist label 12 ’Location at X = 0.00’
hist label 13 ’Location at X = -0.10’
hist label 14 ’Location at X = -0.25’
hist nc 200
save thf4b.3dsav
;

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 79

plot create plot Blocks

plot block
plot set dip 120 dd 30 roll 0
;pause key
;
Plot create plot PorePressure
plot fpcontour pp
plot set dip 0 dd 0 roll 270
;pause key
;
Plot create plot Velocity
plot fpvector velocity
plot set dip 0 dd 0 roll 270
;pause key
;
; --- thermal fluid coupling --- h = 1 ---
title
fluid/rock heat transfer h = 1.0
; (thermal fluid boundary conditions)
; fix temperature at x=-0.250
bou fluidtemp 50 range x -0.25
; heat transfer coefficient h
fluid fht_coe 1.0
; run only thermal analysis
; (keep flow and stresses unchanged)
set flow off therm on mech off
; set fluid-rock thermal interaction
set convection on
;
cycle 60000
save thf4_h1.3dsav
;
plot create plot Temp
plot fpcontour temp
plot set dip 0 dd 0 roll 270

plot create plot FluidTemp

plot hist 10 11 12 13 14 yaxis label ’Fluid Temperature’

plot create plot RockTemp

plot history 2 3 4 yaxis label ’Rock Temperature’
;
; --- thermal fluid coupling --- h = 10 ---
rest thf4b.3dsav
title
fluid/rock heat transfer h = 10.0

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 80 Optional Features

; (thermal fluid boundary conditions)

; fix temperature at x=-0.250
bou fluidtemp 50 range x -.25
; heat transfer coefficient h
fluid fht_coe 10.0
; run only thermal analysis
; (keep flow and stresses unchanged)
set flow off therm on mech off
; set fluid-rock thermal interaction
set convection on
cycle 60000
save thf4_h10.3dsav
;
plot current plot Temp
plot clear
plot fpcontour temp
plot set dip 0 dd 0 roll 270

plot current plot FluidTemp

plot clear
plot hist 10 11 12 13 14 yaxis label ’Fluid Temperature’

plot current plot RockTemp

plot clear
plot history 2 3 4 yaxis label ’Rock Temperature’

;
; --- thermal fluid coupling --- h = 100 ---
rest thf4b.3dsav
title
fluid/rock heat transfer h = 100.0
; (thermal fluid boundary conditions)
; fix temperature at x=-0.250
bou fluidtemp 50 range x -.25
; heat transfer coefficient h
fluid fht_coe 100.0
; run only thermal analysis
; (keep flow and stresses unchanged)
set flow off therm on mech off
; set fluid-rock thermal interaction
set convection on
cycle 60000
save thf4_h100.3dsav
;
plot current plot Temp
plot clear

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 81

plot fpcontour temp

plot set dip 0 dd 0 roll 270

plot current plot FluidTemp

plot clear
plot hist 10 11 12 13 14 yaxis label ’Fluid Temperature’

plot current plot RockTemp

plot clear
plot history 2 3 4 yaxis label ’Rock Temperature’
ret

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 82 Optional Features

1.2 Analytical Thermal Formulation

1.2.1 Introduction

3DEC is a three-dimensional distinct element code for the analysis of problems in solid mechanics.
A simple thermomechanical option has been added to the code. The main purpose of this option is to
model heat sources embedded in the material. Point heat sources are placed either individually, or in
lines and grids, to represent point, line or plane sources. The stress changes caused by temperature
changes (due to thermal expansion) are equilibrated by using the standard mechanical 3DEC code
to take a “snapshot” of the transient stresses at different times.
Note that the thermal option in 3DEC does not provide a general-purpose heat transfer program. Its
purpose is specifically oriented to solving design problems associated with nuclear waste disposal.
There are several advantages to this method of calculating the temperatures:
(1) The infinite thermal boundary is automatically incorporated.
(2) The calculation procedure is extremely quick, compared with finite element
or other numerical methods.
(3) The calculation of the temperature at any time is independent of the temperature
at previous times, so that it takes the same amount of time to calculate the
solution regardless of the time at which the solution is required.
(4) The mechanical boundary conditions can be applied correctly, because the
standard mechanical logic in 3DEC is used for the mechanical part of the
calculation.
(5) Inhomogeneous and anisotropic mechanical properties can be used.
There are two limitations:
(1) The material is assumed to be thermally homogeneous and isotropic with
constant properties.
(2) Only a few restricted thermal boundary conditions can be applied (i.e., adia-
batic and isothermal planes).
In spite of the limitations of this method of solving thermal-mechanical problems, the thermal
coupling in 3DEC is still a powerful aid when solving problems with heat sources, such as nuclear
waste isolation problems.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 83

1.2.2 Theory

The basic theoretical components of thermomechanical computations in 3DEC are the determination
of the temperature distribution due to the heat sources, and the calculation of the stresses induced
by these temperature changes.
1.2.2.1 The Temperature Due to a Distribution of Heat Sources

The simplest possible heat source to consider is the instantaneous point source in an infinite medium.
The temperature distribution resulting from such a source is given by the simple expression (Carslaw
and Jaeger 1959)

−r 2
Q exp 4Kt
T = 3/2
(1.72)
8(πKt) ρ Cp

where:Q = quantity of heat in source;

ρ = density;
Cp = specific heat;
K = thermal diffusivity = k/ρ Cp ;
r = distance between source and observation point;
t = time after source released; and
k = thermal conductivity.

The temperature at a point due to any spatial and temporal distribution of heat sources can be found
by considering the distribution as a sum of point sources. In the limit, as the number of sources
becomes large, and the strength of each is reduced so that the total heat output is constant, the sum
becomes an integral over time, space (a line, surface or volume) or both.
For example, the temperature due to a time-dependent heat source of strength Q(t) can be written
as


Q(t ) e−r /4K(t − t )
t 2
1
T = dt (1.73)
8(πK)3/2 ρ Cp o (t − t )3/2

For the case that the heat source is constant (i.e., Q(t) = H (t), where H (t) is the Heaviside step
function, Eq. (1.73) becomes (Carslaw and Jaeger 1959))

1 r
T = erfc (1.74)
4π Kr (4Kt)1/2

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 84 Optional Features

where erfc(x) = complementary error function.

The temperature due to an exponentially decaying source of the form Q(t) = Qe exp(−At) is given
by (Crouch and McClain 1978)


Qe −r 2 ir
T = exp · Re w(At)1/2 + (1.75)
4πKr 4Kt (4Kt)1/2

2iz
 inf e−t
2
where:w(z) = π 0 z2 −t 2
dt, I m{z} > 0 ;
Re{z} = real part of z;
I m{z} = imaginary part of z; and
i = (−1)1/2 .

Line, plane and volume sources can be written as integrals of a point source over a distance, an
area or a volume, respectively. In this way, completely arbitrary distributions of heat sources can
be represented by analytical expressions. In 3DEC, the integration is carried out numerically, so
that line sources are represented as a series of point sources along a line segment, and plane sources
are represented by a grid of point sources. Thus, to determine the temperature at any point at any
instant in time, a sum of terms must be computed, where each term is of the form of the right-hand
side of Eq. (1.74) or Eq. (1.75).
1.2.2.2 Boundary Conditions

Because the point source solution used in 3DEC applies to an infinite domain, only a limited number
of boundary conditions can be specified. Orthogonal isothermal planes and planes of symmetry
can be specified. Symmetric planes are effected by applying an image source of equal magnitude
on the opposite side of the plane of symmetry, while isothermal planes require an image source
of opposite sign (a heat sink). The effect of having two equal sources is that each produces a flux
across the plane, but the fluxes are in opposite directions so that the net flux is zero. Thus, symmetry
planes are equivalent to adiabatic boundaries. If the sources are of opposite sign, on the other hand,
the net flux is from the heat source to the heat sink. In this case, the two sources each contribute to
the temperature at any point on the plane, but because the two contributions are equal in magnitude
but of opposite sign, the effect is a net temperature change of zero (i.e., an isothermal condition).
Figure 1.26 illustrates the application of adiabatic and isothermal conditions on different faces,
and shows the heat source combinations required to achieve these conditions. Each boundary plane
specified doubles the amount of calculation required, so that if three different planes are defined,
eight times as much calculation is needed.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 85

Adiabatic

Isothermal

Adiabatic
=

Isothermal

Isothermal
=
Adiabatic

Figure 1.26 Adiabatic and isothermal boundaries and their 3DEC represen-
tations

1.2.2.3 Thermally Induced Stress Changes

If a small unconstrained volume of material at a constant temperature is heated to a new temperature,

it will expand, with the volume change calculated as

V = βT (1.76)
where:β = volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion;
= 3α, where α is the linear expansion coefficient; and
T = temperature change.

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 86 Optional Features

If this volume is then recompressed back to its original size, the mean stress change will be

σij = −δij K V (1.77)

where:K = bulk modulus; and
δij = Kronecker delta function (1 for i = j ; 0, otherwise).

The negative sign reflects the convention that compressive stresses are negative.
The thermally induced stresses need not be in equilibrium since they depend solely on temperature
changes. If they are not in equilibrium, the medium will move to restore equilibrium. For example,
if two thin metal plates are bolted together but separated by a thin insulator and one is heated, the
thermally induced stresses in the heated plate will cause it to expand, producing bending as the
other plate resists the motion. One plate will be in tension, and the other in compression.

1.2.3 Application in 3DEC

Heat source characteristics such as number of components, decay constants and proportion of
each component are input by the user. In addition, the location and initial strengths of arrays of
point sources are input. Symmetric and isothermal planes may be specified, as may the initial
temperature and the time at which the solution is desired. Once all these quantities have been input,
the temperatures are calculated at all gridpoints. Stresses are not calculated at this stage, but when
mechanical cycling is performed, the average temperature change for each zone is used to calculate
a stress change in each zone. The stress state thus produced will not be in equilibrium, but is treated
as an initial condition for the mechanical calculation. The standard 3DEC mechanical calculation
is used to reach equilibrium.

1.2.4 Input Commands

The commands required for solving thermal-mechanical problems with 3DEC are given below. The
commands are presented in groups corresponding to their function. It is assumed that the reader is
familiar with 3DEC and the mechanical calculations it performs, as well as the input commands.
1.2.4.1 Preparing to Solve a Thermal Problem

THERMAL This command must be input before any polygons are specified. It ensures that
room is allocated in 3DEC program memory for the temperatures and other thermal
variables.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 87

1.2.4.2 Defining Heat Sources

SET thtolerance = tol

The keyword thtolerance can be used to set a tolerance for thermal calculations. This
tolerance can be thought of as a source radius. If temperatures are calculated at a
point closer than tol to a gridpoint, the distance from the gridpoint is taken as tol.
This is necessary because the analytical solution for the temperature due to a point
source goes to infinity as the distance from the source goes to zero. The default
tolerance is 0.1.
SOURCE This command is used to input general information about the heat source components.
The POINT, LINE and GRID commands are used to position these sources, and to
specify their initial strengths and starting times.
The first item following the SOURCE command must be the identifying number, input
as type nt. The other information required is the number of components making up
the source (ncomponents), their decay constants (decay) and the fraction (fraction)
of the initial source strength produced by each component. Before the fractions and
decay constants can be input, the number of components must be specified, either
on the same command line or on a preceding one. The sum of all the fractions must
be 1.
The following are examples of valid commands. All of these sets have the same
effect.

SOURCE TYPE 1 NCOMP 2

SOURCE TYPE 1 COMP 1 FRAC .4
SOURCE TYPE 1 COMP 1 DECAY 1e-10
SOURCE TYPE 1 COMP 2 FRAC .6
SOURCE TYPE 1 COMP 2 DECAY 2e-10
SOU TY 1 NC 2
SOU TY 1 CO 1 FR.4
SOU TY 1 CO 1 DE 1e-10
SOU TY 1 CO 2 FR.6
SOU TY 1 CO 2 DE 2e-10
SOU TY 1 NC 2 CO 1 FR .4 DEC 1e-10 CO 2 FR .6 DEC 2e-10
SOURCE TYPE 1 NCOMP 2
SOURCE TYPE 1 COMP 1 FRAC .4 DECAY 1e-10
SOURCE TYPE 1 COMP 2 FRAC .6 DECAY 2e-10
SOURCE TYPE 1 NCOMP 2
SOURCE TYPE 1 COMP 1 FRAC .4 COMP 2 FRAC .6
SOURCE TYPE 1 COMP 1 DECAY 1e-10
SOURCE TYPE 1 COMP 2 DECAY 2e-10

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 88 Optional Features

The following three commands are used to define source locations, strengths and starting times:
GRID x1 y1 z1 x2 y2 z2 x3 y3 z3 type n str s N12 n12 N23 n23 <tstart ts>
A grid of point sources is set up, each of strength str. The source is of type n and starts
at time ts. The grid need not be rectangular. The points (x1,y1,z1), (x2,y2,z2) and
(x3,y3,z3) are the top-left, top-right and bottom-right points of the grid, as illustrated
in Figure 1.27. The number n12 defines the number of points across the grid from
left to right, and n23 defines the number from top to bottom.
Once again, the source may be outside the 3DEC grid. The start time defaults to
zero if not specified, but the type and strength must be specified. The type, strength
and number of sources may be specified in any order.
LINE xb yb zb xe ye ze type n strength s n12 np <tstart ts>
A “line” source consisting of np point sources, each of strength str is placed along
the line beginning at xb,yb,zb and ending at xe,ye,ze. The source is of type n, and
starts at time ts. As with the point source, the source may be outside the 3DEC grid.
The start time defaults to zero if not specified, but the type and strength must be
specified. The type, strength and number of sources may be specified in any order.
POINT x y z type n strength s <tstart ts>
A point source of initial strength str is placed at point x,y,z, which need not be within
the blocks defined by 3DEC. The source is of type n (with components and decay
constants defined by the SOURCE command) and starts at time ts. The start time
defaults to zero if not specified, but the type and strength must be specified. The
type and strength may be specified in any order.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 89

(x, y, z) (x , y , z )

n !=6

(x!, y!, z!)

n = 5
Figure 1.27 A grid of heat sources, input with the command
GRID (10, 10, 10) (20, 20, 20) (20, 0, 10) &
TYP=1 STR=10 N12=5 N23=6

1.2.4.3 Initial and Boundary Conditions

INITEM temp tem <xgrad dtx> <ygrad dty> <zgrad dtz>

The initial temperature and temperature gradients are specified with this command.
The temperature at any point is calculated as

Tgridpoint = tem + dtx ∗ x + dty ∗ y + dtz ∗ z

The following two commands are used to specify boundary conditions:

SYMM <x><y><z>
This command is used to define symmetry planes. For example, the plane defined
by y = 0 is a symmetry plane if the command SYMM y is issued. Symmetry planes
are used to represent adiabatic boundaries.

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 90 Optional Features

ISOTHERM <x><y><z>
This command is used to define isothermal boundary planes. For example, the two
planes defined by x = 0 and y = 0 are isothermal if the command ISOTHERM x y is
issued.
NOTE: A plane cannot simultaneously be an isothermal boundary and a symmetry
plane.
1.2.4.4 Thermal Properties

PROPERTY The thermal diffusivity, conductivity and linear expansion coefficient can be input
using the keywords diffus, cond and thexp. The thermal diffusivity and conductivity
apply to all materials, but the expansion coefficient can be different for different
materials. For this reason, a material number must be given for the latter (see the
PROPERTY command in Section 1 in the Command Reference).
For example, the commands
prop cond=2.1 diffus=2.3e-6
prop mat=1 thexp=3e-6
prop mat=2 thexp=2.7e-6

assign the conductivity and diffusivity of the entire rock mass as 2.1 W/m ◦ C and
2.3e-6 m2 s, but assign different thermal expansion coefficients to different materials.
1.2.4.5 Calculating the Solution

TIME t
The time at which thermal results are to be calculated is input.
THSOLVE The thermal solution is calculated when this command is issued. Temperatures are
calculated at all gridpoints in the model. Stress increments are not calculated at this
point, but are calculated for all zones the next time mechanical cycling is performed.
If the THSOLVE command is not issued but the program detects a change in con-
ditions (such as source parameters or time) when cycling is next performed, it will
automatically update the thermal solution before calculating new stress increments.
1.2.4.6 Output

Temperature contours may be plotted from the vector/contour menu in the graphics mode.
LIST heat
This command provides information about the heat sources, and other information
specific to the thermal option.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 91

LIST temp <range>

This command prints out the temperatures at gridpoints, in a manner similar to the
velocity printout. See the LIST command in Section 1 in the Command Reference
for details.

1.2.5 Verification

First, the temperature distribution due to a single point source is compared with an analytical
solution. Then, to test the thermal logic thoroughly, different combinations of point, line and grid
sources are examined. These results should be expected to agree extremely well with the analytical
solutions, since 3DEC is essentially just evaluating the analytical solutions. These first examples
merely confirm that the coding is correct, and illustrate the use of the program.
Finally, the correctness of the mechanical solution is demonstrated by comparing the stress state
due to a point source with that of a point source in an infinite medium. This is a true test of the
thermomechanical coupling, since the 3DEC mechanical logic is used to equilibrate the stresses.
This test is particularly rigorous because the analytical solution contains a singularity at the source
itself, producing steep gradients around the source.
1.2.5.1 A Single Non-decaying Point Heat Source

Consider a 30 kW heat source, located at the origin, in an infinite medium with the following
properties:

density 1500 kg/m3

specific heat 500 J/kg/C0

thermal conductivity 2.4 W/m/C0

From these properties, a thermal diffusivity of 3.2 × 10−6 m2 /s is calculated.

The following data file is used to calculate the temperature distribution due to this source. The
accuracy of thermal calculations in 3DEC is independent of the mechanical grid, but the temperatures
are calculated at gridpoints, so a grid from which the calculated temperature distribution can be
extracted is specified.

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 92 Optional Features

Example 1.9 Single non-decaying point heat source

new
config thermal
poly brick 0,2 0,2 0,10
jset dip 90 dd 0 num 20 or 0,0,20 spac 2
gen 0,10 0,10 0,10 edge 3.5
sour typ 1, ncomp 2, comp 1 = frac .2, comp 2 = frac .8
prop diffus=3.2e-6 cond=2.4
set thtol 0.01
point 0,0,0 type 1 stre 30000 tstart 0
*
time=2e6
thso
pri temp
pause
time=2e7
thso
pri temp
pause
time=2e11
thso
pri temp
ret

Figure 1.28 shows the results of the 3DEC calculations compared with the analytical solution, which
is obtained using Eq. (1.74). 3DEC uses an analytical expression for the temperature calculations,
so it would be expected that the temperatures would agree exactly. The slight differences are due to
the methods of calculating the complementary error function, erfc(x). This function is not readily
available in computer languages, but must be approximated by polynomials. The polynomial used
to evaluate the analytical solution differs from that used in 3DEC. The difference is less than one
percent everywhere, except at the last few points for a time of 2e6 seconds, where the temperatures
are so small that the difference is not significant. Note that temperatures are only shown at a distance
of 2 m from the source because, if placed closer than this, the singularity at the source location
would dominate the figure.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 93

Temperature Due to a Constant Heat Source

500
t = 2e6
400
Temperature (ºC) t = 2e7

300 t = 2e11

200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance from Source

Figure 1.28 Temperature distribution around a constant heat source

1.2.5.2 Superposition of Several Non-decaying Sources

This data file illustrates the superposition of four different sources, with different strengths and
starting times. Once again, the solution is compared with the analytic solution (Table 1.5), and,
again, the 3DEC results are in excellent agreement. The largest errors are located where only small
temperature changes occur.

Example 1.10 Temperature distribution in the vicinity of several sources

new
config thermal
set th_num off
poly brick 0,2 0,2 0,20
plot block
plot reset
jset dip 0 dd 0 num 20 origin 0,0,20 spac 2
gen edge 3.5
;
; Use two different source specifications to test summing
sour typ 1 ncomp 2 comp 1 frac .2 comp 2 frac .8
sour typ 2 ncomp 2 comp 1 frac .4 comp 2 frac .6
prop mat 1 diffus=3.2e-6 cond=2.4
set thtol 0.01

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 94 Optional Features

;
point 2 2 10 typ 1 stre 7000 tstart 1e7
point 1 2 10 typ 2 stre 10000 tstart 1e7
point 2 1 10 typ 1 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 2 2 5 typ 2 stre 9000 tstart 3e7
;
time 8e6 ; t less than zero for all sources
thso
list temp
set log on
time 1.2e7 ; t=2e6 for two sources
thso
list temp
time 3e7 ; t=2e7 for two,1e7 for one, 0 for other
thso
list temp
set log off
ret

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 95

Table 1.5 Temperature distribution in the vicinity of several sources

t = 1.2e7 t = 3e7
XYZ
3DEC Analytical % error 3DEC Analytical % error
020 0.26 0.29 −8.8 23.31 23.32 −0.04
220 0.28 0.31 −8.2 23.86 23.87 −0.04
200 0.23 0.26 −9.8 22.93 22.95 −0.08
000 0.22 0.24 −10.5 22.41 22.42 −0.06
002 1.29 1.30 −0.4 35.65 35.64 0.02
202 1.40 1.41 −0.2 36.75 36.74 0.01
022 1.59 1.59 0.04 37.47 37.47 0.01
222 1.73 1.73 0.2 38.65 38.64 0.03
224 8.48 8.44 0.4 65.00 64.95 0.08
024 7.69 7.65 0.5 62.12 62.07 0.07
204 6.64 6.60 0.6 60.48 60.43 0.08
004 6.04 6.00 0.6 57.87 57.83 0.07
224 8.48 8.44 0.4 65.00 64.95 0.08
024 7.69 7.65 0.5 62.12 62.07 0.08
204 6.64 6.60 0.6 60.48 60.43 0.08
004 6.04 6.00 0.6 57.87 57.83 0.07
006 22.59 22.6 −0.1 97.5 97.43 0.07
206 25.45 25.5 −0.2 105.0 105.0 0.03
026 31.0 31.1 −0.2 109.9 109.8 0.07
226 35.33 35.4 −0.2 119.0 119.0 0.03
006 22.59 22.6 −0.1 97.5 97.4 0.07
206 25.45 25.5 −0.2 105.0 105.0 0.03
026 31.0 31.1 −0.2 109.9 109.8 0.07
226 35.33 35.4 −0.2 119.0 119.0 0.03
228 145.7 145.7 0.03 271.1 271.1 −0.01
028 114.1 114.1 0.02 222.2 222.2 −0.007
208 79.62 79.7 −0.05 199.5 199.5 −0.007
008 66.71 66.8 −0.09 169.6 169.5 0.03
228 145.7 145.7 0.03 271.1 271.1 −0.01
028 114.1 114.1 0.02 222.2 222.2 −0.007
208 79.62 79.7 −0.05 199.5 199.5 −0.007
008 66.71 66.8 −0.09 169.6 169.5 0.03
2 2 10 23420 23410 0.01 23620 23621 −0.007
0 2 10 325.4 325.4 −0.002 454.2 454.4 −0.05
2 0 10 145.7 145.7 0.03 344.3 344.4 −0.02
0 0 10 114.1 114.1 0.02 237.2 237.2 0.002

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 96 Optional Features

1.2.5.3 Lines and Grids of Sources

To verify the operation of the commands to generate lines and grids of sources, one problem is
solved with three different sets of data. The first file uses points only, the second uses lines, and the
third uses grids. Note how the use of the grid and line commands drastically reduces the amount
of input required. It can easily be verified that these three data sets generate the same temperature
distribution.

Example 1.11 Data file for point sources

new
; Point sources only
config thermal
set th_num off
poly brick 0 2 0 10 0 2
plot block
plot reset
jset dd 0 dip 90 num 20 org 0 20 0 spac 2
gen edge 3.5
;
; Use three different source specifications
sour typ 1 ncomp 2 comp 1 frac .2 comp 2 frac .8
sour typ 2 ncomp 3 comp 1 fr .3 comp 2 fr .5 comp 3 fr .2
sour typ 3 ncomp 1 comp 1 frac 1
prop mat 1 diffus=3.2e-6 cond=2.4
set thtol 0.01
;
point 0.5 0.5 0.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 0.5 0.5 0.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 0.5 0.5 0.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 0.5 1.0 0.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 0.5 1.0 0.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 0.5 1.0 0.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 0.5 1.5 0.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 0.5 1.5 0.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 0.5 1.5 0.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 0.5 0.5 1.0 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 0.5 0.5 1.0 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 0.5 0.5 1.0 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 0.5 1.0 1.0 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 0.5 1.0 1.0 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 0.5 1.0 1.0 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 97

;
point 0.5 1.5 1.0 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 0.5 1.5 1.0 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 0.5 1.5 1.0 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 0.5 0.5 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 0.5 0.5 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 0.5 0.5 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 0.5 1.0 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 0.5 1.0 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 0.5 1.0 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 0.5 1.5 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 0.5 1.5 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 0.5 1.5 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.0 0.5 0.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.0 0.5 0.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.0 0.5 0.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.0 1.0 0.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.0 1.0 0.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.0 1.0 0.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.0 1.5 0.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.0 1.5 0.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.0 1.5 0.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.0 0.5 1.0 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.0 0.5 1.0 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.0 0.5 1.0 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.0 1.0 1.0 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.0 1.0 1.0 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.0 1.0 1.0 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.0 1.5 1.0 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.0 1.5 1.0 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.0 1.5 1.0 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.0 0.5 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.0 0.5 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.0 0.5 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.0 1.0 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 98 Optional Features

point 1.0 1.0 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7

point 1.0 1.0 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.0 1.5 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.0 1.5 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.0 1.5 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.5 0.5 0.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.5 0.5 0.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.5 0.5 0.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.5 1.0 0.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.5 1.0 0.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.5 1.0 0.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.5 1.5 0.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.5 1.5 0.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.5 1.5 0.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.5 0.5 1.0 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.5 0.5 1.0 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.5 0.5 1.0 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.5 1.0 1.0 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.5 1.0 1.0 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.5 1.0 1.0 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.5 1.5 1.0 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.5 1.5 1.0 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.5 1.5 1.0 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.5 0.5 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.5 0.5 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.5 0.5 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.5 1.0 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.5 1.0 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.5 1.0 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
point 1.5 1.5 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
point 1.5 1.5 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
point 1.5 1.5 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
;
time 2.2e7
thso

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 99

set log on
list temp
ret

Example 1.12 Data file for lines of sources

new
; Lines of sources only
config thermal
set th_num off
poly brick 0 2 0 10 0 2
plot block
plot reset
jset dd 0 dip 90 num 20 org 0 20 0 spac 2
gen edge 3.5
;
; Use three different source specifications
sour typ 1 ncomp 2 comp 1 frac .2 comp 2 frac .8
sour typ 2 ncomp 3 comp 1 frac .3 comp 2 frac .5 comp 3 frac .2
sour typ 3 ncomp 1 comp 1 frac 1
prop mat=1 diffus=3.2e-6 cond=2.4
set thtol 0.01
;
line 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7 n12=3
line 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7 n12=3
line 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0 n12=3
;
line 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7 n12=3
line 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7 n12=3
line 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0 n12=3
;
line 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 0.5 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7 n12=3
line 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 0.5 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7 n12=3
line 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 0.5 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0 n12=3
;
;
line 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7 n12=3
line 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7 n12=3
line 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0 n12=3
;
line 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7 n12=3
line 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7 n12=3
line 1.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0 n12=3
;
line 1.5 1.0 0.5 1.5 1.0 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7 n12=3

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 100 Optional Features

line 1.5 1.0 0.5 1.5 1.0 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7 n12=3
line 1.5 1.0 0.5 1.5 1.0 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0 n12=3
;
line 0.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7 n12=3
line 0.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7 n12=3
line 0.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0 n12=3
;
line 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7 n12=3
line 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7 n12=3
line 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0 n12=3
;
line 1.5 1.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7 n12=3
line 1.5 1.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7 n12=3
line 1.5 1.5 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0 n12=3
;
;
time 2.2e7
thso
set log on
list temp
ret

Example 1.13 Data file for grids of sources

new
; grids of sources
config thermal
set th_num off
poly brick 0 2 0 10 0 2
plot block
plot reset
jset dd 0 dip 90 num 20 org 0 20 0 spac 2
gen edge 3.5
; Use three different source specifications
sour typ 1 ncomp 2 comp 1 frac .2 comp 2 frac .8
sour typ 2 ncomp 3 comp 1 fr .3 comp 2 fr .5 comp 3 fr .2
sour typ 3 ncomp 1 comp 1 frac 1
prop mat = 1 diffus=3.2e-6 cond=2.4
set thtol 0.01
;
grid (0.5 0.5 0.5)(0.5 0.5 1.5)(1.5 0.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=3 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
grid (0.5 0.5 0.5)(0.5 0.5 1.5)(1.5 0.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=3 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
grid (0.5 0.5 0.5)(0.5 0.5 1.5)(1.5 0.5 1.5) &

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 101

n12=3 n23=3 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0

;
grid (0.5 1.0 0.5)(0.5 1.0 1.5)(0.5 1.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=2 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
grid (0.5 1.0 0.5)(0.5 1.0 1.5)(0.5 1.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=2 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
grid (0.5 1.0 0.5)(0.5 1.0 1.5)(0.5 1.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=2 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
grid (1.0 1.0 0.5)(1.0 1.0 1.5)(1.0 1.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=2 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
grid (1.0 1.0 0.5)(1.0 1.0 1.5)(1.0 1.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=2 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
grid (1.0 1.0 0.5)(1.0 1.0 1.5)(1.0 1.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=2 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
;
grid (1.5 1.0 0.5)(1.5 1.0 1.5)(1.5 1.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=2 typ 1 stre 3000 tstart 1e7
grid (1.5 1.0 0.5)(1.5 1.0 1.5)(1.5 1.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=2 typ 2 stre 4000 tstart 2e7
grid (1.5 1.0 0.5)(1.5 1.0 1.5)(1.5 1.5 1.5) &
n12=3 n23=2 typ 3 stre 5000 tstart 0
time 2.2e7
thso
set log on
list temp
ret

1.2.5.4 Decaying Sources

The following data file demonstrates the solution for a decaying heat source:

Example 1.14 Temperatures due to a single decaying heat source

new
set log on
config thermal
set th_num off
thermal
poly brick 0 2 0 10 0 2
plot block
plot reset
jset dip 90 dd 0 num 20 origin 0 20 0 spac 2
gen edge 3.5
sour ty 1 nco 2 co 1 frac .2 dec 1.5 co 2 frac .8 dec 1.5

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 102 Optional Features

prop mat = 1 diffus=.166667 cond 5

set thtol 0.01
point 0 0 0 type 1 stre 62.8318e3 tstart 0
;
time 6
thso
list temp
set log off
ret

The resulting temperature distribution is shown in Figure 1.29. The solution was checked against
that given by Eq. (1.75), using tabulated values of w(z) found in Abramowitz and Stegun (1972).
3DEC agrees extremely well with the analytical solution.

Temperature Due to a Decaying Heat Source

14

12

10
Temperature (C)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance From Source (m)

Figure 1.29 Temperature distribution around a decaying heat source

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 103

1.2.5.5 Thermomechanical Effects

The primary purpose of the thermal logic in 3DEC is to examine thermomechanical effects, not
just thermal effects. To test this capability, the response of an infinite medium to an instantaneous
point source is determined.
Nowacki (1962) gives the solution for an instantaneous point source in an infinite medium as

ui = φ,i
(1.78)
 
σij = 2G φ,ij − δij φ,kk

mQ  K

where:φ(R, t) = 4π R erf (β)1/2
;
R = distance from source;
t = time;
α(1+ν)
m = (1−ν) ;
ν = Poisson’s ratio;
G = shear modulus;
β = 4 Kt;
K = thermal diffusivity;
Q = “source strength”
= Qo /ρ Cp ;
Qo = heat released (J );
ρ = density;
Cp = specific heat; and
α = thermal expansion coefficient.

From these equations, we can obtain the stresses and displacements along the z-axis (x = y = 0):


mG 2z 4 z3
σxx = σyy = −V1 + V2 + V3
2πz3 (π)1/2 (π)1/2


mG 4z
σzz = 2V1 − V2
2π z3 (π)1/2

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 104 Optional Features

σxy = σxz = σyz = 0

ux = uy = 0


m V2 V1
uz = 1/2
−
2π z (π) 2z
 
where:V1 (z, t) = Q erf (β)z1/2 ;
 
V2 (z, t) = (β)Q1/2 exp(−z2 /β) ; and
V3 (z, t) = V2 (z, t)/β.

The following material properties and source parameters are used to solve this problem with 3DEC:

thermal conductivity 1 W/m/◦ C

density 2000 kg/m3

specific heat 500 J/kg/◦ C

linear thermal 5 × 10−3 /◦ C

expansion coefficient

Young’s modulus 1.01 GPa

Poisson’s ratio 0.2

The total heat input is 108 J , which in 3DEC is represented by a 100 kW source acting for 1000
seconds. A cube of side 5 m is used to represent one octant of the medium, as shown in Figure 1.30.
For the times at which the solution is obtained here (1 day and 3 days), the model is large enough
to reduce the effect of the boundaries.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 105

Left Face
Fixed in
x - Direction
y
z Front Face
Fixed in
x z - Direction

Heat Source
Bottom Face
Fixed in
y - Direction
Figure 1.30 Conceptual representation of 3DEC block for modeling effect of
point heat source

The data file for this problem is shown:

Example 1.15 Thermomechanical verification of 3DEC

new
;
; Data file for thermomechanical verification of 3DEC
;
set log on
config thermal
set th_num off
;
; define 5 m by 5 m by 5 m region to represent one octant of
; infinite domain
poly brick 0 5 0 5 0 5
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
;
; define joints so that grid can be refined nearer to source
jset origin .5 .5 .5 dip 0 dd 0
jset origin .5 .5 .5 dip 90 dd 0
jset origin .5 .5 .5 dip 90 dd 90

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 106 Optional Features

jset origin 1.5 1.5 1.5 dip 0 dd 0

jset origin 1.5 1.5 1.5 dip 90 dd 0
jset origin 1.5 1.5 1.5 dip 90 dd 90
jset origin 2.5 2.5 2.5 dip 0 dd 0
jset origin 2.5 2.5 2.5 dip 90 dd 0
jset origin 2.5 2.5 2.5 dip 90 dd 90
;
; join all blocks to create a continuum and generate zoning
join on
gen edge 0.125 range x 0,0.5 y 0,0.5 z 0,0.5
gen edge 0.25 range x 0,1.5 y 0,1.5 z 0,1.5
gen edge 0.5 range x 0,2.5 y 0,2.5 z 0,2.5
gen edge 1.0 range x 0,5.0 y 0,5.0 z 0,5.0
sav gen.3dsav
;
; Define material properties
prop mat 1 dens 2000
prop jmat 1 jkn 10 jks 10 jfric 100
prop mat 1 bulk=5.6e8 g=4.2e8
prop mat 1 thexp=5e-3
prop mat 1 cond 1 diffus 1e-6
;
; mechanical symmetry
bound xvel 0.0 range x 0.0
bound yvel 0.0 range y 0.0
bound zvel 0.0 range z 0.0
;
; fixed far boundary (only used for second case)
bound xvel 0.0 range x 5.0
bound yvel 0.0 range y 5.0
bound zvel 0.0 range z 5.0
;
; define heat source in bottom left corner of octant
; (100 kW for 1000 seconds)
sour typ 1 ncomp 1 comp 1 frac 1
point 0 0 0 typ 1 stre 1e5 tstart 0
point 0 0 0 typ 1 stre -1e5 tstart 1000
;
; results after 1 day
time 8.64e4
thsolve
cycle 500
sav tmtest1.3dsav
; results after 3 days
time 2.592e5
thsolve

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 107

cycle 500
sav tmtest3.3dsav
return

The block plot from 3DEC is shown in Figure 1.31. The discretization is finer near the source,
where stress and displacement gradients are greatest.
Figure 1.32 shows the comparison between σzz calculated by 3DEC, and the analytical solution
near the z-axis (x = y = 0). Figures 1.33 and 1.34 show similar plots for σxx and σyy , while
Figure 1.35 shows the displacements. On each of these plots, two different cases are shown: one
where the outer boundaries are free to move; and another where the outer boundaries are fixed
against movement normal to the boundary. The differences between fixed and free boundaries are
not particularly significant, except for the displacements near the outer edge of the block.

Figure 1.31 3DEC model for instantaneous point source

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 108 Optional Features

Szz vs Distance along Z-axis

After 1 Day

-50

Analytic
-100
Free Boundary
Fixed Boundary
-150
Stress (MPa)

-200

-250

-300

-350

-400
0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
Distance (m)

Szz vs Distance along Z-axis

After 3 Days

-10

Analytic
-20 Free Boundary
Fixed Boundary

-30
Stress (MPa)

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80
0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
Distance (m)

Figure 1.32 Radial stress (Szz ) on z-axis (x = y = 0)

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 109

Sxx vs Distance along Z-axis

After 1 Day

50

-50
Analytic
Free Boundary
-100
Fixed Boundary
Stress (MPa)

-150

-200

-250

-300

-350

-400
0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
Distance (m)

Syy vs Distance along Z-axis

After 1 Day

50

-50
Analytic
-100 Free Boundary
Fixed Boundary
Stress (MPa)

-150

-200

-250

-300

-350

-400
0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
Distance (m)
Figure 1.33 Tangential stresses Sxx and Syy along z-axis (x = y = 0) after 1
day

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 110 Optional Features

Sxx vs Distance along Z-axis

After 3 Days

10

-10
Analytic
Free Boundary
-20
Fixed Boundary
Stress (MPa)

-30

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance (m)

Syy vs Distance along Z-axis

After 3 Days

10

-10
Analytic
-20 Free Boundary
Fixed Boundary
Stress (MPa)

-30

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80
0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5
Distance (m)
Figure 1.34 Tangential stresses Sxx and Syy along z-axis (x = y = 0) after 3
days

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 111

Displacement vs Distance along Z-axis

After 1 Day

0.09

0.08

0.07
Analytic
Free Boundary
0.06
Fixed Boundary
Displacement (m)

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.00
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Distance (m)

Displacement vs Distance along Z-axis

After 3 Days

0.030

0.025
Analytic
Free Boundary
Fixed Boundary
0.020
Displacement (m)

0.015

0.010

0.005

0.000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Distance (m)

Figure 1.35 z-displacement along z-axis

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 112 Optional Features

1.2.6 An Example Problem – Waste Repository Drift Model

Figure 1.36 shows a cross section through a drift in a hypothetical nuclear waste repository. A heat
source in the floor of the drift represents a waste canister. The properties of the host rock are:

thermal conductivity 2.2 W/ m/ ◦ C

density 2300 kg/m3

specific heat 900 J / kg / ◦ C

linear thermal 10 × 10−6 / ◦ C

expansion coefficient

bulk modulus 8.3 GPa

shear modulus 6.3 GPa

The initial stress is hydrostatic at 5 MPa, and the heat source is assumed to have only one component
with a decay constant of 4 × 10−10 s−1 and an initial strength of 30 kW.
For this example, it is assumed that there are other heat sources (spaced 15 m apart along the
length of the drift), and that there are other drifts (spaced 20 m apart), also with heat sources in the
floor. The mechanical boundary conditions incorporate this symmetry, but the thermal symmetry
is simulated by grids of regularly spaced heat sources. All but one member of each grid are located
outside the 3DEC grid.
The data file to solve this problem is given below, and Figure 1.37 shows a 3DEC plot of the block.
Figures 1.38 and 1.39 show temperatures and displacements in the grid.

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 113

10 m

10 m

3m
1m

3m
3m
10 m

z
y
x

15 m

Figure 1.36 Conceptual model of repository drift

Figure 1.37 3DEC model of repository drift

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 114 Optional Features

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0pGGG
pGrelG,lrG03:,,:pe0

 :0 

Figure 1.38 Model of drift

E
pGre004   0 u0 i
0pGGG
pGrelG,lrG03:,,:p-0x
 
,iGGGGnG,
pi-SGGnG,
piSGGGnG,
pipSGGnG,
piGGGGnG,
ri-SGGnG,
riSGGGnG,
ripSGGnG,
riGGGGnG,
-iSGGGnGp
SiGGGGnGp
piSGGGnGp
GiGGGGnGG
# m$
 :0Gir.p8re
 :0Sirrr8-

Figure 1.39 Temperatures and displacements on drift center line

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 115

Example 1.16 Waste repository drift model

new
;
; Repository Model
;
config thermal
set th_num off
;
; set up tunnel
;
poly brick 0 15 0 10 0 23
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
plot set dip 90 dd 325
jset dd 0 dip 90 ori 0,3,0
jset dd 0 dip 0 ori 0,0,13
jset dd 0 dip 0 ori 0,0,10
delete range y 0,3 z 10,13
;;
;; subdivide for mesh refinement
;
jset dd 0 dip 90 ori 0.0,6, 0
jset dd 0 dip 0 ori 0.0,0, 6
jset dd 0 dip 0 ori 0.0,0,17
jset dd 90 dip 90 ori 6.,0, 0
jset dd 90 dip 90 ori 9.,0, 0
;
; Join all blocks together
;
join on
;
gen edge 0.5 range x 6,9 y 0,3 z 6,10
gen edge 1.0 range x 0,15 y 0,6 z 6,17
gen edge 2.0 range x 0,15 y 0,10 z 0,23
;
sav repos.3dsav
;
; Confine all boundaries to represent symmetry
;
bound xvel 0 range x 0
bound xvel 0 range x 15
bound yvel 0 range y 0
bound yvel 0 range y 10

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 116 Optional Features

bound zvel 0 range z 0

bound zvel 0 range z 23
;
insitu stres -5e6 -5e6 -5e6 0 0 0
;
;
source type=1 ncomp=1 comp=1 frac=1 decay= 4e-10
;
; Define sources to represent a large area around
; modeled drift
;
grid -142.5,100,9 157.5,100,9 157.5,-100,9 &
type 1 n12=21 n23=21 stre=30e3
grid -142.5,100,8 157.5,100,8 157.5,-100,8 &
type 1 n12=21 n23=21 stre=30e3
grid -142.5,100,7 157.5,100,7 157.5,-100,7 &
type 1 n12=21 n23=21 stre=30e3
grid -142.5,100,6 157.5,100,6 157.5,-100,6 &
type 1 n12=21 n23=21 stre=30e3
;
prop mat 1 bu=8.333e9, g=6.25e9, dens=2300, thexp=10e-6
prop mat 1 cond=2.2 diffus=1.1e-6
;
;
; Histories
;
his zdis 7.5,0.4,10.1 ;hist1
;
; Initial equilibrium
;
prop jmat 1 jkn 1 jks 1
cycle 1000
sav repeqm.3dsav
;
; After 1 year
;
;
time=3.1536e7
plot create plot Contours
plot contour temperature min 0 max 3000
plot set dip 90 dd 325
plot add disp arrowhead on
cycle 1000
sav repyr1.3dsav
ret

3DEC Version 5.2

THERMAL OPTION 1 - 117

1.3 References

Abramowitz, M., and I. A. Stegun. Handbook of Mathematical Functions. New York: Dover
Publications Inc. (1972).
Carslaw, H. S., and J. C. Jaeger. Conduction of Heat in Solids, 2nd Ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press
(1959).
Crank, J. The Mathematics of Diffusion, 2nd Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press (1975).
Crouch, S. L., and W. C. McClain. “Interim Report on Development of a Semi-Empirical Numerical
Model for Simulating the Deformational Behavior of a High-Level Radioactive Waste Repository in
Bedded Salt,” University of Minnesota Report to Oak Ridge National Laboratory, ORNL/TM-5462
(1978).
Dahlquist, G., and A. Bjorck. Numerical Methods. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall
(1974).
Karlekar, B. V., and R. M. Desmond. Heat Transfer, 2nd Ed. St. Paul: West Publishing Co.
(1982).
Nowacki, W. Thermoelasticity. New York: Addison-Wesley (1962).
Perrochet, P., and D. Berod. “Stability of the Standard Crank-Nicolson-Galerkin Scheme Applied
to the Diffusion-Convection Equation: Some New Insights,” in Water Resources Research, 29(9),
3291-3297 (September 1993).

3DEC Version 5.2

1 - 118 Optional Features

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2-1

2 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

2.1 Introduction

Dynamic analysis is required for the following types of geomechanical problems:

(a) seismic (i.e., earthquake) loading;
(b) explosive or impulsive loading;
(c) mining problems involving seismic release of energy (i.e., rockbursts); and
(d) flow of particles (angular or rounded) under gravity.
The fundamental assumption in all cases is that time is relevant. In almost all cases, the time of
interest is less than one minute; in the case of explosive or impulsive loading, it is less than one
second.

3DEC Version 5.2

2-2 Optional Features

2.2 Damping

2.2.1 General Comments

As described in Section 1 in Theory and Background, 3DEC uses a dynamic algorithm for
problem solution. Natural dynamic systems contain some degree of damping of the vibrational
energy within the system; otherwise, the system would oscillate indefinitely when subjected to
driving forces. Damping is due, in part, to energy loss as a result of slippage along contacts of
blocks within the system, internal friction loss in the intact material, and any resistance caused by
air or fluids surrounding the structure. 3DEC is used to solve two general classes of mechanical
problems: quasi-static and dynamic. Damping is used in the solution of both classes of problems,
but quasi-static problems require more damping. Two types of damping (mass-proportional and
stiffness-proportional) are available in 3DEC. Mass-proportional damping applies a force which is
proportional to absolute velocity and mass, but in the direction opposite to the velocity. Stiffness-
proportional damping applies a force, which is proportional to the incremental stiffness matrix
multiplied by relative velocities or strain rates, to contacts or stresses in zones. In 3DEC, either
form of damping may be used separately or in combination. The use of both forms of damping
in combination is termed Rayleigh damping (Bathe and Wilson 1976). For solution of quasi-static
problems using finite difference schemes, mass-proportional damping is generally used (Otter et al.
1966). 3DEC allows use of an automatic “adaptive” viscous damping scheme developed by Cundall
(1982) for solution of quasi-static problems. These schemes are discussed in Section 1 in Theory
and Background. For dynamic analyses, either mass-proportional or stiffness-proportional, or
both (i.e., Rayleigh), forms of damping may be used, as described in the next section.

2.2.2 Rayleigh Damping

In performing dynamic analysis with any code, it is usually necessary to account for energy losses in
the physical system (e.g., heat, hysteresis) which are not accounted for in the numerical algorithm.
In general, very little damping is used for highly elastic systems, and more damping is used for
geomechanical materials, especially soils.
In the continuum analysis of structures, proportional Rayleigh damping is typically used to damp
the natural oscillation modes of the system. In dynamic finite-element analysis, a damping matrix,
C, is formed with components proportional to the mass (M) and stiffness (K) matrices,

C =α M +β K

where:α = the mass-proportional damping constant; and

β = the stiffness-proportional damping constant.

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2-3

For a multiple degrees-of-freedom system, the critical damping ratio, ξi , at any angular frequency
of the system, ωi , can be found from (Bathe and Wilson 1976)

α + β ωi2 = 2 ωi ξi (2.1)

or

1α 
ξi = + β ωi (2.2)
2 ωi

The critical damping ratio, ξi , is also known as the fraction of critical damping for mode i with
angular frequency, ωi .
Figure 2.1 shows the variation of the normalized critical damping ratio with angular frequency, ωi .
Three curves are given: mass or stiffness components only, and the sum of both components. As
shown, mass-proportional damping is dominant at lower angular frequency ranges, while stiffness-
proportional damping dominates at higher angular frequencies. The curve representing the sum of
both components reaches a minimum at

ξmin = (α β)1/2
(2.3)
ωmin = (α/β)1/2

or

α = ξmin ωmin
(2.4)
β = ξmin / ωmin

The fundamental frequency is then defined as

fmin = ωmin / 2π (2.5)

3DEC Version 5.2

2-4 Optional Features

β=0

5
α= 0

4
total
ξ i / ξ min

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

ωi

Figure 2.1 Variation of normalized critical damping ratio with angular fre-
quency

The required input parameters to specify Rayleigh damping in 3DEC are fmin (input parameter
freq) and ξmin (input parameter fcrit).
For the case shown in Figure 2.1, ωmin = 10 radians per second, and ξmin = 1. Note that the
damping ratio is almost constant over at least a 3:1 frequency range (e.g., from 5 to 15). Since
damping in geologic media is known to be predominately hysteretic (Gemant and Jackson 1937;
Wegel and Walther 1935), and hence independent of frequency, ωmin is usually chosen to lie in
the center of the range of frequencies present in the numerical simulation. In this way, hysteretic
damping is simulated approximately.
From the preceding equations and Figure 2.1, it can be seen that at frequency ωmin (or fmin ), and
only at that frequency, mass damping and stiffness damping each supply half of the total damping.

2.2.3 Example of Different Damping Techniques

In order to demonstrate how Rayleigh damping works in 3DEC, the results of the following four
damping cases involving a block sitting on a fixed block with gravity suddenly applied can be
compared:
(a) undamped;
(b) Rayleigh damping (both mass and stiffness damping);

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2-5

(c) mass damping only; and

(d) stiffness damping only.
The data file for each of these cases follows.

Example 2.1 Data file for Rayleigh damping example

new
config dynamic
poly brick 0,10 0,1 0,10
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
jset dip 0 dd 180 ori 0,0,5
;
def _time
_time = time
end

fix range x 0,10 y 0,10 z 0,5

gravity 0,0,-10
prop mat=1 dens=1000 k=1e9 g=.7e9
prop jmat=1 jkn=5e7 jks=5e7 jfric=0
hist n 1
hist zvel 0,0,10
hist zdisp 0,0,10
hist @_time
mscale off
damp 0 0
save damp.3dsav

;no damping
title
Plot of vertical displacement vs time (UNDAMPED)
hist label 2 ’Undamped’
hist label 3 ’Time’
plot create plot Hist
plot his 2 vs 3 xaxis label ’Time’ yaxis label ’Vertical displacement’
cy 250
;
;mass and stiffness
rest damp.3dsav
hist n 20
damp 1 16
title

3DEC Version 5.2

2-6 Optional Features

Plot of vertical displacement vs time (MASS and STIFFNESS DAMPED)

hist label 2 ’Mass & Stiffness’
hist label 3 ’Time’
cy 4321
;
;mass only
rest damp.3dsav
damp 2 16 mass
title
Plot of vertical displacement vs time (MASS DAMPED; damp 2 16 mass)
hist label 2 ’Mass Damped’
hist label 3 ’Time’
cy 250
;
;stiffness only
rest damp.3dsav
hist n 50
damp 2 16 stiff
title
Plot of vertical displacement vs time (STIFFNESS DAMPED; damp 2 16 stiff)
hist label 2 ’Stiffness Damped’
hist label 3 ’Time’
cy 8623
;
return

In the first case, with no damping, a natural frequency of oscillation of approximately 16 cycles/sec
can be observed (see Figure 2.2). The theoretical period of oscillation is given by

1  ka 1/2
frequency = = 15.9 cycles/second
2π m

where:a = joint area (10 m2 , in this case);

k = joint stiffness (5e7 Pa/m); and
m = mass of upper block (5e4 kg).

The problem is critically damped if: a fraction of critical damping = 1 is specified; the natural
frequency of oscillation = 16 is specified; and both mass and stiffness damping are used.
The results in Figure 2.3 show that the problem is critically damped using these parameters. If
only mass (Figure 2.4) or stiffness (Figure 2.5) damping is used, then the damping must be doubled
(since each contributes 1/2 to the Rayleigh damping) to obtain critical damping. Figures 2.4 and

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2-7

2.5 show, again, that the problem is critically damped using mass and stiffness damping with twice
the damping specified (see Example 2.1).

E oo 

o  oo oc5,-5a

DUN)o9  oS o4 po9 n

oDEU
DUN)mUAmNUoM1D01ADo, 
  

Do 
noAo 



 mnplH



m


 








             
mnpln

Figure 2.2 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for a single block con-
tacting on a rigid base with gravity suddenly applied (no damping)

E oo  o  oo ocuo  o:44.o,u.,6o oAoANa

SMANo:  oG o3 po: n


oITSA
SMANmMTmAMoI1S;1TFou
  
So oro 
noTo  


 mnplo




m


 







            
mnpln

Figure 2.3 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for a single block con-
tacting on a rigid base with gravity suddenly applied (mass and
stiffness damping)

3DEC Version 5.2

2-8 Optional Features

E oo  o  oo oc,o-,3-0o oSoA2o a

SMA2oT  o5 o: poT n


oS;M
SMA2mMDmAMoE©S)©D;o,
  
So o-  
noDo 



 mnplo




m
  







             
mnpln

Figure 2.4 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for a single block con-
tacting on a rigid base with gravity suddenly applied (mass damp-
ing only)

E oo  o  oo oc488.o,u.,1o oIoTDo a

ISTDo4  oG o3 po4 n


oMDIF
ISTDmSFmTSoN2I;2F;ou
  
Io o,  
noFo 


 mnplH




m


 








            
mnpln

Figure 2.5 Plot of vertical displacement versus time, for a single block con-
tacting on a rigid base with gravity suddenly applied (stiffness
damping only)

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2-9

2.2.4 Guidelines for Selecting Rayleigh Damping Parameters for Dynamic Analysis

What is normally attempted in a dynamic analysis is the reproduction of the frequency-

independent damping of materials at the correct level (e.g., 2-5% for geological materials, and
2-10% for structural systems (Biggs 1964)). Rayleigh damping is frequency-dependent, but has
a “flat” region that spans about a 3:1 frequency range, as shown in Figure 2.1. For any particular
problem, a Fourier analysis of typical velocity records might produce a response such as that shown
in Figure 2.6:

Range of Predominant
Frequencies

Velocity
Spectrum

Frequency

Figure 2.6 Plot of velocity spectrum versus frequency

If the highest predominant frequency is three times greater than the lowest predominant frequency,
then there is a 3:1 span or range that contains most of the dynamic energy in the spectrum. The
idea in dynamic analysis is to adjust ωmin of the Rayleigh damping so that its 3:1 range coincides
with the range of predominant frequencies in the problem. ξmin is adjusted to coincide with the
correct physical damping ratio. The predominant frequencies are neither the input frequencies nor
the natural modes of the system, but a combination of both. The idea is to try to get the right
damping for the important frequencies in the problem.
For some problems involving large movements of blocks, it is improper to use any mass damping
because the block motion might be artificially restricted. Examples of such problems include any
problems involving free flow or fall of blocks under gravity, and impulsive loading of blocks due
to explosions. In such cases it may be appropriate to use only stiffness-proportional damping.
The stiffness-proportional component of Rayleigh damping does affect the critical timestep for the
explicit solution scheme in 3DEC. The controlling timestep, therefore, may need to be reduced
(using the FRACTION command) as the stiffness damping component is increased (see Belytschko
1983). For problems involving free fall and “bounce” of blocks from a fixed base, the coefficient of
restitution is required for accurate modeling. Onishi et al. (1985) provide a method for estimating
stiffness damping parameters based on the coefficient of restitution.

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2 - 10 Optional Features

2.3 Natural Modes of Oscillation

For many problems, the important frequencies are related to the natural mode of oscillation of the
system. Examples of this type of problem include seismic analysis of surface structures such as
dams or dynamic analysis of underground excavations.
For these problems, the fundamental frequency, f , associated with the natural mode of oscillation
is

C
f = (2.6)
γ

where:C = speed of propagation associated with the mode of oscillation; and

γ = longest wavelength.

For an elastic continuous system, the speed of propagation, Cp , is given by Cp = [(K+4/3 G)/ρ]1/2
for p-waves, and Cs = (G/ρ)1/2 for s-waves, where K = bulk modulus, G = shear modulus and ρ
= density.
The longest wavelength, characteristic length or fundamental wavelength depends on boundary
conditions. Consider a solid bar of length 1 with boundary conditions, as shown in Figure 2.7(a).
The fundamental mode shapes for cases (1), (2) and (3) are as shown in Figure 2.7(b).
If shear motion of the bar gives rise to the lowest natural mode, then Cs is used in the preceding
equation; otherwise, Cp is used if motion parallel to the axis of the bar gives rise to the lowest
natural mode.

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 11

(1) one end fixed

(2) both ends fixed

(3) both ends free

(a) boundary (end) conditions

(1) characteristic length = 41

(2) characteristic length = 21

(3) characteristic length = 21

(b) characteristic lengths or fundamental wavelengths

Figure 2.7 Comparison of fundamental wavelengths for bars with varying

end conditions

2.3.1 Example Problems (from Cundall et al. (1979), pp. 71-73)

In the limit of very high joint stiffness, an assemblage of blocks should resemble a continuum,
both statically and dynamically. Consider the problem of eight square deformable blocks resting
on a rigid base. Three problems can be treated: an unconfined column; a confined column in
compression; and a column in shear.
The column is loaded by applying gravity in either the x- or z-direction. For the dynamic case, the
mass damping is zero, with stiffness-proportional damping as follows:

fraction of critical = 0.1

frequency = 10.0

The case of confined compression is modeled by inhibiting lateral displacement along the vertical
boundaries, which prevents lateral deformation of the blocks. For unconfined compression, lateral
displacement is not inhibited. For the column in shear, vertical motion along all boundaries is
inhibited. Other properties are:

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 12 Optional Features

Material Properties
bulk modulus K = 1.5 × 104 | for compression tests
|
shear modulus G = 0.428562 × 104 |
|
Poisson’s ratio 0.4 |

bulk modulus K = 1.0 × 104 | for shear tests

|
shear modulus G = 1.0 × 104 |

density ρ = 1.0

applied gravity gy = −1.0 | for compression tests

gx = 0.1 | for shear tests

column height L = 800

column width W = 100

number of blocks n=8

The moduli appropriate to the various modes of deformation are given in Table 2.1:

Table 2.1 Moduli appropriate to various deformation modes

Confined Compression Unconfined Compression Shear
 
(1/3) G+K
K + (4/3) G 4G K+(4/3) G G
(plane strain, Young’s modulus)
2.5714 × 104 1.4286 × 104 1.0 × 104

Table 2.2 compares the theoretical periods and calculated (3DEC) natural periods of oscillation.
The theoretical values for natural period of oscillation are calculated as


natural period, T = 4L (ρ / E ∗ )

where E ∗ is the appropriate modulus selected from Table 2.1.

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 13

Table 2.2 Comparison of theoretical and calculated (3DEC)

dynamic period T of oscillation for three modes
Confined Unconfined
Shear
Compression Compression
Theoretical 19.96 26.77 32.00
3DEC 20.47 27.83 32.24

The data file for each of these problems is listed:

Example 2.2 Data file for confined compression

new
config dynamic
title
Example problem: dynamic analysis of column (confined compression)
poly brick -50,50 -50,50 -400,400
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
jset dip 0 dd 180 ori 0,0,0 spac 100 num = 7
gen edge 200
prop mat 1 k 2e4 g 0.428562e4 dens 1
prop jmat 1 jkn 4e5 jks 4e5 jcoh 1e10 jten 1e10
bound xvel 0 range x -50
bound xvel 0 range x 50
bound yvel 0 range y -50
bound yvel 0 range y 50
bound zvel 0 range z -400
gravity 0,0,-1.0
def v_loc
i_vert = gp_near(50,50,400)
v_min = 0
d_t = 0
end
@v_loc

def _time
_time = time
end

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2 - 14 Optional Features

def z_dis
z_d = gp_zdis(i_vert)
if z_d < v_min then
v_min = z_d
d_t = time
endif
z_dis = z_d
end
def period
ii = out(’Period of oscillation = ’ + string(d_t*2.0))
end
hist n 100 @z_dis @_time
mscale off
damp 0.1 1.0 stiff
hist label 1 ’Vertical Displacement’
hist label 2 ’Time’
solve time 11
@period
plot create plot Hist
plot hist 1 vs 2 xaxis label ’Time’ yaxis label ’Displacement’
ret

Example 2.3 Data file for unconfined compression

new
config dynamic
title
Example problem: dynamic analysis of column (unconfined compression)
poly brick -50,50 -50,50 -400,400
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
jset dip 0 dd 180 ori 0,0,0 spac 100 num = 7
gen edge 200
prop mat 1 k 2e4 g 0.428562e4 dens 1
prop jmat 1 jkn 4e5 jks 4e5 jcoh 1e10 jten 1e10
bound zvel 0 range z -400
gravity 0,0,-1.0
def v_loc
i_vert = gp_near(50,50,400)
v_min = 0
d_t = 0
end
@v_loc

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DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 15

def _time
_time = time
end

def z_dis
z_d = gp_zdis(i_vert)
if z_d < v_min then
v_min = z_d
d_t = time
endif
z_dis = z_d
end
def period
ii = out(’Period of oscillation = ’ + string(d_t*2.0))
end
hist n 100 @z_dis @_time
mscale off
damp 0.1 1.0 stiff
hist label 1 ’Vertical Displacement’
hist label 2 ’Time’
solve time 15
@period
plot create plot Hist
plot hist 1 vs 2 xaxis label ’Time’ yaxis label ’Displacement’
ret

Example 2.4 Data file for shear

new
config dynamic
title
Example problem: dynamic analysis of column shear
poly brick -50,50 -50,50 -400,400
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
jset dip 0 dd 180 ori 0,0,0 spac 100 num = 7
gen edge 200
prop mat 1 k 1e4 g 1e4 dens 1
prop jmat 1 jkn 4e5 jks 4e5 jcoh 1e10 jten 1e10
bound zvel 0 range x -50
bound zvel 0 range x 50
bound zvel 0 range y -50
bound zvel 0 range y 50

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 16 Optional Features

bound xvel 0 range z -400

gravity 0.1,0,0
hist nc 100
def v_loc
i_vert = gp_near(50,0,400)
v_max = 0
d_t = 0
end
@v_loc
def x_dis
x_d = gp_xdis(i_vert)
if x_d > v_max then
v_max = x_d
d_t = time
endif
x_dis = x_d
end
def period
ii = out(’Period of oscillation = ’ + string(d_t*2.0))
end
hist @x_dis
hist label 1 ’Shear Displacement’
mscale off
damp 0.1 1.0 stiff
solve time 17
@period
plot create plot Hist
plot hist 1 vs 2 xaxis label ’Cycles’ yaxis label ’Displacement’
ret

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 17

2.4 Wave Transmission

The physical stiffness of joints in-situ can have a substantial influence on seismic wave propagation.
Myer et al. (1990) present field and laboratory test results which demonstrate the effect of the
stiffness of dry natural fractures in rock on high frequency attenuation, and changes in travel time
of the seismic wave. It can be important to represent this effect in the discontinuum model if the wave
transmission is be to modeled accurately. However, care must be taken to not introduce a numerical
distortion of the wave which could mask the actual effect of the joints on wave propagation.
Numerical distortion of the propagating wave can occur in a dynamic analysis, whether it is based
on a continuum or discontinuum program, as a function of the modeling conditions. Both the
frequency content of the input wave and the wave speed characteristics of the system will affect the
numerical accuracy of wave transmission. Kuhlemeyer and Lysmer (1973) show that for accurate
representation of wave transmission through a model, the spatial element size must be smaller than
approximately one-tenth to one-eighth of the wavelength associated with the highest frequency
component of the input wave – i.e.,

1
l≤ ·γ (2.7)
8

where γ is the wavelength associated with the highest frequency component for peak velocities
through the medium. For discontinuum codes, this also applies to joint spacing (or block size).
In order to achieve an accurate representation of a stress wave through a distinct element model,
particularly when the joint spacing is variable, the blocks should be made deformable to accom-
modate the element size restriction imposed by frequency and wavelength. This is accomplished
in 3DEC, as discussed in Section 1 in Theory and Background, by subdividing each block into a
mesh of finite-difference elements. These elements are then subject to the Kuhlemeyer and Lysmer
restriction.
The effect of model conditions on numerical distortion of wave transmission is demonstrated by a
simple analysis of a column of blocks subjected to an impulse load applied at the base (Figures 2.8
and 2.10). The block sizes range from 1 m to 5 m (average size of 2 m), the contacts between
blocks have a linearly elastic behavior, and the p-wave speed for the system is 4300 m/sec. A
triangular-shaped impulse load, with a maximum frequency of approximately 200 Hz, is applied
at the base (the solid curve in Figures 2.9 and 2.11). The wavelength associated with the highest
frequency of this system is 21.5 m. Thus, according to Kuhlemeyer and Lysmer, in order to transmit
this wave without distortion, the element size must not exceed approximately 2 m.
A rigid block analysis is done with a constant contact normal stiffness used to produce an average
wave speed of 4300 m/sec (based on the average joint spacing). A highly distorted velocity history is
calculated at the top of the column, as seen by the dashed curve in Figure 2.9. This distortion can be
reduced for this problem by varying the normal stiffness locally to keep the wave speed constant at
contacts between blocks. However, in general, the calculation of effective (local) normal stiffnesses
becomes extremely complex for a multiply jointed system, making this approach impractical.

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 18 Optional Features

A deformable block analysis is performed with the maximum size of the finite difference elements
smaller than 2 m (see Figure 2.10). The elastic moduli for the blocks and the contact stiffness are
calculated to produce the given p-wave speed. The distortion in the wave at the top of the column
is now essentially eliminated, as indicated in Figure 2.11. The elastic deformation parameters
represent the physical properties of the blocks and contacts separately in this case, and do not have
to be adjusted locally.
Physically measured values for normal and shear stiffnesses of a geologic structure, such as joints,
faults, bedding planes, etc., are not generally available. It is often necessary to back-calculate
properties based on measured values for the elastic-deformation properties of the intact material
and the wave speed through the jointed system. Formulae relating properties of an equivalent elastic
continuum to properties for intact material and joints are given, for example, by Singh (1973) and
Gerrard (1982). These relations can be used to provide reasonable estimates for joint stiffness
properties in 3DEC, to produce the measured shear and compressional wave speeds of the system.

Figure 2.8 Column of variably sized blocks subjected to triangular-shaped

impulse load at base

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 19

E M a Ca   a   aa a

hfu1a  a4 av na c

a©uh6 
hfu1if©iufa2C©fCh2a7
   
uaa 
ha4    a 
ca2a  



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moHco

Figure 2.9 Input wave (solid) at base and calculated wave (dashed) at top of
column of rigid block model

Figure 2.10 Column of variably sized blocks subdivided into finite difference
zones

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 20 Optional Features

E A a Ca   a   aa a

hfu1aT  a- aW naT c


a6©f22
hfu1if©iufa2C©uCfta3
  
uaTa  
ha-    a 
ca2a 




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moHco

Figure 2.11 Input wave (solid) at base and calculated wave (dashed) at top of
column of deformable block model

Example 2.5 Column of variably sized rigid blocks subjected to impulse load at base
new
config dynamic
poly brick 0,10 0,1 0,100
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
def varcut
ntot = 36
nc = 1
rat = 1.08
zcut = 5.0
zloc = zcut
loop while nc < ntot
if zloc < 99.0
command
jset dip 0 dd 180 origin 0,0,@zloc
endcommand
endif
if zloc < 50.0 then
zcut = zcut / rat

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 21

else
zcut = zcut * rat
endif
zloc = zloc + zcut
nc = nc + 1
endloop
end
@varcut
;
; properties for rigid block model
prop mat=1 dens 1000
prop jmat=1 jkn 10e9 jks 10e9 jcoh 1e10 jten 1e10
prop mat=1 k=10.0e9 g=7.5e9

; impulse load
def i_block
i_block = b_near(5.0,0.5,2.5)
end
@i_block
def pulse
whilestepping
dytime = time
zpulse = vmax / tpeak * dytime
if dytime > tpeak then
zpulse = vmax - (vmax / (tend - tpeak)) * (dytime - tpeak)
endif
if dytime > tend then
zpulse = 0.0
endif
b_zvel(i_block) = zpulse ; velocity assigned to rigid block no. 2
end
set @vmax = 11.0 @tpeak = 0.005 @tend = 0.06
; fix bottom block to apply impulse for rigid block model
fix range x 0,10 y 0,10 z 0,5
; quiet boundary at top for both deformable block model
bound mat 1 zvisc range z 100
bound mat 1
bound xvel 0.0 range x 0.0
bound xvel 0.0 range x 10.0
bound yvel 0.0 range y 0.0
bound yvel 0.0 range y 10.0
; monitor velocities at bottom and top
hist n 10
hist zvel 0,0,0
hist zvel 0,0,95
hist @pulse

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 22 Optional Features

hist @dytime
hist label 1 ’Input Wave’
hist label 2 ’Calculated Wave’
hist label 4 ’Time’
; add 5\% stiffness damping
damp 0.05 200 stiff
title
Example problem: dynamic analysis of column shear
plot create plot Hist
plot set jobtitle on
plot hist 1 2 linestyle style dot vs 4 &
xaxis label ’Time’ yaxis Label ’Displacement’
solve time 0.12
save ex2_05.3dsav
ret

Example 2.6 Column of variably sized deformable blocks subjected to impulse load at base
new
config dynamic
poly brick 0,10 0,1 0,100
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
def varcut
ntot = 36
nc = 1
rat = 1.08
zcut = 5.0
zloc = zcut
loop while nc < ntot
if zloc < 99.0
command
jset dip 0 dd 180 origin 0,0,@zloc
endcommand
endif
if zloc < 50.0 then
zcut = zcut / rat
else
zcut = zcut * rat
endif
zloc = zloc + zcut
nc = nc + 1
endloop
end

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 23

@varcut
;
gen edge 2
; properties for zoned model
prop jmat = 1 dens 1000 jkn 200e9 jks 200e9 jcoh 1e10 jten 1e10
prop mat = 1 k=10.0e9 g=7.5e9

; impulse load
def pulse
whilestepping
dytime = time
zpulse = vmax / tpeak * dytime
if dytime > tpeak then
zpulse = vmax - (vmax / (tend - tpeak)) * (dytime - tpeak)
endif
if dytime > tend then
zpulse = 0.0
endif
pulse = zpulse ; velocity history for zoned model
end
set @vmax = 11.0 @tpeak = 0.005 @tend = 0.06
; velocity boundary for zoned model
bound zvel 1.0 hist @pulse range z -.1 .1
; quiet boundary at top for both deformable block model
bound mat 1 zvisc range z 100
bound mat 1
bound xvel 0.0 range x 0.0
bound xvel 0.0 range x 10.0
bound yvel 0.0 range y 0.0
bound yvel 0.0 range y 10.0
; monitor velocities at bottom and top
hist n 100
hist zvel 0,0,0
hist zvel 0,0,95
hist @pulse
hist @dytime
hist label 1 ’Input Wave’
hist label 2 ’Calculated Wave’
hist label 4 ’Time’
; add 5% stiffness damping
damp 0.05 200 stiff
solve time 0.12
title
Example problem: dynamic analysis of column shear
plot create plot Hist
plot set jobtitle on

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 24 Optional Features

plot hist 1 2 linestyle style dot vs 4 &

xaxis label ’Time’ yaxis Label ’Displacement’
save ex2_06.3dsav
ret

For dynamic input with a high peak velocity and short rise-time, the Kuhlemeyer and Lysmer
requirement may necessitate a very fine spatial mesh and a correspondingly small timestep. The
effect is compounded in discontinuum codes because the wave propagation across discontinuities
can produce higher frequency components than are provided in the input wave. The consequence is
that reasonable analyses may be prohibitively time- and memory-consuming, as well as extremely
expensive. In such cases, it may be possible to adjust the input by recognizing that most of the
power for the input history is contained in lower frequency components. By filtering the history and
removing high frequency components, a coarser mesh may be used without significantly affecting
the results.
The filtering procedure can be accomplished with a low-pass filter routine such as the fast Fourier
transform technique. For example, the unfiltered velocity record shown in Figure 2.12 represents
a typical waveform containing a very high frequency spike. The highest frequency of this input
exceeds 50 Hz, but, as shown by the power spectral density plot of Fourier amplitude versus
frequency (Figure 2.13), most of the power (approximately 99%) is made up of components of
frequency 15 Hz or lower. It can be inferred, therefore, that by filtering this velocity history with
a 15 Hz low-pass filter, less than 1% of the power is lost. The input filtered at 15 Hz is shown in
Figure 2.14, and the Fourier amplitudes are plotted in Figure 2.15. The difference in power between
unfiltered and filtered input is less than 1%, while the peak velocity is reduced 38%, and the rise
time is shifted from 0.035 sec to 0.09 sec. Analyses should be performed with input at different
levels of filtering, to evaluate the influence of the filter on model results.

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 25

4
Velocity (cm/sec)

3
(Thousands)

-1
0 0.2 0.4
Time (sec)

Figure 2.12 Unfiltered velocity history

130

120

110

100
Fourier Amplitude

90
(Times 10E9)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Frequency

Figure 2.13 Unfiltered power spectral density plot

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 26 Optional Features

3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
Velocity (cm/sec)

1.8
(Thousands)

1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
0 0.2 0.4
Time (sec)
Figure 2.14 Filtered velocity history at 15 Hz

130

120

110
100
90
Fourier Amplitude

80
(Times 10E9)

70

60

50
40

30

20
10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency

Figure 2.15 Results of filtering at 15 Hz

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 27

2.5 Partial Density Scaling for Dynamic Analysis

Density scaling is a technique used in 3DEC in quasi-static calculations that substantially improves
the efficiency in obtaining solutions to large problems. In quasi-static problems, inertial forces are
not important. The gridpoints’ masses can be scaled for optimal numerical convergence without
affecting the solution. In dynamic analyses, however, global scaling cannot be used. Complex
jointed systems often result in very small blocks and/or zones being created during the automatic
meshing procedure. The small blocks/zones require very small timesteps for numerical stability of
the explicit algorithm. This makes some dynamic solutions extremely time-consuming. However,
as these blocks/zones may be very small, with very small masses, it is possible to introduce some
density scaling only for these blocks/zones in such a way that the change of the system inertia is
negligible. This scheme of partial density scaling is implemented in 3DEC in such a way that the
user controls the amount of scaling to be introduced. Given the timestep calculated by the code,
the user specifies the desired timestep with the command MSCALE part dt. This command specifies
that only the amount of density scaling required to achieve the timestep dt is to be applied to the
system. When a CYCLE command is given, a message indicating the number of gridpoint masses
that were scaled, and the amount of additional mass introduced, is printed.

2.5.1 Example of Partial Density Scaling

Figure 2.16 shows a simple block system with some low-thickness blocks. The timestep required
for dynamic analysis without any scaling is 1.005e-6 seconds. Using partial density scaling, the
timestep may be increased to 5e-6 seconds, while the total system mass is increased by only 5%.
This information is printed by 3DEC following the use of the MSCALE part command:
no. scaled g.p. masses = 68
min. g.p. scaling factor = 4.038E-02
max. g.p. scaling factor = 1.000E+00
min. g.p. added mass = 0.000E+00
max. g.p. added mass = 3.103E-05
min. block added mass = 0.000E+00
max. block added mass = 1.938E-04
total added mass in model = 8.202E-04
total real mass in model = 1.920E-02
added mass / real mass = 4.272E-02

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 28 Optional Features

E
pGre0  0  0! u0 i
0--SS
pGrelG,lrG0.3,r3r90y
 
 30  
r

Figure 2.16 View of model with small, thin blocks

The effect of this amount of partial density scaling was checked by comparing the system response
to a sinusoidal shear applied at the base of the model. A viscous boundary condition was applied
to the top of the model to simulate an extended medium. Figure 2.17 shows the x-velocity applied
at the base, and the velocity obtained at the top of the model, obtained in the run without scaling.
Figure 2.18 shows the same quantities for the run with partial density scaling, with a timestep
about 5 times larger. It can be seen that the wave propagation is not affected by the small amount
of scaling introduced.

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 29

E V  n   ngggnn  n  

601Gn  nM nv tn ©

n,,uu
601Gg0Ig10nC.I1.1rn7 
  

6n" n nA
In" n n
©nCn 



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m2tao

Figure 2.17 Velocities at the bottom and top of the model, for analysis without
any density scaling

E T  n   nen  n  n  


120on  nB n! dn g
n1221
120oe26e02nI.60.0GnM 
  

1n" n nV
6n" n n
gnIn 


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mHtao

Figure 2.18 Velocities at the bottom and top of the model, for analysis with
partial density scaling

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 30 Optional Features

Example 2.7 No density scaling

new
;
; model with small zones
;
; dynamic analysis --- no density scaling
;
title
Dynamic analysis --- no density scaling

config dynamic
poly brick -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
jset dip 5 dd 45 origin 0 0 0
jset dip 10 dd 40 origin 0 0 0
jset dip 70 dd 95
jset dip 80 dd 10
gen edge 0.5
prop mat 1 dens 0.0024 bulk 33333 shear 20000
prop jmat 1 jkn 500000 jks 500000 jcoh 1e9 jtens 1e9
insitu stress -1e-6 -1e-6 -1e-6 0 0 0
mscale off
damp 0 0 mass
bound yvel 0 zvel 0 range zr -1.0
bound xvel 0.1 hist sin 100 1.0 range zr -1.0
bound xvisc yvisc zvisc range zr 1.0
bound yvel 0 zvel 0 range xr -1.0
bound yvel 0 zvel 0 range xr 1.0
bound yvel 0 zvel 0 range yr -1.0
bound yvel 0 zvel 0 range yr 1.0
bound mat 1
def _time
_time = time
end
hist unbal
hist xvel -1 -1 -1
hist xvel -1 -1 1
hist @_time
hist label 2 ’Velocity at Bottom’
hist label 3 ’Velocity at Top’
hist label 4 ’Time’
plot create plot Hist

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 31

plot set jobtitle on

plot hist 2 3 linestyle style dot vs 4 xaxis label ’Time’
plot mod 1 hist yaxis Label ’Displacement’
solve time 0.01
save zp2no.3dsav
ret

Example 2.8 Partial density scaling

new
;
; model with small zones
;
; dynamic analysis --- partial density scaling
;
title
Dynamic analysis - partial density scaling
config dynamic
poly brick -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
jset dip 5 dd 45 origin 0 0 0
jset dip 10 dd 40 origin 0 0 0
jset dip 70 dd 95
jset dip 80 dd 10
gen edge 0.5
prop mat 1 dens 0.0024 bulk 33333 shear 20000
prop jmat 1 jkn 500000 jks 500000 jcoh 1e9 jtens 1e9
insitu stress -1e-6 -1e-6 -1e-6 0 0 0
mscale off
damp 0 0 mass
bound xvel 0.1 hist sin 100 1.0 range zr -1.0
bound yvel 0 zvel 0 range zr -1.0
bound xvisc yvisc zvisc range zr 1.0
bound yvel 0 zvel 0 range xr -1.0
bound yvel 0 zvel 0 range xr 1.0
bound yvel 0 zvel 0 range yr -1.0
bound yvel 0 zvel 0 range yr 1.0
bound mat 1
def _time
_time = time
end
hist nc 1
hist unbal
hist xvel -1 -1 -1
hist xvel -1 -1 1
hist @_time

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 32 Optional Features

hist label 2 ’Velocity at Bottom’

hist label 3 ’Velocity at Top’
hist label 4 ’Time’

mscale part 5e-6

solve time 0.01
save zp2part.3dsav
plot create plot Hist
plot set jobtitle on
plot hist 2 3 linestyle style dot vs 4 xaxis label ’Time’
plot mod 1 hist yaxis Label ’Displacement’
ret

2.6 Boundary Conditions

2.6.1 Nonreflecting Boundaries

The modeling of geomechanics problems involves media which, at the scale of the analysis, are
better represented as unbounded. Deep underground excavations are normally assumed to be
surrounded by an infinite medium, while surface and near-surface structures are assumed to lie on
a half-space. Numerical methods relying on the discretization of a finite region of space require
that appropriate conditions be enforced at the artificial numerical boundaries. In static analyses,
fixed or elastic boundaries (e.g., represented by boundary element techniques) can be realistically
placed at some distance from the region of interest. In dynamic problems, however, such boundary
conditions cause the reflection of outward propagating waves back into the model, and do not allow
the necessary energy radiation. The use of a larger model can minimize the problem, since material
damping will absorb most of the energy in the waves reflected from distant boundaries. However,
this solution leads to large computational costs. The alternative is to use nonreflecting (or absorbing)
boundaries. Several formulations have been proposed. The viscous boundary developed by Lysmer
and Kuhlemeyer (1969) is used in 3DEC. It is based on the use of independent dashpots, and is
nearly totally effective for body waves approaching the boundary at angles of incidence above 30◦ .
For lower angles of incidence, or for surface waves, the energy absorption is only approximate.
However, it has the advantage of being an effective technique which can be used in time-domain
analyses. Its effectiveness has been demonstrated in both finite-element and finite-difference models
(Kunar et al. 1977). A variation of this technique proposed by White et al. (1977) is also widely
used.
More efficient energy absorption (for example, in the case of Rayleigh waves) requires the use of
frequency-dependent dashpots, which can only be used in frequency-domain analyses (e.g., Lysmer
and Waas 1972). These are usually designated as consistent boundaries, and involve the calculation
of dynamic-stiffness matrices coupling all the boundary degrees-of-freedom. Boundary-element
methods may be used to derive these matrices (e.g., Wolf 1985). A comparative study of the
performance of different types of elementary, viscous and consistent boundaries was reported by
Roesset and Ettouney (1977).

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A different procedure to obtain efficient absorbing boundaries for use in time-domain studies was
proposed by Cundall et al. (1978). It is based on the superposition of solutions with stress and
velocity boundaries in such a way that reflections are canceled. In practice, it requires adding the
results of two parallel, overlapping grids in a narrow region adjacent to the boundary. This method
has been shown to provide effective energy absorption, but is difficult to implement for a blocky
system with complex geometry, and thus, is not used in 3DEC.
The viscous boundaries proposed by Lysmer and Kuhlemeyer (1969) consist of independent dash-
pots attached to the boundary in the normal and shear directions. They provide viscous normal and
shear tractions given by

tn = −ρ Cp vn
(2.8)
ts = −ρ Cs vs

where:vn and vs are the normal and shear components of the velocity at the boundary;
ρ is the mass density; and
Cp and Cs are the p- and s-wave velocities.

These viscous terms can be introduced directly into the equations of motion of the gridpoints lying
on the boundary. A different approach, however, was implemented in 3DEC, in which the tractions
tn and ts are calculated and applied at every timestep in the same way as the boundary loads. This
alternative scheme allows the viscous boundaries to be used with rigid blocks as well. Tests have
shown that this implementation is equally effective. The only potential problem concerns numerical
stability, because the viscous forces are calculated from velocities lagging by half a timestep. In
practical analyses to date, no reduction of timestep has been required by the use of the nonreflecting
boundaries. Timestep restrictions demanded by high joint stiffnesses or small zones are usually
more important.
Dynamic analysis starts from some in-situ condition. If a velocity is used to provide the static stress
state, this boundary condition can be replaced by nonreflecting boundaries; the boundary reaction
forces should be maintained throughout the dynamic loading phase. If a stress boundary condition
is applied for the static in-situ solution, a stress boundary condition of opposite sign must also be
applied over the same boundary when the nonreflecting boundary is applied for the dynamic phase.
This will allow the correct reaction forces to be in place at the boundary for the dynamic calculation.

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2.6.2 Free-Field Boundaries

Numerical analysis of the seismic response of surface structures such as dams requires the dis-
cretization of a region of the material adjacent to the foundation. The seismic input is normally
represented by plane waves propagating upward through the underlying material. The boundary
conditions at the sides of the model must account for the free-field motion that would exist in the ab-
sence of the structure. In some cases, elementary lateral boundaries may be sufficient. For example,
if only a shear wave were applied on the horizontal boundary AC, shown in Figure 2.19, it would
be possible to fix the boundary along AB and CD in the vertical direction only. These boundaries
should be placed at sufficient distances to minimize wave reflections and achieve free-field condi-
tions. For soils with high material-damping, this condition can be obtained with a relatively small
distance (Seed et al. 1975). However, when the material damping is low, the required distance may
lead to an impractical model. An alternative procedure is to “enforce” the free-field motion in such
a way that boundaries retain their nonreflecting properties (i.e., outward waves originating from
the structure are properly absorbed). This approach was used in the continuum finite-difference
code NESSI (Cundall et al. 1980). A technique of this type, involving the execution of free-field
calculations in parallel with the main-grid analysis, was developed for 3DEC.
The lateral boundaries of the main grid are coupled to the free-field grid by viscous dashpots to
simulate a quiet boundary (see Figure 2.19); the unbalanced forces from the free-field grid are
applied to the main-grid boundary. Both conditions are expressed in Eqs. (2.9), (2.10) and (2.11),
which apply to the free-field boundary along one side boundary plane with its normal in the direction
of the x-axis. Similar expressions may be written for the other sides and corner boundaries:

Fx = −ρCp (vxm − vxff )A + Fxff (2.9)

Fy = −ρCs (vym − vyff )A + Fyff (2.10)

Fz = −ρCs (vzm − vzff )A + Fzff (2.11)

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where: ρ = density of material along vertical model boundary;

Cp = p-wave speed at the side boundary;
Cs = s-wave speed at the side boundary;
A = area of influence of free-field gridpoint;
vxm = x-velocity of gridpoint in main grid at side boundary;
vym = y-velocity of gridpoint in main grid at side boundary;
vzm = z-velocity of gridpoint in main grid at side boundary;
vxff = x-velocity of gridpoint in side free field;
vyff = y-velocity of gridpoint in side free field;
vzff = z-velocity of gridpoint in side free field;
Fxff = ff stresses
free-field gridpoint force with contributions from the σxx
of the free-field zones around the gridpoint;
Fyff ff stresses
= free-field gridpoint force with contributions from the σxy
of the free-field zones around the gridpoint; and
Fzff ff stresses
= free-field gridpoint force with contributions from the σxz
of the free-field zones around the gridpoint.

In this way, plane waves propagating upward suffer no distortion at the boundary because the free-
field grid supplies conditions that are identical to those in an infinite model. If the main grid is
uniform and there is no surface structure, the lateral dashpots are not exercised because the free-field
grid executes the same motion as the main grid. However, if the main-grid motion differs from that
of the free field (due, for example, to a surface structure that radiates secondary waves), then the
dashpots act to absorb energy in a manner similar to quiet boundaries.

B D
free field

free field

A C

seismic wave

Figure 2.19 Model for seismic analysis of surface structures and free-field
mesh

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In order to apply the free-field boundary in 3DEC, the model must be oriented such that the base is
horizontal and its normal is in the direction of the y-axis, and the sides are vertical and their normals
are in the direction of either the x- or z-axis. If the direction of propagation of the incident seismic
waves is not vertical, then the coordinate axes can be rotated such that the y-axis coincides with
the direction of propagation. In this case, gravity will act at an angle to the y-axis, and a horizontal
free surface will be inclined with respect to the model boundaries.
The free-field model consists of four plane free-field grids, on the side boundaries of the model and
four column free-field grids at the corners. The plane grids are generated to match the main-grid
zones on the side boundaries, so that there is a one-to-one correspondence between gridpoints in
the free field and the main grid. The four corner free-field columns act as free-field boundaries
for the plane free-field grids. The plane free-field grids are two-dimensional calculations that
assume infinite extension in the direction normal to the plane. The column free-field grids are
one-dimensional calculations that assume infinite extension in both horizontal directions. Both the
plane and column grids consist of standard 3DEC zones, which have gridpoints constrained in such
a way to achieve the infinite extension assumption.
The model should be in static equilibrium before the free-field boundary is applied. The static
equilibrium conditions prior to the dynamic analysis are transferred to the free field automatically
when the command FF apply is invoked. The free-field condition is applied to lateral boundary
gridpoints. All zone data (including model types and current state variables) in the model zones
adjacent to the free field are copied to the free-field region. Free-field stresses are assigned the
average stress of the neighboring grid zone. The dynamic boundary conditions at the base of the
model should be specified before applying the free-field. These base conditions are automatically
transferred to the free field when the free field is applied. Note that the free field is continuous; if
the main grid contains an interface that extends to a model boundary, the interface will not continue
into the free field.
After the FF apply command is issued, the free-field grid will plot automatically whenever blocks
are plotted. Free-field information can be printed with the LIST ff command.
2.6.2.1 Example Using Dynamic Free Field

A simple model of a concrete gravity dam is created. The top boundary of the model is a free
boundary. The base of the model is a viscous (quiet) boundary. Figure 2.21 shows the geometry of
the model with the dam in the center on top. The model is initially run to static equilibrium under
gravity, to equilibrate the body forces and the boundary forces. This must be done prior to applying
the free field boundaries.

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E
pGre0  0  0! u0 i
0..e-
pGrelG,lrG0.3,r3p.0#
 
 30  
r
p

Figure 2.20 Model of dam with free field blocks visible

The next step is to run the model with only viscous boundaries. An impulse shear stress function
is applied to the base of the model. In this model, the boundaries are too close and it can be seen in
Figure 2.21 that there is amplification of the x-velocities at the base, and distortion of the motion
at the dam crest.

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E 
pGre0  0  0! u0 i
0,e3, 
pGrelG,lrG0.4,r4p.0b

  
p0$0 0 0 
,0$0 0 0  

i0




   crt









       
 cr

Figure 2.21 x-velocity histories at model base and dam crest using viscous
boundaries

Next, the model is rerun using the free field. The free field command creates new blocks at the
boundary of the model and automatically zones them. Again, the impulse shear stress is applied to
the base. The dynamic input consists of a sinusoidal shear stress wave applied at the model base.
Figure 2.22 shows the x-velocity histories for the base and dam crest. In this case, there is no
amplification of the base wave or distortion at the dam crest.

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E
pGre0  0  0! u0 i 
0..e-
pGrelG,lrG0.3,r3p.0b

  
p0$0 0 0  
,0$0 0 0 
i0




   crt

















           
 cr

Figure 2.22 x-velocities of the base and dam crest using free field boundaries

Example 2.9 Dynamic free field boundary example

new
; -------------------------------------------------------------------
;
; example of dynamic free-field analysis of dam
; impulse stress wave applied at base, free top
;
; -------------------------------------------------------------------
;
config dyn lh
;
title
Dynamic Analysis of a Dam
;
po reg -100 100 -100 0 -100 100
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
plot set dip 125 dd 60
jset dip 0 dd 0 or 0 -30 0
hide range y -100 -30
jset dip 45 dd 0 or 0 0 -50

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jset dip 45 dd 180 or 0 0 50

hide range z -100 -50
hide range z 50 100
jset dip 90 dd 90 or -12 0 0
del range x -100 -12 y -30 0 z -50 50
jset dip 51 dd 90 or -12 0 0
del range x 12 100 y -30 0 z -50 50
change mat 2
find
hide range bmat 2
join
jset dip 30 dd 270 or 30 -30 0 sp 50 n 5
find
gen ed 26
;
; E = 50000 MPa, v=0.25
; dens = 2500 kg/m3
; cp = 4899 m/s
; cs = 2828 m/s
prop mat 1 dens 0.0025 bulk 33333 shear 20000
prop jmat 1 jkn 10000 jks 4000 jcoh 1e10 jtens 1e10
prop mat 2 dens 0.0025 bulk 20000 shear 12000
prop jmat 2 jkn 10000 jks 4000 jcoh 1e10 jtens 1e10

bou yvel 0 range y -101 -99

bou xvel 0 range x -101 -99
bou xv 0 range x 99 101
bou zv 0 range z -101 -99
bou zv 0 range z 99 101
insitu stress 0 0 0 0 0 0 ygrad 0.00125 0.0025 0.00125 0 0 0
grav 0 -10 0

damp auto
cycle 2000
;
damp 0 0 mass
reset time hist disp
hist unbal
hist xvel 0 0 0
hist xvel 0 -100 0
hist xvel -40 -28 -20
hist label 2 ’X velocity at crest’
hist label 3 ’X velocity at base’
save ff1.3dsav
res ff1.3dsav
;

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; viscous boundaries only

;
boun xvisc range x -101 -99
boun xvisc range x 99 101
boun zvisc range z -101 -99
boun zvisc range z 99 101
bound str 0 0 0 2.0 0 0 hist imp 5 1000 range y -101 -99
bound xvisc yvisc zvisc range y -101 -99
bound mat 1
cy ti 0.4
save ff2.3dsav
plot create plot Hist
plot hist 2 3 linestyle style dot xaxis label ’Cycles’
plot mod 1 hist yaxis label ’Velocity’
;
; run with Free Field Boundary
;
res ff1.3dsav
;
; --- create FF ---
;
ffield apply gap 10 thick 10
bound str 0 0 0 2.0 0 0 hist imp 5 1000 range y -101 -99
bound xvisc yvisc zvisc range y -101 -99
bound mat 1
cy ti 0.4
save ff3.3dsav
plot create plot Hist
plot hist 2 3 linestyle style dot xaxis label ’Cycles’
plot mod 1 hist yaxis label ’Velocity’
ret

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2.7 Application of Dynamic Input

In 3DEC, the dynamic input can be applied in one of two ways: (a) as a prescribed velocity history;
or (b) as a stress history. Option (a) enforces an exact given velocity history. If only an acceleration
history is available, it must be integrated numerically to produce a velocity history for 3DEC.
The disadvantage of option (a) is that this boundary will not be an absorbing (or nonreflecting)
boundary (i.e., it will reflect back into the model any outgoing stress waves). To avoid this, option
(b) can be used: the velocity record is transformed into a stress record and applied to a nonreflecting
(viscous) boundary. A velocity history may be converted to a stress boundary condition for similar
purposes using the formula

σn = 2 (ρ Cp ) Vn (2.12)

or

σs = 2(ρ Cs ) Vs (2.13)

where:σn = applied normal stress;

σs = applied shear stress;
ρ = mass density;
Cp = speed of p-wave propagation through medium;
Cs = speed of s-wave propagation through medium;
Vn = input normal velocity; and
Vs = input shear velocity.

Recall that Cp is given by

 1/2
Cp = (K + 4/3G) / ρ

and Cs is given by

Cs = (G / ρ)1/2

The factor of two in Eqs. (2.12) and (2.13) accounts for the fact that the applied stress must be
doubled to overcome the effect of the viscous boundary. Note that, in this case, a velocity history
obtained at the boundary may be different than that from the original velocity record because of the
one-dimensional approximations of Eqs. (2.12) and (2.13).

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2.7.1 Baseline Correction of Input Histories

The process of “baseline correction” is performed on time histories so that the final velocity and/or
displacement is zero. For example, the velocity waveform in Figure 2.23(a) might integrate to give
the displacement waveform in Figure 2.23(b). However, it is possible to determine a low frequency
wave (Figure 2.23(c)) which, when added to the original history, produces a final displacement that
is zero (Figure 2.23(d)). The low frequency wave in Figure 2.23(c) can be a polynomial or a sine
function, with free parameters that are adjusted to give the desired results.
The preceding comments really only apply to complex waveforms derived, for example, from field
measurements. When using a synthetic, simple waveform, it is a simple matter to arrange the
synthetic waveform itself such that the final displacement is zero. Normally, in seismic analysis,
the input wave is an acceleration record. The baseline correction procedure can cause both the final
velocity and displacement to be zero. (For information on standard baseline correction procedures,
consult earthquake engineering texts.)

velocity

time
(a) velocity history

displacement

time
(b) displacement history

velocity

time
(c) low frequency velocity wave

displacement

time
(d) resultant displacement history

Figure 2.23 The baseline correction process

An alternative to baseline correction of the input record is to apply a displacement shift at the end of
the calculation if there is a residual displacement of the entire model. This can be done by applying
a fixed velocity to the mesh to reduce the residual displacement to zero. This action will not affect

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the mechanics of the deformation of the model. Computer codes to perform baseline corrections
are available from several Internet sites. For example, http://nsmp.wr.usgs.gov/processing.html
provides such a code.

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2.8 Calculation of Natural Frequencies and Modes of Vibration

3DEC is primarily intended to simulate structural failure. However, for full practical application,
3DEC should also be able to simulate accurately the dynamic response of structures in the elastic
range. The performance of 3DEC block models subjected to dynamic excitation in the elastic
range can be demonstrated by calculating the natural frequencies and modes of vibration for small
amplitude vibrations.
3DEC contains the command DYNAMIC eigenmodes, which can be executed to calculate natural
frequencies for different modes of vibration in a block system. The command is only available
for rigid block models. The calculation of natural frequencies and modes of vibration assumes
that the structural system is elastic. The kinematic variables of the system of rigid blocks are the
6 degrees of freedom of each block, 3 translations and 3 rotations. In a rigid block model, the
deformability is given by the joint stiffness. A global stiffness matrix for the rigid block system
is assembled, which relates the forces and moments applied to the blocks by their neighbors with
the block displacements and rotations. The mass matrix is assumed to be diagonal, for each block
consisting of 3 entries equal to the block mass and the 3 moments of inertia in the 3 coordinate
directions. This assumption involves an approximation as the moments of inertia in the coordinate
directions are not, in general, the principal moments of inertia of the block.
The global stiffness matrix is formed by assembling the elementary stiffness matrix for each sub-
contact. Assuming small displacements, unit displacements and rotations are considered for each of
the 2 blocks in contact. For each of these 12 configurations, the sub-contact normal and shear forces
are calculated based on normal and shear stiffness and sub-contact area. The forces and moments
that result at the centroid of each of the 2 blocks provide the columns of the contact stiffness matrix
for each of the 12 configurations. Adding the elementary sub-contact matrices leads to the stiffness
matrix of the contact between the 2 blocks. The global stiffness matrix is obtained by assembling
all the contact matrices.
A simple vector iteration procedure is used to calculate the eigenvalues. The algorithm gives the first
N eigenvalues requested, although the ordering may not always be exact. For example, when there
are multiple eigenvalues (e.g., for symmetric structures). It is necessary that at least one block be
fixed and that the system have no completely separate blocks. The dynamic (unscaled) masses must
have been calculated. Therefore, the command SET dynamic on must have been given, followed
by a CYCLE 0 command to force the calculation of dynamic masses. The stiffness matrix requires
a large storage. Therefore, it is recommended that the run not be continued after the eigenvalue
calculation (i.e., save the state before it, and continue the dynamic analysis from that saved file).
The response of a 3DEC rigid block model subjected to low level vibration can be verified for the
analysis of bending of pillars and walls. Lemos (2007) presents two verification examples: elastic
vibration modes of a square pillar and of a wall with variable thickness. A version of the square
pillar example is presented here. The verification involves a pillar, 10 m high, with a square section
of 1 × 1 m, composed of 10 blocks, and assumed clamped at the base (Figure 2.24).
The mass density of the pillar material is 2500 kg/m3. The blocks are rigid, and the normal and
shear stiffnesses are 1.0 GPa/m and 0.4 GPa/m, respectively. The data file for the 3DEC model is

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listed in Example 2.10. The command DYNAMIC eigenmodes modes 6 is executed to calculate the
first six modes of vibration. The descriptions of these modes calculated in 3DEC are as follows:
mode 1 – 1st bending mode
mode 2 – mode shape orthogonal to mode 1
mode 3 – 2nd bending mode
mode 4 – mode shape orthogonal to mode 2
mode 5 – 1st torsional mode
mode 6 – 3rd bending mode
Note that in order to provide a more accurate representation of bending behavior, additional contacts
are added between rigid blocks in this model. This is achieved with the FACETRIANGLE rad8
command, which adds a center vertex and 4 mid-edge vertices between two rigid blocks for a total
of 9 point contacts. This improves the calculation for bending moments (see Lemos 2007).

β=0

5
α= 0

4
total
ξ i / ξ min

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

ωi

Figure 2.24 Square pillar model

The natural frequencies for the first three bending modes of the pillar are compared to values
calculated from Timoshenko beam theory (Chopra 1995, and Ferreira and Fasshauer 2006). The
natural frequencies for the first three bending modes are listed in Table 2.3. The values compare
reasonably closely to the values from Timoshenko beam theory.

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Table 2.3 Natural frequencies (Hz) of bending modes for the square pillar
Bending mode 3DEC rigid block model Timoshenko beam theory

1st 1.13 1.02

2nd 6.56 6.09
3rd 14.8 16.1

Example 2.10 Elastic vibration modes of a square pillar

new
title
Elastic vibration modes of a square pillar
;
config dyn
;
poly brick 0 1 0 1 0 10
jset dip 0 dd 0 origin 0 0 1
jset dip 0 dd 0 origin 0 0 2
jset dip 0 dd 0 origin 0 0 3
jset dip 0 dd 0 origin 0 0 4
jset dip 0 dd 0 origin 0 0 5
jset dip 0 dd 0 origin 0 0 6
jset dip 0 dd 0 origin 0 0 7
jset dip 0 dd 0 origin 0 0 8
jset dip 0 dd 0 origin 0 0 9

poly brick -1 2 -1 2 -1 0 region 10

facetriangle rad8

prop mat 1 dens 2500

prop jmat 1 jkn 1e9 jks .4e9 jcoh 1e20 jtens 1e20
grav 0 0 -10
fix reg 10
hist unbal
hist zdis 0 0 10
set dyn off
cyc 0
save sqp1
cyc 1000
save sqp2
;

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; calculate eigenvalues for first 6 modes

set dyn on
cyc 0

dynamic eigen modes 6

save sqpmodes

; plot mode 1
dyn eigen setm 1
plot create plot Blocks
plot add block
plot add disp arrowhead on

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2.9 Verification Examples

2.9.1 Slip on a Joint Induced by a Propagating Harmonic Shear Wave

2.9.1.1 Problem Statement

This problem concerns the effects of a planar discontinuity on the propagation of an incident
shear wave. Two homogeneous, isotropic, semi-infinite elastic regions, separated by a planar
discontinuity with a limited shear strength, are shown in Figure 2.25. A normally incident, plane-
harmonic shear wave will cause slip at the discontinuity, resulting in frictional energy dissipation.
Thus, the energy will be reflected, transmitted and absorbed at the discontinuity. The problem is
modeled with 3DEC, and the results are used to determine the coefficients of transmission, reflection
and absorption. These coefficients are compared with ones given by an analytical solution (Miller
1978).

UT

UI UR
A

Figure 2.25 Transmission and reflection of incident harmonic wave at a dis-

continuity

2.9.1.2 Analytic Solution

The coefficients of reflection (R), transmission (T ) and absorption (A) given by Miller (1978) for
the case of uniform material are

ER
R= (2.14)
EI

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ET
T = (2.15)
EI


A= 1 − R2 − T 2 (2.16)

where EI , ET and ER represent the energy flux per unit area per cycle of oscillation associated
with the incident, transmitted and reflected waves, respectively. The coefficient A is a measure of
the energy absorbed at the discontinuity. The energy flux EI is given by

t1 +T
EI = σs vs dt (2.17)
t1

where:T = (2π) / ω = the period for the incident wave;

σs = shear stress;
vs = particle velocity in the x-direction; and
ω = frequency of incident wave (radian/sec).

For elastic media,

σs = ρ c vs (2.18)

Hence,

t1 +T
EI = ρ c vs2 dt (2.19)
t1

in which c is the velocity of the propagating shear wave.

The energy flux of the incident wave, EI , is evaluated at Point A (see Figure 2.25) for no slip at the
discontinuity. The energy flux of the transmitted wave, ET , is evaluated at Point B for the case of
slip at the discontinuity. The energy flux of the reflected wave, ER , is calculated by determining
the difference of velocities in two cases: slip and no slip.

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2.9.1.3 Numerical Model

The numerical results are determined for four values of the dimensionless frequency ωγ U/τs ,
where γ = (ρG)1/2 , τs = discontinuity cohesion, U = displacement amplitude of incident wave, ρ
= density of the media and G = shear modulus of the media.
The problem geometry modeled by 3DEC is shown in Figure 2.26. The media were modeled with
elastic, fully deformable blocks of height (h/2), width b and length l. The blocks are separated
by a planar discontinuity extending in the xz-plane. The blocks were internally discretized into
tetrahedral zones, as shown in Figure 2.27. Nonreflecting boundary conditions were used on the top
and bottom of the model. Displacements at boundaries along the yz-plane at x = 0 and x = b were
restrained in the y-direction to simulate plane shear wave conditions. Displacements at boundaries
were restrained in the z-direction along the xy-plane at z = 0 and z = l to simulate the plane-strain
condition.

b = 120 m

z y

h = 400 m
x
Planar
discontinuity

l = 30 m A

Harmonic
shear wave
applied

Figure 2.26 Geometry for the problem of slip induced by harmonic shear

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Figure 2.27 3DEC block model showing internal discretization

2.9.1.4 Material Properties

The material properties of the elastic media and planar discontinuity are given in Tables 2.4 and
2.5:

Table 2.4 Medium properties

Mass density dens 2,650 kg/m3
Shear modulus g 10,000 MPa
Bulk modulus k 16,667 MPa

Table 2.5 Discontinuity properties

Normal stiffness kn 10,000 MPa/m
Shear stiffness ks 10,000 MPa/m
Friction angle jfric 0
Cohesion jcoh 2.5, 0.5, 0.1 and 0.02 MPa

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2.9.1.5 Dynamic Loading

The harmonic shear stress applied at the bottom boundary has the following characteristics:

maximum stress of incident wave 1.0 MPa

frequency of incident wave 1 Hz

type of harmonic wave sinusoidal

Note that the magnitude of the incident wave must be doubled in the numerical model to account
for the simultaneous presence of the nonreflecting boundary.
2.9.1.6 Results

The analytical solution for wave propagation through a slipping discontinuity (Miller 1978) assumes
a Mohr-Coulomb discontinuity failure criterion with constant cohesion. In 3DEC, however, when
discontinuity shear and/or tensile strength is exceeded, the cohesion and tension are ignored in all
subsequent calculations. Because the analytical solution assumes a constant discontinuity cohesion
regardless of stress history, a FISH function which prevents setting cohesion and tension to zero when
discontinuity shear and/or tensile strength is exceeded was prepared (see the file “MILR3D.FIS” in
Example 2.12).
An initial run assumed that the discontinuity remains elastic by setting the discontinuity cohesion
to 2.5 MPa. A stress wave of amplitude 1 MPa and frequency 1 Hz was applied at the base of the
model. It should be noted that the displacements and velocities are determined at the nodal points
of the tetrahedron. The stresses, however, are determined at the centroid of the tetrahedron. The
time histories of shear stress, velocity and displacement are monitored at Points A (40, 15, −200)
and B (40, 15, 200). The linear history of stresses are monitored close to Points A and B. The shear
stresses at Points A and B are shown in Figure 2.28. From the amplitude of the stress history at
A and B, it is clear that there was perfect transmission of the wave through the discontinuity. It is
also clear from Figure 2.28 that the nonreflecting boundary condition provides perfect absorption
of normally incident waves.
In the next run, the cohesion was lowered to 0.5 MPa to permit slip along the discontinuity. The
recorded shear stresses at Points A and B are shown in Figure 2.29. The peak stress at Point A
is the superposition of the incident wave and the wave reflected from the slipping discontinuity.
Figures 2.30 and 2.31 show the shear stress at Points A and B for a discontinuity cohesion of 0.1
and 0.02 MPa. It can be seen in Figures 2.29 through 2.31 that the shear stress of Point B is limited
by the discontinuity strength at 0.5, 0.1 and 0.02 MPa, respectively.

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 54 Optional Features

E 
pGre0  0  0! u0 i


0,GGG
pGrelG,lrG0.:,r:,,0T
  
r0 0T 
p0 0m
i030 


 m^0



 m









       


Figure 2.28 Shear stress vs time at Points A and B for the case of an elastic
discontinuity (cohesion = 2.5 MPa)

E 
pGre0  0  0! u0 i


0,GGG
pGrelG,lrG0.:,r:,,0T
  
r0 0T 
p0 0m
i030 

 m^0




 m










       


Figure 2.29 Shear stress vs time at Points A and B for the case of an elastic
discontinuity (cohesion = 0.5 MPa)

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 55

E 
pGre0  0  0! u0 i
0,GGG
pGrelG,lrG0.:,r:,.0T 
  

r0 0T
p0 0m
i030 


 m^0



 m









       


Figure 2.30 Shear stress vs time at Points A and B for the case of an elastic
discontinuity (cohesion = 0.1 MPa)

E
pGre0  0  0! u0 i 
0,GGG
pGrelG,lrG0.:,r:,.0T

  
r0 0T
p0 0m 
i030 


 m^0




 m











       



Figure 2.31 Shear stress vs time at Points A and B for the case of an elastic
discontinuity (cohesion = 0.02 MPa)

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2 - 56 Optional Features

The energy flux, EI , is evaluated using Eq. (2.17) at Point A for non-slipping discontinuities (i.e.,
cohesion = 2.5 MPa). ET is evaluated at Point B for the slipping discontinuity (i.e., cohesion = 0.5,
0.1 and 0.02 MPa). ER is determined at Point B by taking the difference in velocity from the runs with
slipping and non-slipping discontinuities. The coefficients of reflection (R), transmission (T ) and
absorption (A) are computed using Eq. (2.15) (see FISH function energy in file “MILR3D.FIS”
in Example 2.12), and are plotted in Figure 2.31, along with the analytical solution (Miller 1978).
The 3DEC results agree very well with the analytical solution (Figure 2.31).

1.0

0.8
A
R
0.6 T

0.4

0.2

0
0.1 1 2 10 50 100 1000

MC7
Js
Figure 2.32 Comparison of transmission, reflection and absorption coeffi-
cients

Example 2.11 MILR3D.3DDAT

new
;=======================================================================
; verification test -- 3DEC modeling of slipping crack under cyclic load
; Joint Model: Mohr-Coulomb Model
; elastic blocks
; dynamic analysis
;=======================================================================
config dynamic
poly brick 0,80 0,30 -200,200
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 57

;
jset dd=90 dip 0 origin 80,0,0
;
gen edge 31
;
prop mat=1 den=2650 k=16.667e9 g=10.0e9
;
; set boundary material property and viscous boundary along xy
; plane at z=-200 and z=200
bound mat=1 range z -200
bound xvisc zvisc range z -200
bound mat=1 range z 200
bound xvisc zvisc range z 200
;
; set roller boundary along xz plane at y=0 and y=30
bound yvel=0 range y 0
bound yvel=0 range y 30
;
; set zvel=0 along yz plane at x=0 and x=80
bound zvel=0 range x 0
bound zvel=0 range x 80
;
; shear stress along xz plane at z=-200
; set sinusoidal wave function for the
; applied stress at the boundary
; freq = 1 Hz
bound hist sin(1.0,5.0) stress 0,0,0,0,2e6,0 range z -200
;
; set histories
hist n=25
; select zone address and shear stress offset
hist sxz 40,15,-200 sxz 40,15,200
hist xvel(40,15,-200) xvel(40,15,200)
hist xdis(40,15,-200) xdis(40,15,200)
hist time
hist label 1 ’Point A’
hist label 2 ’Point B’
;
insitu stress 0,0,-1e-6,0,0,0
call milr3d.3dfis
save milr3d.3dsav
;
tab 1 0,0
tab 2 0,0
tab 3 0,0
prop jmat=1 jkn=10.0e9 jks=10.0e9 jcoh=2.5e6 jten=1e12

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2 - 58 Optional Features

plot create plot Hist

plot hist 1 2 linestyle style dot vs 7 &
xaxis label ’Time’ yaxis label ’Shear displacement’
cyc 3000
table 2 write table1
save milr3d_a.3dsav
;pause key
;
;=======================================================================
;
res milr3d.3dsav
tab 1 read table1
tab 1 0,0
tab 2 0,0
tab 3 0,0
set @time0_ 0.0
prop jmat=1 jkn=10.0e9 jks=10.0e9 jcoh=0.5e6 jten=1e12
cyc 3000
@energy
save milr3d_b.3dsav
;pause key
;
;=======================================================================
;
restore milr3d.3dsav
tab 1 read table1
tab 1 0,0
tab 2 0,0
tab 3 0,0
set @time0_ 0.0
prop jmat=1 jkn=10.0e9 jks=10.0e9 jcoh=0.1e6 jten=1e12
cyc 3000
@energy
save milr3d_c.3dsav
;pause key
;
;=======================================================================
;
restore milr3d.3dsav
tab 1 read table1
tab 1 0,0
tab 2 0,0
tab 3 0,0
set @time0_ 0.0
prop jmat=1 jkn=10.0e9 jks=10.0e9 jcoh=0.02e6 jten=1e12
cyc 3000

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DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 59

@energy
save milr3d_d.3dsav
ret
;

Example 2.12 MILR3D.3DFIS

;==================================================
;
; implements perfectly plastic joint response
; joint does not soften after yielding
;
;==================================================
def _correction
while_stepping
icon_ = contact_head
loop while icon_ # 0
icx_ = c_cx(icon_)
loop while icx_ # 0
cx_state(icx_) = 0
icx_ = cx_next(icx_)
end_loop
icon_ = c_next(icon_)
end_loop
end

def _speed
speed_ = sqrt(shear_/dens_)
time1_ = height_/speed_
time2_ = time1_ + 1./freq_
agp_ = gp_near(60,-200,30)
bgp_ = gp_near(60, 200,30)
end
set @shear_ 1.e10 @dens_ 2650. @height_ 400. @freq_ 1.
@_speed

def _store1
while_stepping
if time > time1_ then
if time0_ = 0.0 then
time0_ = time
end_if
if time < time2_ then
rtime_ = time-time0_
table(2,rtime_) = gp_xvel(agp_)

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2 - 60 Optional Features

table(3,rtime_) = gp_xvel(bgp_)
end_if
end_if
end

;===================================================
;
; calculate coefficients of transmission, reflection
; and absorbtion
;
;===================================================
def energy
dt_ = tdel
items = table_size(1)
factor = dens_ * speed_
Ei = 0.0
Et = 0.0
Er = 0.0
t_n_1 = 0.0
nac = 0
AAA = 0.0
TTT = 0.0
RRR = 0.0
loop i (1,items)
Vsa_e = ytable(1,i)
Vsa_s = ytable(2,i)
Vsb_s = ytable(3,i)
Ei = Ei + factor * Vsa_e * Vsa_e * dt_
Et = Et + factor * Vsb_s * Vsb_s * dt_
Er = Er + factor * (Vsa_s-Vsa_e) * (Vsa_s-Vsa_e) * dt_
end_loop
RRR = sqrt(Er/Ei)
TTT = sqrt(Et/Ei)
AAA = AAA + sqrt(1.0-RRR*RRR-TTT*TTT)
command
set logfile milr3d.log
set log on
list @RRR
list @AAA
list @TTT
set log off
end_command
end

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 61

2.9.2 Line Source in an Infinite Elastic Medium with a Discontinuity

2.9.2.1 Problem Statement

This problem concerns the dynamic behavior of a single discontinuity under explosive loading.
The problem, shown in Figure 2.33, consists of a planar crack of infinite lateral extent in an elastic
medium, and a dynamic load at some distance, h, from the discontinuity. This problem was
modeled using 3DEC to determine the dynamic response of the discontinuity for a line source (in
the z-direction). The slip of the interface at a Point P , obtained by numerical analysis using 3DEC,
is compared with the closed-form solution derived by Day (1985).

Explosive
Line Source

h P

Crack
Plane
X

ε x

Figure 2.33 Problem geometry for an explosive source near a slip-prone dis-
continuity

2.9.2.2 Analytic Solution

The closed-form solution for crack slip as a function of time was derived by Day (1985) and is
given by

2mo β 2  p ηα ηβ   2r −1/2 −1/2

δu(x, t) = 2
Re τ+ τ H (τ ) (2.20)
πρα R(p) α

where:r = (x 2 + h2 )1/2 , distance from the point source to the point on the crack where the slip
is monitored;
H (τ ) = step function;
τ = t − (r/α);

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2 - 62 Optional Features

mo = source strength;
α = velocity of pressure wave;
β = velocity of shear wave;
ρ = density;
1/2
ηα = (α −2 − p2 ) , Re ηα ≥ 0;
1/2
ηβ = (β −2 − p2 ) , Re ηβ ≥ 0;
2
R(p) = (1 − 2β 2 p2 ) + 4β 4 ηα ηβ p2 + 2β ηβ γ ; and
 
   
2r 1/2 1/2
p = r2 τ + α x + i τ + α
1 r
τ h .

The slip response of the discontinuity for any source history, S(t), can be obtained by convolution
of Figure 2.33 and the source function, S(t):

0.5 [1 − cos(πt/0.6)] t < 0.6

S(t) =
1.0 t ≥ 0.6

Figure 2.34 shows the dimensionless analytical results of slip history at a Point P for a smooth step
function, and for the following values of the variables: α 2 = 3β 2 , h = x and γ = 0. The analytic
solution is implemented in FISH function ana slp (listed in Example 2.16).

0.5
Dimensionless Slip

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

DIMENSIONLESS Time

Figure 2.34 Dimensionless analytical results of slip history at Point P (dimen-

sionless slip = (4hρβ 2 /mo )δu, dimensionless time = tβ/ h) (Day
1985)

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DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 63

2.9.2.3 Model Setup

Figure 2.35 shows the problem geometry modeled by 3DEC. The source is located at A
(x = 0 and z = 2 h), and the discontinuity is located at z = h. The dynamic input was ap-
plied at the semicircular boundary of radius 0.05 h. The slip movement was monitored at Point P
on the discontinuity.
The continuous medium was modeled with elastic, fully deformable blocks, as shown in Figure 2.36,
and each block was further discretized into tetrahedral zones. In order to generate only one zone
in the y-direction, the thickness of the block in the y-direction and the average edge length of
the tetrahedron were assumed to be the same. The average edge length was 0.065 h. All of the
joints except the discontinuity were “joined” in order to model a continuous elastic medium. The
discontinuity was assigned a high normal stiffness and high tensile strength in order to meet the
assumption implied in the analytical solution.
Nonreflecting boundary conditions were applied along the horizontal boundaries at the top and
bottom of the model and along the vertical boundary at x = 4 h. A symmetric boundary condition
was applied along the vertical boundary at x = 0. In order to simulate plane-strain conditions,
displacement in the y-direction is restrained along xz-planes at y = 0 and y = 0.065 h.

4h

2h

Dynamic Input P
h Discontinuity
h

h
z y
x Non-Reflecting
Boundary

Figure 2.35 Problem geometry and boundary conditions for numerical model

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 64 Optional Features

Figure 2.36 3DEC model showing semicircular source and “joined” blocks
used to provide appropriate zoned discretization

2.9.2.4 Properties of Joints and Continuous Medium

The following properties were used for the elastic blocks:

Table 2.6 Material properties

Geometric scale h = 10, 000 MPa/m
Mass density dens 10,000 MPa/m
Shear modulus g 100 Pa
Bulk modulus k 166.67 Pa

The Mohr-Coulomb joint constitutive relation was used in the analysis. The specific 3DEC param-
eters used for the joint relation are listed in Table 2.7:

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 65

Table 2.7 Discontinuity properties

Normal stiffness kn 10,000 Pa/m
Shear stiffness ks 0.1 Pa/m
Friction angle jfric 0
Cohesion jcoh 0

2.9.2.5 Dynamic Loading

Radial velocities corresponding to the dynamic solution for a line source in an infinite medium
were enforced at the semicircular boundary. To avoid problems with the singularity at the source,
dynamic input was applied over a surface 0.05 h from the nominal point source.
UDEC analysis with both velocity and pressure input showed that velocity input gives a better
match with the analytical solution than pressure input. The velocity boundary provides a more
accurate representation of the dynamic stress than the pressure boundary, because in pressure input,
the source function is simply scaled by static stress magnitude and neglects the inertial effects of
dynamic stress at the input boundary.
The radial displacement for a line source given by Lemos (1987) is

 −1/2
1 t t 2 α2
u=− −1 , t > r/α (2.21)
2 π α r2 r2

where r is the radial distance.

The corresponding velocity is

 −3/2
1 1 t 2 α2
v=− −1 , t > r/α (2.22)
2 π α r2 r2

The actual input velocity record at r = 0.05 h, as shown in Figure 2.37, was obtained by convoluting
Eqs. (2.22) and (2.20).

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 66 Optional Features

E 
pGre0  0m 0! u0 i
0.GGr 

pGrelG,lrG0.:,p:S.09
  
p00"  
i030 




 m   









       


Figure 2.37 Input radial velocity time history prescribed at r = 0.05 h (di-
mensionless velocity = (h2 ρβ/mo )v, dimensionless time = τβ/ h)

Velocity history at the boundary at r = 0.05 h is calculated in the FISH function vel inp (listed
in Example 2.15).
2.9.2.6 Results

The dimensionless slip at Point P is plotted against the dimensionless time, and is shown in Fig-
ure 2.38. The dimensionless slip is compared with the analytical solution given by Day (1985).
Velocity input was used on the semicircular region at r = 0.05 h for 3DEC. The error at the peak
slip for 3DEC is 1.7%.
The results shown in Figure 2.38 were obtained with a mesh of maximum zone length of 0.065 h.
The slip response on the discontinuity involves higher frequency components because of zero
friction along the discontinuity. This requires a finer mesh for accurate representation.
The dimensionless slip in Figure 2.38 for 3DEC analysis shows a good agreement with the analytical
solution until the dimensionless time of 1.49. The results show, after dimensionless time of 1.49, a
considerable deviation, which can be attributed to boundary reflections.
Nonreflecting boundaries are used along the top, bottom and right-hand side boundaries. Such
viscous boundaries, designed to absorb normally incident p- and s-waves, cannot be fully effective
in this dynamic slip problem because the discontinuity crosses the boundary. Viscous boundaries,
however, are preferable to roller boundaries.

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 67

E 
pGre0  09 0! u0 i
0.GGr

pGrelG,lrG0.:,p:S.0R
  
,0R  0 

.0,Tm90%
i030 



 m myr-y











       


Figure 2.38 Comparison of dimensionless slip at Point P with Coulomb joint

model (dimensionless slip = (4hρβ 2 /mo )δu, dimensionless time
= τβ/ h)

Example 2.13 DAY3D.3DDAT

new
;==========================================================================
; verification test -- 3dec modeling of slipping crack under dynamic load
; Joint Model: Mohr-Coulomb Model
; elastic blocks
;
; dynamic analysis
;==========================================================================
;
; geometry of the model
;
;
config dynamic lh
poly brick 0,40 0,40 0,0.65
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
;
;

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 68 Optional Features

jset dip 0 dd 0 ori 0,10.0,0

hide 0,40 0,10 0,10
jset dip 45 dd 90 ori 0,25,0 join
hide range plane dip 45 dd 90 ori 0,25,0 above
jset dip 45 dd 270 ori 0,15,0 join
;
seek

tunnel reg 1 &

a 0,20.5,0 0.19,20.46,0 .35,20.35,0 0.46,20.2,0 .5,20.0,0 &
.46,19.8,0 0.35,19.64,0 .19,19.53,0 0.0,19.5,0 &
b 0,20.5,.65 0.19,20.46,.65 .35,20.35,.65 0.46,20.2,.65 .5,20.0,.65 &
.46,19.8,.65 0.35,19.64,.65 .19,19.53,.65 0.0,19.5,.65 &
;
delete range region 1
gen edge 0.650
save day3d.zon
;
;------------------------------------------------------------------------
;set material and joint properties
;
prop mat=1 dens=1.0 k=166.67 g=100.0
prop jmat=1 jkn=10000.0 jks=0.1 jten=1.0e6
;
prop jmat=2 jkn=10000.0 jks=10000.0 jten=1.0e6 jcoh=1.0e6
;
change jmat=2
change jmat=1 range y 9.9 10.1
;
;set boundary material property and viscous boundary
bound mat=1 range y 0
bound xvisc yvisc range y 0 ; xy plane at y=0
;
bound mat=1 range y 40
bound xvisc,yvisc range y 40 ; xy plane at y=40
;
bound mat=1 range x 40
bound xvisc yvisc range x 40 ; xz plane at x=40
;
; set roller boundary along xy plane at z=0 and z=0.65
bound zvel=0 range z 0.0
bound zvel=0 range z 0.65
; set symm boundary along yz plane at x=0
bound xvel=0 range x -1 .5
;
; set velocity boundary condition along cylindrical notch

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 69

;
call vel_inp.3dfis
call ana_slp.3dfis
cycle 1
call day3d.3dfis
@_load
;
insitu stress -1.0e-9 -1.0e-9 -1.0e-9 0 0 0
;
; set histories
hist n=10
hist @dtime_ @bvel_ @aslip_ @nslip1_ @nslip2_
hist xvel 0.5 20 0.3 yvel 0 20.5 .03 yvel 0 19.5 0.03
hist time
hist label 2 ’Input Velocity’
hist label 3 ’Analytic Solution’
hist label 4 ’3DEC Results’
;
plot create plot InputVelocity
plot hist 2 vs 9 xaxis label ’Time’ yaxis label ’Input Velocity’
cycle 4000
save day3d.3dsav
plot create plot JointSlip
plot hist 3 4 linestyle style dot vs 9 &
xaxis label ’time’ yaxis label ’Joint Slip’
ret

Example 2.14 DAY3D.3DFIS

;=====================================================
;
; calculates unit forces on the contour of the opening
;
;=====================================================
;
def _load
ib_ = block_head
loop while ib_ # 0
igp_ = b_gp(ib_)
loop while igp_ # 0
x_ = gp_x(igp_)
y_ = gp_y(igp_)
d_ = sqrt((x_-xc_)*(x_-xc_)+(y_-yc_)*(y_-yc_))
if abs(d_-dist_) < 0.05*dist_
nx_ = (x_-xc_)/d_

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 70 Optional Features

ny_ = (y_-yc_)/d_
command
bo xvel @nx_ yvel @ny_ hist table @_vtab range id @igp_
end_command
end_if
igp_ = gp_next(igp_)
end_loop
ib_ = b_next(ib_)
end_loop
end

set @xc_ 0.0 @yc_ 20.0 @dist_ 0.5

;=====================================================
;
; finds contacts closest to the point of interest
;
;=====================================================
def _find
dfmax_ = 1.e30
dbmax_ = 1.e30
icon_ = contact_head
loop while icon_ # 0
icx_ = c_cx(icon_)
loop while icx_ # 0
x_ = cx_x(icx_)
y_ = cx_y(icx_)
z_ = cx_z(icx_)
dxf_= x_-xf_
dyf_= y_-yf_
dzf_= z_-zf_
dxb_= x_-xb_
dyb_= y_-yb_
dzb_= z_-zb_
df_ = sqrt(dxf_*dxf_+dyf_*dyf_+dzf_*dzf_)
db_ = sqrt(dxb_*dxb_+dyb_*dyb_+dzb_*dzb_)
if df_ < dfmax_ then
dfmax_ = df_
icf_ = icx_
end_if
if db_ < dbmax_ then
dbmax_ = db_
icb_ = icx_
end_if
icx_ = cx_next(icx_)
end_loop

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 71

icon_ = c_next(icon_)
end_loop
vscale_ = m0_/(h_n_*h_n_*rho_*v_s_)
dscale_ = 0.25*m0_/(h_n_*rho_*v_s_*v_s_)
end

set @xf_ 10. @yf_ 10. @zf_ 0.

set @xb_ 10. @yb_ 10. @zb_ 0.65
set @v_s_=10. @h_n_=10. @rho_=1. @m0_=1.
@_find

;=====================================================
;
; stores analytical solution in the histories, and
; convertes numerical solution in the dimensionless
; form
;
;=====================================================
def _compare
while_stepping
dtime_ = time*v_s_/h_n_
bvel_ = table(_vtab,time)/vscale_
aslip_ = table(_utab,dtime_)
xslip1_ = cx_xsdis(icf_)
yslip1_ = cx_ysdis(icf_)
zslip1_ = cx_zsdis(icf_)
xslip2_ = cx_xsdis(icb_)
yslip2_ = cx_ysdis(icb_)
zslip2_ = cx_zsdis(icb_)
nslip1_ = sqrt(xslip1_*xslip1_+yslip1_*yslip1_+zslip1_*zslip1_)
nslip2_ = sqrt(xslip2_*xslip2_+yslip2_*yslip2_+zslip2_*zslip2_)
nslip1_ = nslip1_/dscale_
nslip2_ = nslip2_/dscale_
nslip1_max = max(nslip1_max,nslip1_)
aslip_max = max(aslip_max,aslip_)
end
ret

3DEC Version 5.2

2 - 72 Optional Features

Example 2.15 VEL INP.3DFIS

;=====================================================
;
; Fish function for generating the radial velocity
; input profile at r=0.05h
;
; Input:
; vl --- P-wave velocity
; per --- period of wave
; tt --- total time
; xd --- horizontal distance
; nt --- total number of dat points
;
; Output:
; velocity profile stored in table 1
;=====================================================
;
def ini_par
vl = 0.0
per = 0.0
tt = 0.0
xd = 0.0
nt = 1000
_vtab = 1 ; table storing velocity profile
_fptab = 2
_vhtab = 3
end
@ini_par
;
def vel_inp
if xd <= 0.0
exit
endif
if per <= 0.0
exit
endif
_w = 2.0*pi/per
_dt = tt/float(nt)
_ca = -1./(2.0*pi*vl)
_cb = _ca/(xd * xd)
_cc = _cb * _dt
;
; Obtain velocity record by performing convolution
; using the radial displacement for a step function

3DEC Version 5.2

DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 73

; and second derivative of the pressure history

;
loop _n (1, nt)
_t = float(_n-1) * _dt
xtable(_fptab, _n) = _t
if _t < 0.5*per
ytable(_fptab, _n) = 0.5*_w*_w*cos(_w*_t)
_nfp = _n
else
ytable(_fptab, _n) = 0.0
endif
end_loop
;
; --- displacement -----
;
_t0 = xd/vl
_j0 = int(_t0/_dt)
_j0 = _j0 + 1
loop _n (1, nt)
_t = float(_n-1) * _dt
if _n < _j0
ytable(_vhtab, _n) = 0.0
else
_t = _t0 + 0.5*_dt + float(_n-_j0)*_dt
_cf = _t*vl/xd
_cf2 = _cf * _cf
_cs = sqrt(_cf2 - 1.0)
_cg = _cs / _t
ytable(_vhtab, _n) = _cc / _cg
endif
xtable(_vhtab, _n) = _t
end_loop
;
; ---- velocity ---------
;
ytable(_vtab, 1) = 0.0
xtable(_vtab, 1) = 0.0
loop _n (2, nt)
_vn = 0.0
_j1 = min(_nfp, _n-1)
loop _n1 (1, _j1)
_vn = _vn + ytable(_fptab, _n1) * ytable(_vhtab, (_n - _n1))
end_loop
ytable(_vtab, _n) = _vn
end_loop
;

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2 - 74 Optional Features

; Change sign for pressures source

;
_vmax = -1e20
_vmin = 1e20
loop _n (1, nt)
ytable(_vtab, _n) = -1.0*ytable(_vtab, _n)
_vi = ytable(_vtab, _n)
vmin = min(_vmin, _vi)
vmax = max(_vmax, _vi)
xtable(_vtab, _n) = float(_n-1)*_dt
end_loop
; oo = out(’ vmin, vmax = ’, string(vmin), ’,’, string(vmax))
end
set @vl=17.32 @per=1.2 @tt=1.4 @xd=0.5 @nt=1000
tab @_vtab 0,0
tab @_fptab 0,0
tab @_vhtab 0,0
@vel_inp
ret

Example 2.16 ANA SLP.3DFIS

;=====================================================================
; This function evaluates the dynamic response of the slip of a
; single discontinuity of infinite extent caused by an explosive
; loading. Analytical solution of a line source in an elastic medium
; with a discontinuity is given by S. M. Day (1985).
;
; Input: _nt --- total number of data points to be created
; _dt --- time increment
; _xd --- horizontal distance, x
; _hd --- vertical distance, _hd
; per --- period of input function
; rho --- density
; m0 --- source strength
; gamma --- dimensionless bonding parameter
; _vp --- velocity of pressure wave
; _vs --- velocity of shear wave
;
; Output: Dimensionless relation stored in table 4.
; Non-normalized values are stored in table 6.
;=====================================================================
;
def add_complex
; Summation of two complex variables

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DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 75

; Input : Za, Zb
; Output: Z = Re(Z) + Im(Z)
Re_z = Re_a + Re_b
Im_z = Im_a + Im_b
end
;
def mult_complex
; multiplication of two complex variables
; Input : Za, Zb
; Output: Z = Re(Z) + Im(Z)
Re_z = Re_a*Re_b - Im_a*Im_b
Im_z = Re_a*Im_b + Im_a*Re_b
end
;
def divi_complex
; division of complex variables Za/Zb
_deno = Re_b * Re_b + Im_b * Im_b
if _deno = 0.0
divi_compex = 1
exit
endif
Re_z = (Re_a*Re_b + Im_a*Im_b)/_deno
Im_z = (Im_a*Re_b - Re_a*Im_b)/_deno
end
;
def sqrt_complex
; squart root of a complex variable
; Input : Zx
; Output: Zr = Re(Zr) + Im(Zr)
; _theta = atan2(Im_x, Re_x) * 0.5
_arg = float(Im_x/Re_x)
_theta = atan(_arg) * 0.5
_sqrtr = sqrt(sqrt(Re_x*Re_x + Im_x*Im_x))
Re_zr = _sqrtr*cos(_theta)
Im_zr = _sqrtr*sin(_theta)
end
;
def ana_slp
;
; Input _nt, _dt, _xd, _hd, gamma, per, rho
;
_dt = float(_dt)
_xd = float(_xd)
_hd = float(_hd)
gamma = float(gamma)
per = float(per)

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2 - 76 Optional Features

rho = float(rho)
;
_vs2 = _vs*_vs
_vs4 = _vs2*_vs2
_2vs2 = 2.0 * _vs2
_4vs4 = 4.0 * _vs4
_r = sqrt(_xd*_xd + _hd*_hd)
_r2 = _r * _r
loop _n (1, _nt)
_t = float(_n) * _dt
_tau = _t - _r/_vp
if _tau > 0.0
_t2r2 = sqrt(_t*_t - (_r/_vp)*(_r/_vp))
Re_cp = _t*_xd / _r2
Im_cp = _t2r2*_hd / _r2
Re_a = Re_cp
Im_a = Im_cp
Re_b = Re_cp
Im_b = Im_cp
mult_complex ; Zˆ 2 ---> Re(Z) + Im(Z)
Re_z2 = Re_z
Im_z2 = Im_z
;
Re_x = 1.0/(_vp*_vp) - Re_z2
Im_x = -1.0 * Im_z2
sqrt_complex ; sqrt(Zx)
Re_cetap = Re_zr
Im_cetap = Im_zr
;
Re_x = 1.0/(_vs*_vs) - Re_z2
Im_x = -1.0 * Im_z2
sqrt_complex ; sqrt(Zx)
Re_cetas = Re_zr
Im_cetas = Im_zr
;
Re_a = 1.0 - _2vs2 * Re_z2
Im_a = -1.0 * _2vs2 * Im_z2
Re_b = Re_a
Im_b = Im_a
mult_complex ; (1. - 2.*vsˆ 2*cpˆ 2) ˆ 2
Re_temp1 = Re_z
Im_temp1 = Im_z
;
Re_a = Re_cetap
Im_a = Im_cetap
Re_b = Re_cetas

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DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 77

Im_b = Im_cetas
mult_complex ; cetap * cetas
Re_a = Re_z
Im_a = Im_z
Re_b = Re_z2
Im_b = Im_z2
mult_complex ; cetap * cetas * cpˆ 2
Re_temp2 = _4vs4 * Re_z
Im_temp2 = _4vs4 * Im_z
;
Re_cr = Re_temp1 + Re_temp2
Im_cr = Im_temp1 + Im_temp2
Re_cr = Re_cr + 2.0 * _vs * gamma * Re_cetas
Im_cr = Im_cr + 2.0 * _vs * gamma * Im_cetas
_dut = 2.0*m0*_vs*_vs/(pi*rho*_vp*_vp)
; note Re_a, Im_a store (cetap*cetas)
Re_b = Re_cp
Im_b = Im_cp
mult_complex ; cetap * cetas * cp
;
Re_a = Re_z
Im_a = Im_z
Re_b = Re_cr
Im_b = Im_cr
if divi_complex = 1 ; cetap * cetas * cp / cr
oo = out(’ divided by zero’)
exit
endif
_dut = _dut * Re_z / _t2r2
ytable(_utab, _n) = _dut
else
ytable(_utab, _n) = 0.0
endif
end_loop
;
_nf = int(per/_dt + 0.0001)
_sum = 0.0
loop _n (1, _nf)
_ph = float(_n) * _dt / per
if _ph < 1.0
ytable(_ftab, _n) = sin(pi * _ph)
else
ytable(_ftab, _n) = 0.0
endif
_sum = _sum + ytable(_ftab, _n)
end_loop

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2 - 78 Optional Features

;
; du vs. time relation
;
loop _i (1, _nt)
_uf = 0.0
_n = min(_nf, _i)
loop _j (1, _n)
_uf = _uf + ytable(_utab,_i-_j+1)*ytable(_ftab,_j)
end_loop
ytable(_uftab, _i) = _uf / _sum
xtable(_uftab, _i) = float(_i) * _dt
end_loop
;
; Dimensionless relation
;
loop _n (1, _nt)
ytable(_utab, _n) = (4.0*_hd*rho*_vs*_vs/m0)*ytable(_uftab, _n)
xtable(_utab, _n) = float(_n) * _dt * _vs / _hd
end_loop
;
end

set @_nt=1000 @_dt 0.005

set @_xd=10. @_hd=10. @_vs=10. @_vp=17.320508
set @gamma=0.0 @per=0.6 @rho=1.0 @m0=1.0
set @_utab=4 @_ftab=5 @_uftab=6
;
tab @_utab 0,0
tab @_ftab 0,0
tab @_uftab 0,0

@ana_slp
ret

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DYNAMIC ANALYSIS 2 - 79

2.10 References

Bathe, K.-J., and E. L. Wilson. Numerical Methods in Finite Element Analysis. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. (1976).
Belytschko, T. “An Overview of Semidiscretization and Time Integration Procedures,” in Compu-
tational Methods for Transient Analysis, Ch. 1, pp. 1-65. New York: Elsevier Science Publishers,
B.V. (1983).
Biggs, J. M. Introduction to Structural Dynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill (1964).
Chopra, A. K. Dynamics of Structures. Prentice Hall (1995).
Cundall, P. A. “Adaptive Density-Scaling for Time-Explicit Calculations,” in Proceedings of the
4th International Conference on Numerical Methods in Geomechanics (Edmonton, Canada,
1982), pp. 23-26 (1982).
Cundall, P. A., et al. “Computer Modeling of Jointed Rock Masses,” U.S. Army, Engineer Water-
ways Experiment Station, Technical Report WES-TR-N-78-4 (August 1978).
Cundall, P. A., et al. “NESSI – Soil Structure Interaction Program for Dynamic and Static Problems,”
Norwegian Geotechnical Institute, Report 51508-9 (December 1980).
Cundall, P. A., et al. “Solution of Infinite Domain Dynamic Problems by Finite Modelling in
the Time Domain,” in Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Applied Numerical
Modelling (Madrid, Spain, September 1978), pp. 341-351. London: Pentech Press (1979).
Day, S. M. “Test Problem for Plane Strain Block Motion Codes,” S-Cubed Memorandum (May 1
1985).
Ferreira, A. J. M., and G. E. Fasshauer. “Computation of natural frequencies of shear deformable
beams and plates by an RBF-pseudospectral method,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg., 196,
134-146 (2006).
Gemant, A., and W. Jackson. “The Measurement of Internal Friction in Some Solid Dielectric
Materials,” The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine & Journal of Science,
XXII, 960-983 (1937).
Gerrard, C. M. “Elastic Models of Rock Masses Having One, Two and Three Sets of Joints,” Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 19, 15-23 (1982).
Kuhlmeyer, R. L., and J. Lysmer. “Finite Element Method Accuracy for Wave Propagation Prob-
lems,” J. Soil Mech. & Foundations Div., ASCE, 99(SM5), 421-427 (May, 1973).
Kunar, R. R., P. J. Beresford and P. A. Cundall. “A Tested Soil-Structure Model for Surface
Structures,” in Proceedings of the Symposium on Soil-Structure Interaction (Roorkee University,
India, January 1977), Vol. 1, pp. 137-144. Meerut, India: Sarita Prakashan (1977).
Lemos, J. “A Distinct Element Model for Dynamic Analysis of Jointed Rock with Application to
Dam Foundations and Fault Motion.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota (June 1987).

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2 - 80 Optional Features

Lemos, J. “Numerical Issues in the Representation of Masonry Structural Dynamics with Discrete
Elements,” in Proceedings of the ECCOMAS Thematic Conference on Computational Methods
in Structural Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering (Rethymno, Crete, Greece, 13-16 June
2007). M. Papadrakakis et al., eds. (2007).
Lysmer, J., and R. Kuhlemeyer. “Finite Dynamic Model for Infinite Media,” J. Eng. Mech., Div.
ASCE, 95:EM4, 859-877 (1969).
Lysmer, J., and G. Waas. “Shear Waves in Plane Infinite Structures,” J. Eng. Mech., Div. ASCE,
98, 85-105 (1972).
Miller, R. K. “The Effects of Boundary Friction on the Propagation of Elastic Waves,” Bull. Seis.
Soc. America, 68, 987-998 (1978).
Myer, L. R., L. J. Pyrak-Nolte and N. G. W. Cook. “Effects of Single Fractures on Seismic Wave
Propagation,” in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Rock Joints, pp. 413-422.
Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1990).
Ohnishi, Y., et al. “Verification of Input Parameters for Distinct Element Analysis of Jointed
Rock Mass,” in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Fundamentals of Rock Joints
(Björkliden, Sweden, September 1985), pp. 205-214. O. Stephansson, ed. Luleå: CENTEK
Publishers (1985).
Otter, J. R. H., A. C. Cassell and R. E. Hobbs. “Dynamic Relaxation,” Proc. Inst. Civil Eng., 35,
633-665 (1966).
Roesset, J. M., and M. M. Ettouney. “Transmitting Boundaries: A Comparison,” Int. J. Num. &
Analy. Methods Geomech., 1, 151-176 (1977).
Seed, H. B., P. P. Martin and J. Lysmer. “The Generation and Dissipation of Pore Water Pressures
during Soil Liquefaction,” University of California, Berkeley, Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, NSF Report PB-252 648 (August 1975).
Singh, B. “Continuum Characterization of Jointed Rock Masses: Part I – The Constitutive Equa-
tions,” Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 10, 311-335 (1973).
Wegel, R. L., and H. Walther. “Internal Dissipation in Solids for Small Cyclic Strains,” Physics, 6,
141-157 (1935).
White, W., S. Valliappan and I. K. Lee. “Unified Boundary for Finite Dynamic Models,” J. Eng.
Mech., Div. ASCE, 103, 949-964 (1977).
Wolf, J. P. Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall (1985).

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3-1

3 STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS

3.1 Introduction

An important aspect of geomechanical analysis and design is the use of structural support to stabilize
a soil or rock mass. The term “support” describes engineered materials used to restrict displacements
in the immediate vicinity of an opening. Interior support consists of linings, steel sets, etc. which
are placed on the interior of an excavation, and in many cases act to truly support, in whole or part,
the weights of individual blocks isolated by discontinuities or zones of loosened rock. Each support
type (liners or FE blocks) is described separately, below.

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3-2 Optional Features

3.2 Interior Support (The STRUCTURE liner Command)

Tunnel linings are often thin with respect to tunnel diameters, and their characteristic response to
bending deformation may need to be considered. A structural element representation for the tunnel
lining provides a convenient method for including bending effects.
The structural element method is well-documented in structural engineering texts. The use of beam
elements in 2D linear analysis of excavation support is reported by Dixon (1971), Brierley (1975)
and Monsees (1977), among others. Paul et al. (1983) presents analysis using beam elements
which include nonlinear behavior. Analysis of any support structure is initiated by discretization
of the structure into a number of elements whose response to axial, transverse and flexural loads
can be represented in matrix form, such as that shown in Figure 3.1. The rock-structure interface is
represented by springs oriented both radially and tangentially with respect to the support structure.

,S 2 ,T 2
v 2 u 2
L
m2
2,M2

E ,I ,A
,S 1
v 1
,T 1
u 1
m1
1,M1

Structural Element Sign Convention

T1 A u1

12 I SYM.
S1 0 2
v1
L

6I
M1 0 4I
E L
1

=
T2 L -A 0 0 A u2

12 I 6I 12 I
S2 0 - 2 -
L
0 2
v2
L L

6I 6I
M2 0 - 2I 0 - 4I 2
L L

Figure 3.1 Local stiffness matrix for structural element representation of

excavation support

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3-3

In general, either an implicit or explicit formulation may be used in analyzing the behavior of
a support structure composed of plate-bending elements and interface stiffnesses. In the first
formulation (implicit), a global stiffness matrix is formed for the entire structure. The size of
the stiffness matrix is reduced by deleting free nodes (i.e., those nodes which are not located at
the rock-support interface). This is possible because these nodes are subjected neither to directly
imposed external loads, nor to displacements by the surrounding medium. The resultant efficiency,
however, limits straightforward application of this formulation to quasi-static problems involving
linear elastic behavior. This formulation does not provide information about failure mechanisms or
ultimate capacities of interior supports. However, factors of safety based on lining stresses should
be conservative since they do not take into account the highly indeterminate nature of a lining in
contact with the rock. A detailed description of a two-dimensional formulation, its use with distinct
elements, and numerous other examples are presented by Lorig (1984).
In the second formulation (explicit), local stiffness matrices are used following division of the
structure into triangular plates with the distributed mass of the structure “lumped” at nodal points,
as shown in Figure 3.2. Forces generated in support elements are applied to the lumped masses
which move in response to unbalanced forces and moments in accordance with the equations of
motion. This formulation has the following desirable characteristics: slip between support and
excavation periphery is modeled in a manner identical to block interaction along a discontinuity;
and large displacements with nonlinear material behavior may be readily accommodated. In the
present formulation, the liner is assumed to behave as a linear-elastic material. These capabilities
are illustrated in 2D in Figure 3.3, where a roof block loads and displaces a hypothetical 4-element
interior structural support.

Excavation
Periphery
m
1. Lumped Mass

2. Structural Element
m
3. Interface

Lining Interior

Figure 3.2 Lumped mass representation of structure used in explicit formu-

lation

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3-4 Optional Features

Figure 3.3 Demonstration of interface slip and large displacement capabil-

ities of explicit structural element formulation

For three-dimensional analysis, the simplest element (which has the generality of being able to
conform to arbitrary boundaries) is the triangle, interconnected with other elements through lumped
masses located at its vertices. The local stiffness matrix is derived by combining a stiffness matrix
for the in-plane (plane-stress) action and a stiffness matrix for the bending action. This is possible
because the displacements prescribed for the in-plane forces do not affect the bending deformation,
and vice versa, as shown in Figure 3.4. The deformations may be treated independently, provided
the local deformations are small (Zienkiewicz 1977, p. 330).

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3-5

G (M )
zi zi

u (U )
i i E

y “In plane” forces and deformations

v (V )
i i

x
w (W )
i i

G (M )
xi xi
E

Bending forces and deformations

G (M )
yi yi

Figure 3.4 Triangular and plate-bending element subject to “in-plane” and

bending actions

The combined nodal displacements at node i are, therefore,

{ai }T = {ui vi wi θxi θyi θzi } (3.1)

and the “forces” are

{Fi }T = {Ui Vi Wi Mxi Myi Mzi } (3.2)

The nodal forces are determined from the displacements in the usual way:

F = Ka (3.3)

where the combined stiffness matrix [K] includes a plane-stress stiffness matrix [KP ] and a bending
stiffness matrix [Kb ] – i.e.,

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3-6 Optional Features

⎡ ⎤
KP 000 0
⎢ 000 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 00 0 ⎥
[K] = ⎢
⎢ 00
⎥
⎥ (3.4)
⎢ Kb 0 ⎥
⎣ 00 0 ⎦
00 000 0

Note that rotation θzi does not enter into the definition of deformation as a parameter in either mode.
However, if adjacent elements are coplanar, a difficulty, due to lack of restraint, arises if the zero
stiffness is assigned in the θzi direction. As will be discussed later, a fictitious rotational stiffness,
as well as a fictitious couple, Mz , must be introduced.
In the present formulation, the plane-stress stiffness matrix is taken from Desai and Abel (1972,
p. 132); the bending stiffness matrix is taken from Cheung et al. (1968). These stiffness matrices
are derived using a local coordinate system with the centroid of the triangle defined as the origin. In
the present formulations, all global deformations are transformed into the local coordinate system,
and local “forces” then are transformed into global “forces.”
As mentioned previously, a difficulty arises if elements meeting at a node are coplanar. In the
present formulation, a fictitious set of rotational stiffness coefficients is used with all elements,
whether coplanar or not. For a triangular element, these are defined by the matrix

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Mzi Kmax −Kmax / 2 θzi
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Mzj ⎥ = ⎢ Kmax −Kmax / 2 ⎥ ⎢ θzj ⎥ (3.5)
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Mzk Sym Kmax θzk

where Kmax is equal to the largest sum of terms in any row of the [Kb ] element matrix.
Element stresses are determined based on total local deformations at the nodes. For the in-plane
stresses, the stresses {σ } are given by

{σ } = [C] [B]{q} (3.6)

where:[C] is the plane-stress constitutive matrix (i.e., matrix of material constants);

[B] is the transformation matrix relating strains and displacements; and

{q}T = {u1 u2 u3 v1 v2 v3 } (3.7)

where u1 , u2 , etc. are the displacements at node 1, node 2, etc.

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3-7

Also, in the present formulation, strains are assumed to be constant within an element, and therefore,
in-plane stresses are also assumed constant.
Bending “stresses,” {σ }T , can also be determined from the “stress” matrix relation for plate-bending
elements in a similar fashion to Eq. (3.6) with

{σ }T = {Mx My Mz } (3.8)

and

{q}T = {w1 θx1 θy1 w2 θx2 θy2 − w3 θx3 θy3 } (3.9)

The “stress” resultants for the plate-bending element are shown in Figure 3.1. It is assumed that
true stresses vary linearly across the plate thickness – e.g.,

12 Mx
σx = z (3.10)
t3
where:z is measured from the plate mid-plane; and
t is the plate thickness.

The triangular plate bending given by Cheung et al. (1968) tries to represent the average moment
values over its area, rather than follow them by a linear variation (although some terms of such vari-
ation are apparently included). Therefore, in the present formulation, moment values are computed
only at the centroid of each triangular element.

3.2.1 Structural Liner Properties

The structural liner elements used in 3DEC require the following input parameters:
(1) Young’s modulus of elasticity of liner material [force/area]
(2) cohesion for contact between liner and host medium [force/area]
(3) friction for contact between liner and host medium [degrees]
(4) normal stiffness for contact between liner and host medium [force/area/disp]
(5) shear stiffness for contact between liner and host medium [force/area/disp]
(6) Poisson’s ratio of liner material
(7) thickness of liner material [length]
(8) tensile limit for contact between liner and host medium [force/area]

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3-8 Optional Features

3.2.2 Summary of Commands Associated with Liner Elements

All of the commands associated with structural element liners are listed in Table 3.1. See Sec-
tion 1.2.15 in the Command Reference for a detailed explanation of the commands.

Table 3.1 Summary of structural element liner commands

CONFIG liner
STRUCT delete liner
<range>
STRUCT liner radial x1 y1 z1 x2 y2 z2
seg na,nr prop np <cylinder r>
<BEGIN xb yb zb> <END xe ye ze> <CONNECT>
delete
element n1 n2 n3 <prop n>
face gen prop n <range>
node x y z <ID n> <prop n>
STRUCT prop np keyword
coh value
e value
fric value
kn value
ks value
nu value
thexp value
thick value
tens value
PLOT liner
LIST struct <node> <elem> <contact> <property>

3.2.3 Example Application – Structural Liner in Tunnel

This is an example showing the application of a structural liner in the inside of a square tunnel. The
geometry of the tunnel is shown in Figure 3.5. The block in the roof of the tunnel will fall if the
tensile strength in the horizontal joint above it is not sufficient to support its weight. The model is
used to simulate a 20 cm-thick concrete liner. The properties of the liner are
Young’s modulus 15 GPa
Poisson’s ratio .15

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3-9

thickness .2 m
friction in contact between liner and rock 60 degrees
cohesion in contact between liner and rock .5 MPa
tensile limit of contact between liner and rock .3 MPa
normal stiffness of contact 1.0 GN/m
shear stiffness of contact 1.0 GN/m
The input commands for this example are listed in Example 3.1. Figure 3.6 shows the vertical
displacement history of the roof block with no liner in place. The block is free to fall in this case.
Figure 3.7 shows the vertical displacement history of the same block with the concrete liner in
place.

Example 3.1 Structural liner in tunnel

new
;
; Structural Liner Example Problem
;
config liner
pol brick -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
plot create plot Blocks
plot block
plot reset
prop mat=1 dens 2000 bu = 1e9 g = .7e9
prop jmat=1 jks 1e11 jkn 1e11
jset dd=180 dip=0 origin 0.0, 0.0, 0.5
hide range plane dip 0 dd 180 origin 0.0, 0.0, 0.5 above
jset dd=180 dip=0 origin 0.0, 0.0, 0.3
hide range plane dip 0 dd 180 origin 0.0, 0.0, 0.3 below
jset dip=65 dd=90 origin .28, 0.0, 0.3
jset dip=65 dd=270 origin -.28, 0.0, 0.3
seek
tunnel reg = 1 rad &
a -.3 -1.5 -.3 -.3 -1.5 .3 &
.3 -1.5 .3 .3 -1.5 -.3 &
b -.3 1.5 -.3 -.3 1.5 .3 &
.3 1.5 .3 .3 1.5 -.3
; (delete interior block)
delete range x -0.3,0.3 z -1.5,1.5 z -0.3,0.3
;
seek
gen edge .2

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3 - 10 Optional Features

;insitu stress -1e6 -1e6 -1e6 0 0 0 zgrad 0 0 2e4 0 0 0

prop jmat=1 jfric=100 jcoh = 1e20 jtens 1e20
; apply gravity load
grav 0 0 -10

bound xvel=0.0 range x -1.0

bound xvel=0.0 range x 1.0
bound yvel=0.0 range y -1.0
bound yvel=0.0 range y 1.0
bound zvel=0.0 range z -1.0
;
hist zvel 0.3 0 0.3
hist ty=1
;
cyc 1200
sav ex3_01a.3dsav
; reduce tensile strength of horizontal joint
; reduce tensile strength of horizontal joint
prop jmat = 1 jtens = 0
reset time disp hist
hist zdis 0.0,0.0,0.3
hist ty=1
cycle 2000
plot create plot Hist
pl hist 1 xaxis label ’Step’ yaxis label ’Vertical Displacement’
save ex3_01b.3dsav
; now run with tunnel liner
res ex3_01a.3dsav
; reduce tensile strength of horizontal joint
prop jmat = 1 jtens = 0
reset time disp hist
hist zdis 0.0 0.0 0.3
hist ty=1
struct liner radial_gen 0 -.9 0 0 .9 0 seg 2 8 prop 1 cylinder .43
struct prop 1 fric 60 coh .5e6 kn 1e9 ks 1e9
struct prop 1 nu .15 thick .20 e 15e9 tens .3e6
step 2000
sav ex3_01c.3dsav
ret

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 11

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0rpGG
pGrelG,lrG0.:,,:Gr0

 :0 
r

Figure 3.5 Tunnel with unstable roof block

E
pGre009   0 u0 i
0,pGG 
pGrelG,lrG0.:,,:Gr0x
 
r0l   00,3.4p
i0

e   e nm lH
















         
 e nm H

Figure 3.6 Vertical displacement history of unstable block without liner

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3 - 12 Optional Features

E
pGre009   0 u0 i
0,pGG 
pGrelG,lrG0.:,,:Gr0x

r0l   00,3.4p 
i0



e   e nm lo














         
 e nm 5

Figure 3.7 Vertical displacement history of unstable block with liner

3.2.4 Limitations of the 3DEC Liners

(1) While the interface between the rock surface and the liner can slip or detach,
the liner element itself is linearly elastic and cannot yield or rupture.
(2) The liner placement logic cannot be used to line tunnel intersections.
(3) Block zone discretization must be sufficiently small, so that each node of the
structural liner will fall in a different zone.
(4) Liners have no contact detection logic. Blocks which have no liner nodes
attached may pass through the liner.

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 13

3.2.5 Structural Element Units

Property numbers are assigned to interior support elements with the PROPERTY command. All
quantities must be given in an equivalent set of units (see Table 3.2). The code does not take into
account the weight of the structure when calculating loads. The mass density for structural (beam)
elements may be artificially increased above the actual values to achieve reasonable timesteps for
quasi-static problems. A convenient way to determine how much the mass density may be increased
is to first determine the minimum timestep without any structural elements. Next, structural elements
are introduced and the mass density gradually increased until the timestep approaches the previous
timestep (i.e., timestep without structural elements).

Table 3.2 Systems of units – structural elements

Property Unit SI Imperial

area length2 m2 m2 m2 cm2 ft2 in2

stiffness* force/disp N/m kN/m MN/m Mdynes/cm 1bf /ft 1bf /in
bond strength force/length N/m kN/m MN/m Mdynes/cm 1bf /ft 1bf /in
bond stiffness force/length/disp N/m/m kN/m/m MN/m/m Mdynes/cm/cm 1bf /ft/ft 1bf /in/in
density mass/volume kg/m3 103 kg/m3 106 kg/m3 106 g/m3 slugs/ft3 snails/in3
elastic modulus stress Pa kPa MPa bar 1bf /ft2 psi

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3.3 Structural Finite Elements

This section describes a finite element formulation which can be used to model tunnel liners and
other structures attached to 3DEC blocks (such as dams). Its implementation within the explicit
solution scheme used by 3DEC, and the logic that was developed to handle the contact between
the special FE blocks and the standard 3DEC blocks, are also presented. The input commands and
keywords added to 3DEC in order to read or generate the FE block mesh and assign material models
and properties are explained.

3.3.1 Element Formulation

The new module creates special blocks (FE blocks) that can be added to a 3DEC model composed
of standard polyhedral deformable blocks. The new FE blocks consist of a finite element mesh
composed of three-dimensional brick elements with 20 nodes. The element formulation, presented
in this section, follows the standard methodology found in finite element texts (Hughes 1987).
The geometry of isoparametric finite elements is described by the mapping of a master cubic element
into the actual element shape, as shown in Figure 3.5, which also indicates the node numbering
convention adopted. For the case of the 20-node brick element, the edges are defined by parabolic
segments.
3.3.1.1 Notation Conventions

Uppercase subscripts, such as I , denote element nodes ranging from 1 to 20. Lowercase subscripts,
such as j , k and m, denote coordinate directions and range from 1 to 3. Summation on repeated
indices is implied.
3.3.1.2 Geometry Mapping

The geometry of the master element (a cube with 8 nodes placed at the corners and 12 nodes at
the edge midpoints) is defined in the y-coordinate system, with values ranging from −1 to 1, as
indicated in Figure 3.5.
The coordinates of a generic point of the master element are denoted by

y = {y1 y2 y3 }T (3.11)

while the corresponding point in the transformed element is

x = {x1 x2 x3 }T (3.12)

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 15

and the coordinates of node I of the element are

xI = {xI 1 xI 2 xI 3 }T (3.13)

The element geometry mapping is governed by

xk = NI (y) xI k (3.14)

which expresses the coordinates, x, of a generic point as a sum of products of the nodal shape
functions, NI , function of the natural coordinates, y, and the nodal coordinates, xI .
The Jacobian matrix of the transformation is given by

∂xk ∂NI (y)

[Jkm ] = = xI k (3.15)
∂ym ∂ym

and its inverse, evaluated numerically, is

∂ym
[Ymk ] = = ([Jkm ])−1 (3.16)
∂xk

The expressions of the shape functions, NI , and their derivatives with respect to the master element
coordinates, ∂/∂ym (NI ), are given in Section 3.3.7.
3.3.1.3 Displacements and Strains

The displacement field of isoparametric elements is governed by an expression similar to the ge-
ometry mapping (Eq. (3.11)):

uk = NI (y) uI k (3.17)

where the generic displacement vector at point y is

u = {u1 u2 u3 }T (3.18)

and the displacement vector of element node I is

uI = {uI 1 uI 2 uI 3 }T (3.19)

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3 - 16 Optional Features

In order to derive the expressions of the strains, defined as

1 ∂uk ∂um
εkm = ( + ) (3.20)
2 ∂xm ∂xk

the derivatives of the displacement field must be calculated from Eq. (3.17),

∂uk ∂NI
= uI k (3.21)
∂xm ∂xm

The derivatives of the shape function in the global coordinates are obtained by application of the
chain rule:

∂NI ∂NI ∂yj ∂NI

= NI m = = Yj m (3.22)
∂xm ∂yj ∂xm ∂yj

The components of the strain tensor are grouped more conveniently in vector form:

ε = {ε11 ε22 ε33 2ε23 2ε31 2ε12 }T (3.23)

Then, after introducing Eqs. (3.22) and (3.21) in Eq. (3.20), and setting the result in matrix form,
the strains may be expressed as

ε = BI uI (3.24)

where the strain-displacement matrix for node I is given by

⎡ ⎤
NI 1 0 0
⎢ 0 NI 2 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
[BI ] = ⎢ 0 0 NI 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ (3.25)
⎢ 0 NI 3 NI 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
NI 3 0 NI 1
NI 2 NI 1 0

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 17

3.3.1.4 Stresses and Nodal Forces

As the force-displacement relations for the element cannot be expressed in closed form, numerical
integration has to be used. The element strains and stresses are evaluated at the Gauss integration
points of the element. Once the strains (and strain increments) are obtained from Eq. (3.24), the
application of the assumed constitutive model produces the new stresses. Formally,

σ = f (ε) (3.26)

where the stresses are arranged in vector form,

σ = {σ11 σ22 σ33 σ23 σ31 , σ12 }T (3.27)

The nodal force vector at node I , equivalent to a given state of stress, is

FI S = {FI 1 FI 2 FI 3 }T (3.28)

and is calculated as


FI =
S
BI T σ dV (3.29)
v

The integration, extending to the element volume, is performed numerically as a summation of the
values of the integrand at the Gauss points – i.e.,

FI S = BI T σ WG VG (3.30)
G

where VG are the elementary volume terms obtained from the Jacobian matrix of the geometry
transformation, and WG are the standard Gauss point weights (Hughes 1987). In the present
implementation, 2 × 2 × 2 or 3 × 3 × 3 Gauss points may be used. The former corresponds to
reduced integration, and, in some cases of unconstrained systems, may allow spurious mechanisms.
However, since it is faster, and the stresses at the location of the 2 × 2 × 2 Gauss points tend to be
more accurate, it is taken as the default option.

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3.3.1.5 Gravity Forces

The nodal forces equivalent to a body force

g = {g1 g2 g3 }T (3.31)

are given by


FI G
= NI g dV (3.32)
V

which are also evaluated numerically.

3.3.1.6 Concentrated Forces

Concentrated forces, such as point contact forces applied on the element faces, originate nodal
forces given by, for node I ,

FI P = NI P (3.33)

where the shape function is evaluated at the point of application of the force

P = {P1 P2 P3 }T (3.34)

3.3.2 Element Implementation in 3DEC

The implementation of the 20-node brick element was designed to allow a smooth integration of the
special blocks into the 3DEC logic. In particular, the new blocks were intended to be compatible
with the essential aspects of the contact logic, the solution algorithm and the graphical routines, as
described in the following sections.
The standard deformable blocks in 3DEC have a polyhedral form, with an internal tetrahedral
mesh, leading to an outer surface defined by triangular faces. The contact logic and the graphical
representation are based on triangulated surfaces. In general, the surface of the 20-node brick is
curved, which would require a different, and computationally much more expensive, treatment of
the geometric contact calculations. Therefore, in order to allow the special FE blocks to be handled
by the same routines, it was decided to approximate the block external boundary by means of a
polyhedral surface composed of triangles. As shown in Figure 3.6, eight triangular faces are used
to approximate each face of the brick.

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 19

In 3DEC, graphical representation of displacements and stresses in block cross-section assumes a

discretization into tetrahedral zones. To make these routines usable with 20-node bricks, a simple
scheme was devised, based on a fictitious discretization of each element into tetrahedra. Each
element is divided into 8 sub-bricks, using extra nodes placed at the middle point of faces (as
shown in Figure 3.6), and another node at the center of the element. Each sub-brick is then divided
into 6 tetrahedra, in an arrangement compatible with the triangular face approximation discussed
above. For the purpose of graphical representation, the tetrahedral zones are assigned a stress state
corresponding to the nearest Gauss point.
This scheme requires extra nodes in the element: six mid-face nodes and one central node. These
are treated as slave nodes, with velocities and displacements obtained from the 20 master nodes,
using the assumed deformation field (Eq. (3.17)). The y-coordinates of the slave nodes are listed
in Section 3.3.7.

3.3.3 Contact Forces

The nodes of the element, either master or slave, perform the same functions as zone gridpoints, and
are similarly treated as vertices for contact purposes. Therefore, the standard 3DEC contact logic
is used, based on sub-contacts located at vertex-to-face and edge-to-edge interaction locations.
The FE block displacements at the sub-contacts are evaluated assuming the approximated triangu-
lated surface, and are therefore obtained from the gridpoint displacements in the same way as for
the polyhedral blocks. The contact forces that are applied to the slave node at the center of the brick
faces must be transferred to the master nodes using Eq. (3.33).
The common-plane logic that is used in 3DEC in the contact detection routines assumes that blocks
are convex. If FE blocks are non-convex, then no contact is detected in the concave portion of their
surface. If a concave face must be in contact with other blocks, then it is necessary to divide the
FE block into convex blocks, which may be joined to behave as a monolithic block, as is done with
regular blocks.

3.3.4 Application of Boundary Loads and Velocities

External loads applied with the BOUNDARY command are also applied to FE blocks, based on the
triangulated boundary. The loads applied at the slave nodes are automatically transferred to the
master nodes using Eq. (3.33), as in the case of the contact forces. The only difference with respect
to the regular blocks is in the treatment of gravity loads which must be introduced by means of
Eq. (3.22).
Fixed displacement conditions are applied in 3DEC by prescribing gridpoint velocities using the
BOUNDARY command. This procedure is also used for FE nodes.

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3.3.5 Solution Algorithm

The solution procedure in 3DEC is based on an explicit timestepping algorithm that integrates the
nodal equations of motion. The same procedure is used for dynamic and quasi-static analysis. In
the latter case, high damping values are introduced to obtain convergence to static equilibrium or
to a failure mechanism. In the case of deformable blocks, discretized into zones or elements, the
equations of motion of each gridpoint are integrated. The FE blocks are treated in the same way –
i.e., for a given node I , the equations of motion may be expressed as

müI + αmu̇I = FI (3.35)

where m is the nodal mass, α is the viscous damping parameter and FI is the nodal force vector.
The nodal forces are calculated as a sum of four components:

FI = FI S + FI C + FI B + FI G (3.36)

where:FI S are the forces equivalent to the element stresses, calculated by Eq. (3.30);
FI C are obtained from the contact forces, using Eq. (3.33);
FI B are obtained from the applied boundary forces, using Eq. (3.33);
FI G are the gravity forces, given by Eq. (3.32).

The calculation of the timestep required for numerical stability is based on the fictitious discretization
of the element into zones. Since the assemblage of these zones is known to behave in a stiffer manner
than the actual 20-node brick, this approximation provides a safe estimate. For static analysis, the
mass scaling procedure gives the gridpoint masses. For dynamic analysis, the tetrahedral mesh is
still used to give the gridpoint masses, in such a way that the total element mass is preserved. More
accurate schemes exist to provide a diagonal mass matrix for these types of isoparametric elements
(Hughes 1987), as explicit solution methods do not permit the use of the consistent mass matrices
derived from the standard element formulation.

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 21

3.3.6 Generation and Use of FE Blocks

In order to employ FE blocks in a 3DEC model, a configuration option must be selected with the
command CONFIG feblock, so that the needed extra storage is allocated. The FEBLOCK command is
used for most actions involving the special blocks which are invoked by specific keywords. There
are two ways of introducing the special blocks into the model:
(1) reading a previously generated FE mesh from a file; and
(2) automatically generating a mesh inside a brick-shaped block.
In the first case, invoked by the keyword read of the command FEBLOCK, an ASCII file must be
created with an FE mesh described in the typical format of FE codes:
(1) title;
(2) header line with number of nodes (NN) and number of elements (NE);
(3) nodal coordinates – NN lines with x y z coordinates for each node; and
(4) element definition – NE lines with list of nodes for each element.
Further details are presented in Section 3.3.8. Node numbering is irrelevant, given 3DEC ’s solution
procedure. It is possible to supply the full list of 20 nodes for each element, or to read in a mesh of
8-node brick elements (i.e., only with the corner nodes). The code then automatically inserts the
extra mid-edge nodes and transforms these elements into 20-node elements.
The automatic generation of the FE mesh is only possible inside 8-vertex brick blocks. These may
be created with any of the 3DEC block generation and cutting commands, and then the command
FEBLOCK gen transforms them into FE blocks by creating a regular mesh of 20-node elements.
The user only indicates the desired dimensions of the elements in each of the three block axes.
The mechanical behavior of FE blocks may be governed by any of the regular constitutive models
available in 3DEC. The material and constitutive number are assigned with FEBLOCK change.
Different materials may be applied to the various elements belonging to the same block.
For application to arch dams, special routines were developed to allow the adequate geometric
fitting of the concrete structure (represented by one or more FE blocks) and the rock mass in the
foundation (represented by regular polyhedral blocks). Typically, the FE mesh of the concrete shell
will be generated by some preprocessing software for dam engineering applications, and read into
3DEC from a file. Then the new routines are invoked to create a set of regular blocks that fit the
foundation surface. All of these blocks are joined, and afterwards, the rock mass discontinuities
are introduced with the cutting commands.
The first step is to define the foundation surface of the FE mesh. Surface region numbers, assigned to
block faces with FEBLOCK mark sregion, are useful for this purpose. As the faces of the foundation
surface may be curved in general, the keyword linearize is available to set the nodes along the edges
of these faces exactly at the midpoint of the edges, so that they can fit the polyhedral foundation
blocks. Then the keyword base, with suitable geometric arguments, is invoked to create blocks
directly under the foundation faces, as well as blocks extending upstream and downstream.

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3.3.7 Shape Functions and Derivatives

The isoparametric 20-node brick element is derived from a cubic master element defined in the
y-coordinate system (Figure 3.5). The positions of the master element nodes are listed in Table 3.3.
Nodes 1 to 8 are placed at the corners, and nodes 9 to 20 at the midpoint of the edges.

Table 3.3 Nodal coordinates in

master element
Node y1 y2 y3
1 −1 −1 −1
2 1 −1 −1
3 1 1 −1
4 −1 1 −1
5 −1 −1 1
6 1 −1 1
7 1 1 1
8 −1 1 1
9 0 −1 −1
10 1 0 −1
11 0 1 −1
12 −1 0 −1
13 −1 −1 1
14 0 0 1
15 1 1 1
16 0 0 1
17 −1 −1 0
18 1 −1 0
19 1 1 0
20 −1 1 0

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 23

The coordinates of the slave nodes used in the face triangulation, and numbered from 21 to 27, are
listed in Table 3.4. Nodes 21 to 26 are located at the mid-face points; node 27 is located at the
center of the element.

Table 3.4 Coordinates of slave

nodes in master element
Node y1 y2 y3
21 0 0 −1
22 0 0 1
23 0 −1 0
24 0 1 0
25 −1 0 0
26 1 0 0
27 0 0 0

The definition of the nodes of the 6 element faces is given in Table 3.5. The first 4 nodes correspond
to the corners, the next 4 to the mid-edges, and the last entry to the slave node at mid-face position.

Table 3.5 Definition of the element faces

Nodes
Face
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 y3 = −1 2 1 4 3 9 12 11 10 21
2 y3 = 1 5 6 7 8 13 14 15 16 22
3 y2 = −1 1 2 6 5 9 18 13 17 23
4 y2 = 1 3 4 8 7 11 20 15 19 24
5 y1 = −1 4 1 5 8 12 17 16 20 25
6 y1 = 1 2 3 7 6 10 19 14 18 26

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3 - 24 Optional Features

The shape functions for the 20-node brick element are based on 2nd-degree polynomials in the
y-reference system. The expressions and their derivatives with respect to the y-coordinates are
listed below. The constants yI k stand for the coordinates of node I , as given in Table 3.3.
Corner nodes: I = 1 to 8
NI = 18 (1 + yI 1 y1 )(1 + yI 2 y2 )(1 + yI 3 y3 )(yI 1 y1 + yI 2 y2 + yI 3 y3 − 2)
∂NI
∂y1 = 18 yI 1 (1 + yI 2 y2 )(1 + yI 3 y3 )(−2yI 1 y1 + yI 2 y2 + yI 3 y3 − 1)
∂NI
∂y2 = 18 yI 2 (1 + yI 3 y3 )(1 + yI 1 y1 )(−2yI 2 y2 + yI 1 y1 + yI 3 y3 − 1)
∂NI
∂y3 = 18 yI 3 (1 + yI 1 y1 )(1 + yI 2 y2 )(−2yI 3 y3 + yI 1 y1 + yI 2 y2 − 1)

Mid-edge nodes: I = 9, 11, 13, 15

NI = 41 (1 − y12 )(1 + yI 2 y2 )(1 + yI 3 y3 )

∂NI
∂y1 = − 21 y1 (1 + yI 2 y2 )(1 + yI 3 y3 )
∂NI
∂y2 = 41 yI 2 (1 − y12 )(1 + yI 3 y3 )
∂NI
∂y3 = 41 yI 3 (1 − y12 )(1 + yI 2 y2 )

Mid-edge nodes: I = 10, 12, 14, 16

NI = 41 (1 − y22 )(1 + yI 3 y3 )(1 + yI 1 y1 )

∂NI
∂y1 = 41 yI 1 (1 − y22 )(1 + yI 3 y3 )
∂NI
∂y2 = − 21 y2 (1 + yI 3 y3 )(1 + yI 1 y1 )
∂NI
∂y3 = 41 yI 3 (1 − y22 )(1 + yI 1 y1 )

Mid-edge nodes: I = 17, 18, 19, 20

NI = 41 (1 − y32 )(1 + yI 1 y1 )(1 + yI 2 y2 )

∂NI
∂y1 = 41 yI 1 (1 − y32 )(1 + yI 2 y2 )
∂NI
∂y2 = 41 yI 2 (1 − y32 )(1 + yI 1 y1 )
∂NI
∂y2 = − 21 y3 (1 + yI 1 y1 )(1 + yI 2 y2 )

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 25

3.3.8 Commands and Keywords for Finite Element Blocks

The following commands were added to 3DEC:

CONFIG
The keyword feblock is required to use FE blocks.
LIST
The keyword feblock is used to print FE block data. It may be followed by several
options:
displacements nodal displacements
elements element node list and material
faces face node list
failed list of failed Gauss points
gauss Gauss point locations
loads gravity nodal loads
max FE block statistics
nodes node coordinates
stresses stresses at Gauss points
FEBLOCK <range> keywords
The optional <range> accepts the standard 3DEC range phrases, as well as the new
options:
feface f1 f2 FE face range, from f1 to f2
Face numbers range from 1 to 6, as defined in Table 3.5.
feid n1 n2 FE element range, from n1 to n2
The keywords are:
generate ex ey ez
generates an FE mesh inside an 8-vertex brick block.
ex, ey and ez are desired element sizes in the x-, y- and z-directions.
The number of elements along each of the element axes is calculated
using the value for the nearest coordinate direction.

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3 - 26 Optional Features

read filename <nodes cn1 cn2> <mat cmat>

reads an FE mesh from file filename.
The option <nodes cn1 cn2> indicates that the element node list is
located in columns cn1 to cn2. By default, cn1 = 1 and cn2 = 20.
The option <mat cmat> gives the column, in the line of the node list,
where the element material is defined. If not given, element material
numbers default to the block material number.
The file format is
line 1: Title
line 2: NN NE
NN ... number of nodes
NE ... number of elements
lines 3 to NN+2: x y z
x y z ... nodal coordinates
lines NN+3 to NN+NE+2: element definition
by default: i1 ... i20 (list of 20 element nodes)
with options (e.g., NODES 1 8 MAT 9): i1 ... i8 mat
(list of element 8 corner nodes and material number)
3DEC generates the mid-edge nodes automatically.
change <material mat> <type type>
The material number of elements in the range is changed to mat.
Default material number: the block material number.
The type of elements in the range is changed to type. Element type indicates the
order of Gauss integration:
Type 22: 2 × 2 × 2 points (default)
Type 23: 3 × 3 × 3 points
mark sregionsreg
assigns surface region number sreg to all FE block faces in the range.
The sregion number may be used to simplify the ranges in other
commands.

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 27

linearize sregion sreg

sets the coordinates of mid-edge nodes to the average or corner nodes
for all faces with the given sregion number.
base sregionsreg option
creates blocks (regular blocks) that match the faces with the given
sregion number. In some cases where the FE blocks do not match the
underlying blocks, it is necessary to generate 3DEC blocks based on
the FE block geometry. This applies to the case when the FE blocks
are read from an external file and have a complex geometry. There
are two options:
(a) Create a block in the volume between the face and
a coordinate plane, defined by one of the following:
proj X x
proj Y y
proj Z z
Example: FEBLOCK base sregion 1 proj Z 20
(b) Create a block in the volume defined by one of the
face edges and two coordinate planes:
The face edge is specified by proj axis n, where n may
be −1, 1, −2, 2, −3 or 3, denoting one of the yn
coordinates that uniquely defines the edge among the
4 face edges (see tables in Section 3.3.7).
The projection planes are defined by two of the fol-
lowing:
Xx
Yy
Zz
Example: FEBLOCK base sregion 1proj axis 3 X 10
Z 20
gravity applies gravity loads to FE blocks. Gravity values are specified by
the GRAVITY command.

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3 - 28 Optional Features

zstress assigns the current Gauss point stresses to the nearest zone of the
parallel discretization, for plotting purposes. 3DEC cannot directly
access the stresses in the FE blocks for plotting purposes. However,
3DEC maintains a fictitious set of zones which correspond in loca-
tion to the FE zones. The zstress keyword transfers the Gauss point
stresses into the fictitious zones so they may be plotted. (This is done
automatically at the end of the CYCLE command.)

3.3.9 Example of Creating a Finite Element Base Model of a Dam in 3DEC

In this example we will demonstrate one technique that may be used to create finite element (FE)
blocks in 3DEC. In this case, the finite elements compose a dam with a base and abutments.
The data file used to create this example is listed in Example 3.2. The model building starts with
the construction of the dam segments as five ordinary 3DEC blocks. This is done in a FISH
function (geodam) using the POLYHEDRON prism command. The FISH function also sets up FISH
parameters that are used for dimensions in later commands. This geometry is shown in Figure 3.8:

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0SSGGG
pGrelG,lrr0.4r,4S.0

 40 

Figure 3.8 Dam panels of 3DEC blocks

Each of the 3DEC blocks contains eight vertices. After the geometry has been created as 3DEC
blocks, the blocks are then converted to finite element blocks using the commands
feb gen 20 20 20 range reg 2 3 4
feb gen 20 20 13 range reg 1 5

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 29

Each of the top central blocks have been converted into three finite element bricks with 20 nodes
each. The bottom central blocks have each been converted into one degenerate finite element brick.
The end blocks each contain two degenerate finite element bricks.
The next step is to change the surface region numbers on the dam blocks. This is done using a
FISH function (markdamfaces) to set the sregion (face sreg) for the block faces. The block
face surface regions are then used by the FEBLOCK command to extrude the existing blocks down
to the base of the model. The extruded blocks for this step are shown in Figure 3.9.
feblock base sreg 1 proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 2 proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 3 proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 4 proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 5 proj z @zzbotbou

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0G
pGrelG,lrr0.:r,:S.0

 :0 

Figure 3.9 Dam panels extruded to model base

The base blocks are then extruded in the y-direction to form the upstream and downstream base
blocks as shown in Figure 3.10.
feblock base sreg 3 axis -1 proj y @yydbou proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 3 axis 1 proj y @yyubou proj z @zzbotbou reg 21
feblock base sreg 2 axis -3 proj y @yydbou proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 2 axis 3 proj y @yyubou proj z @zzbotbou reg 21
feblock base sreg 4 axis -3 proj y @yydbou proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 4 axis 3 proj y @yyubou proj z @zzbotbou reg 21

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3 - 30 Optional Features

feblock base sreg 1 axis 2 proj y @yydbou proj z @zzbotbou

feblock base sreg 1 axis -2 proj y @yyubou proj z @zzbotbou reg 21
feblock base sreg 5 axis -1 proj y @yydbou proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 5 axis 1 proj y @yyubou proj z @zzbotbou reg 21

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0G
pGrelG,lrr0.:r,:SS0

 :0 

Figure 3.10 Base blocks extruded in the upstream and downstream directions

The upstream and downstream abutments are then created using POLYHEDRON brick commands.
The result of these commands is shown in Figure 3.11.
; abutments downstream
poly prism a @xxright @yyright @zzright @xxrightd @yyrightd @zd &
@xxrightd @yyrightd @zztopbou @xxright @yyright @zztopbou &
b @xxright @yydbou @zzright @xxrightd @yydbou @zd &
@xxrightd @yydbou @zztopbou @xxright @yydbou @zztopbou &
reg 0
poly prism a @xxleft @yyleft @zzleft @xxleftd @yyleftd @zd &
@xxleftd @yyleftd @zztopbou @xxleft @yyleft @zztopbou &
b @xxleft @yydbou @zzleft @xxleftd @yydbou @zd &
@xxleftd @yydbou @zztopbou @xxleft @yydbou @zztopbou &
reg 0

; abutments downstream, below foundation joint

poly prism a @xxright @yyright @zzright @xxrightd @yyrightd @zd &
@xxrightd @yyrightd @zzbotbou @xxright @yyright @zzbotbou &

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 31

b @xxright @yydbou @zzright @xxrightd @yydbou @zd &

@xxrightd @yydbou @zzbotbou @xxright @yydbou @zzbotbou &
reg 0
poly prism a @xxleft @yyleft @zzleft @xxleftd @yyleftd @zd &
@xxleftd @yyleftd @zzbotbou @xxleft @yyleft @zzbotbou &
b @xxleft @yydbou @zzleft @xxleftd @yydbou @zd &
@xxleftd @yydbou @zzbotbou @xxleft @yydbou @zzbotbou &
reg 0

; left and right boundary blocks

; upstream
poly brick @xxrbou @xxright @yyright @yyubou @zzbotbou @zztopbou reg 21
poly brick @xxleft @xxlbou @yyright @yyubou @zzbotbou @zztopbou reg 21
; downstream
poly brick @xxrbou @xxright @yydbou @yyright @zzbotbou @zztopbou
poly brick @xxleft @xxlbou @yydbou @yyright @zzbotbou @zztopbou

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0G
pGrelG,lrr0.:r,:SS0

 :0 

Figure 3.11 Dam with abutments

A fault is cut into the right abutment, and the blocks are zones as shown in Figure 3.12.
find
hide reg 21
hide reg 1 2 3 4 5
jset dip 90 dd -80 or @xxleft @yyleft 80
jset dip 90 dd -65 or 70 -60 80

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3 - 32 Optional Features

jset dip 0 or @xx45 @yy45 @zz45

find

join reg 2
join reg 3
join reg 4

; mesh rock blocks

gen ed 50

E
pGre00   0 u0 i
0SSGGG
pGrelG,lrr0.4r,4SS0

 40 

Figure 3.12 Completed dam with fault in right abutment

The next step is to assign properties to the rock, dam and joints. Initially, the joints are kept elastic
to prevent movement during the cycling to obtain gravitational equilibrium. The dam is also given
an artificially low modulus.
;
; rock : mat=1
change mat 1
; dam : mat=2
change mat 2 range region 1 2 3 4 5

; rock joints : jmat=1

change jmat 1
; faults
change jmat 6 range mint 1 1 ori dip 90 ori dd 280

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 33

change jmat 7 range mint 1 1 ori dip 90 ori dd 295

; dam vertical joints : jmat=2
change jmat 2 range mint 2 2
; foundation joint : jmat=3
change jmat 3 range mint 1 2

; rock
; E=20000 MPa, v=0.2, K=11111, G=8333
prop mat 1 dens 0.0027 k 11111 g 8333

; concrete
; use E/100 for insitu stage
; E=200 MPa, v=0.2, K=111.11, G=83.33
prop mat 2 dens 0.0024 k 111.11 g 83.33

; rock joints
prop jmat 1 kn 10000 ks 5000 jfric 38
prop jmat 6 kn 10000 ks 5000 jfric 38
prop jmat 7 kn 10000 ks 5000 jfric 38

; dam joints (elastic for now)

prop jmat 2 kn 10000 ks 5000 jcoh 1e20 jtens 1e20

; foundation joint (elastic for now)

prop jmat 3 kn 10000 ks 5000 jcoh 1e20 jtens 1e20

Gravity is defined, and in-situ stresses are applied to the rock and the dam. Then the dam is hidden,
and the INSITU topographic command is used to initialize the valley stresses. The stresses are then
removed from the dam.
; --- stage 1 : insitu stresses ---
; (dam blocks soft and elastic)
; gravity
grav 0 0 -10
insitu stress -1.0e-4 -1.0e-4 -1.0e-4 0 0 0
; hide dam
hide mat 2
; topographic stresses
ins topo zup kox 0.3 koy 0.3
; find dam
find
save damfebs0.sav
; remove dam stresses
reset stress range reg 1 2 3 4 5
reset jstr range mint 1 2
reset jstr range mint 2 2

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3 - 34 Optional Features

At this point we want to run the model to equilibrium. We can use the FEB command to remove the
gravitational load from the dam for the finite elements. We do not want the dam loading the valley
yet. We also apply the boundary conditions to the model and assign some monitoring histories.
; remove dam weight
feb grav del
; boundary
bound yv 0.0 range y -180
bound yv 0.0 range y 150
bound xv 0 range x -150
bound xv 0 range x 150
bound zv 0 range z -100
; hist
hist unbal
hist xdis 0 0 80
hist ydis 0 0 80
hist zdis 0 0 80
hide mat 2
hist xdis 0 0 0
hist ydis 0 0 0
hist zdis 0 0 0
find
set dyn off
set damp local
cy 15000

Now we want to remove any stress from the dam that may have been generated by the valley floor
and walls, and put the gravity back in the finite element model. We also reset the monitoring
histories.
; --- stage 2 : dam self weight ---
; (real dam properties, elastic joints)
rest damfebs1.sav
reset disp
reset jdisp
reset damp
; remove dam stresses
reset stress range reg 1 2 3 4 5
reset jstr range mint 2 2
reset jstr range mint 1 2
; concrete properties (real E)
; E=20000 MPa, v=0.2, K=11111, G=8333
prop mat 2 k 11111 g 8333
; hist
reset hist
hist unbal
hist xdis 0 0 80
hist ydis 0 0 80

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 35

hist zdis 0 0 80
hide mat 2
hist xdis 0 0 0
hist ydis 0 0 0
hist zdis 0 0 0
find
hist xdis 70 -40 66
hist ydis 70 -40 66
hist zdis 70 -40 66
hist xdis 57 -51 40
hist ydis 57 -51 40
hist zdis 57 -51 40

; dam self weight

feb grav
cycle 5000

In this stage we use a boundary condition to add water pressures to the dam:
; --- stage 3 - water load ---
; (elastic joints)
rest damfebs2.sav
reset damp
; boundary, fix base
bound xv 0 yv 0 zv 0 range z -100
; water load
bou str -0.8 -0.8 -0.8 0 0 0 zgrad 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 range sreg @isregup
pri bou for range sreg 7
step 5000

Now we put the joints back to the proper strength values:

; --- stage 4 - water load ---
; (nonlinear dam & foundation joints)
prop jmat 2 kn 10000 ks 5000 jcoh 0 jtens 0 jfric 45
prop jmat 3 kn 10000 ks 5000 jcoh 3 jtens 2 jfric 40
reset damp
step 5000

And we use a FISH function (ppjoint)to add pore pressures to the joints:
; --- stage 5 : pp in rock joints ---
@ppjoint
set nucx 0
step 10000

And finally we reduce the friction on the fault to let it slip. We also remove the cohesion between
the rock and the concrete to simulate a cracked contact.

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3 - 36 Optional Features

; --- stage 6 - reduce friction on rock joints ---

rest damfebs5.sav
prop jmat 1 jfric 20
prop jmat 6 jfric 20
prop jmat 7 jfric 20
; assume foundation cracked
prop mat 3 bcoh 0 btens 0

step 5000
step 5000
step 5000
save damfebs6.sav

The final result in which the fault has slipped is shown in Figure 3.13:

E
pGre00m   0 u0 i
0SSGGG
pGrelG,lrr0.4r,4Se0

m 40x 
   o 
  40eip..5r
 40S

Figure 3.13 Dam with displaced fault in abutment

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 37

Example 3.2 Finite element model of a dam

new
set log on
; ---------------------------------------------------------------------
; --- FE block example - Arch dam analysis ---
; ---------------------------------------------------------------------
config feblock dyn

set ATOL .001

; --- GEOMDAM ---

; FISH function to define dam geometry
; (simplified 5 block cylindrical arch shape)
;
def geomdam

rad = 100.0
xcent = 0.0
ycent = -rad
thick = 10.0
angtot = 100.0 * degrad
nb = 5
angb = angtot / nb
zz2 = 80.0
zz1 = 0.0

loop i (1,nb)

ang1 = -0.5*angtot + (i-1)*angb

ang2 = ang1 + angb
xx1 = xcent + (rad-thick)*sin(ang1)
yy1 = ycent + (rad-thick)*cos(ang1)
xx2 = xcent + (rad-thick)*sin(ang2)
yy2 = Ycent + (rad-thick)*cos(ang2)
xx3 = xcent + (rad)*sin(ang2)
yy3 = ycent + (rad)*cos(ang2)
xx4 = xcent + (rad)*sin(ang1)
yy4 = ycent + (rad)*cos(ang1)

; set different region for each block

ireg = i

command
poly prism a @xx1 @yy1 @zz1 @xx2 @yy2 @zz1 @xx3 @yy3 @zz1 &

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3 - 38 Optional Features

@xx4 @yy4 @zz1 &

b @xx1 @yy1 @zz2 @xx2 @yy2 @zz2 @xx3 @yy3 @zz2 &
@xx4 @yy4 @zz2 &
reg @ireg
endcommand

if i = 1
xa1 = xx2
ya1 = yy2
xb1 = xx3
yb1 = yy3
xd1 = xx1
yd1 = yy1
endif
if i = 5
xa2 = xx1
ya2 = yy1
xb2 = xx4
yb2 = yy4
xd2 = xx2
yd2 = yy2
endif
if i = 2
xe1 = xx2
ye1 = yy2
xf1 = xx3
yf1 = yy3
endif
if i = 4
xe2 = xx1
ye2 = yy1
xf2 = xx4
yf2 = yy4
endif

; abutment points
if i = 1
xxright = xx4
yyright = yy4
xxrightdown = xx1
yyrightdown = yy1
xxrightd = xx1
yyrightd = yy1
endif
if i = 5

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 39

xxleft = xx3
yyleft = yy3
xxleftdown = xx2
yyleftdown = yy2
xxleftd = xx2
yyleftd = yy2
endif

; central cantilever
if i = 3
xxrcen = xx1
yyrcen = yy1
xxlcen = xx2
yylcen = yy2
endif

endloop

za = 20.0
xc1 = -20.0
yc1 = -thick
zd = 60.0
zd07 = 0.8*zd
xc2 = 20.0
yc2 = -thick
command
; horizontal cut
hide reg 1 5
jset p3 @xa1 @ya1 @za @xb1 @yb1 @za @xc1 @yc1 @za
join reg 3
;
; right abutment
hide reg 3 4
del zr @zz1 @za
poly face @xe1 @ye1 @zz1 @xa1 @ya1 @za @xe1 @ye1 @za &
face @xf1 @yf1 @za @xb1 @yb1 @za @xf1 @yf1 @zz1 &
face @xb1 @yb1 @za @xa1 @ya1 @za @xe1 @ye1 @zz1 @xf1 @yf1 @zz1 &
face @xa1 @ya1 @za @xb1 @yb1 @za @xf1 @yf1 @za @xe1 @ye1 @za &
face @xe1 @ye1 @za @xf1 @yf1 @za @xf1 @yf1 @zz1 @xe1 @ye1 @zz1 &
reg 2
join reg 2
find
;
hide reg 2 3 4 5
jset p3 @xa1 @ya1 @za @xb1 @yb1 @za @xd1 @yd1 @zd
del zr @zz1 @zd07

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3 - 40 Optional Features

find
;
; left abutment
hide reg 1 2 3 5
del zr @zz1 @za
poly face @xa2 @ya2 @za @xe2 @ye2 @zz1 @xe2 @ye2 @za &
face @xb2 @yb2 @za @xf2 @yf2 @za @xf2 @yf2 @zz1 &
face @xa2 @ya2 @za @xb2 @yb2 @za @xf2 @yf2 @zz1 @xe2 @ye2 @zz1 &
face @xb2 @yb2 @za @xa2 @ya2 @za @xe2 @ye2 @za @xf2 @yf2 @za &
face @xf2 @yf2 @za @xe2 @ye2 @za @xe2 @ye2 @zz1 @xf2 @yf2 @zz1 &
reg 4
join reg 4
find
;
hide reg 1 2 3 4
jset p3 @xa2 @ya2 @za @xb2 @yb2 @za @xd2 @yd2 @zd
del zr @zz1 @zd07
find

endcommand

xx45 = xa2
yy45 = ya2
zz45 = za
xx45d = xb2
yy45d = yb2
zz45d = za

izzright = gp_near(xxright,yyright,64.0)
izzleft = gp_near(xxleft,yyleft,64.0)
zzright = gp_z(izzright)
zzleft = gp_z(izzleft)
ii=out(’ zzright ’+string(zzright))
ii=out(’ zzleft ’+string(zzleft))

; model boundaries
xxrbou = -150.0
xxlbou = 150.0
yyubou = 150.0
yydbou = -180.0
zztopbou = 80.0
zzbotbou = -100.0

end
@geomdam

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 41

; create FE mesh in dam blocks

feb gen 20 20 20 range reg 2 3 4

feb gen 20 20 13 range reg 1 5

; --- MARKDAMFACES ---

; mark dam faces (fe faces and zone faces)
; foundation joint : sreg = block region number (1-5)
; dam upstream faces : sreg = isregup = 7
;
call feblock.fin
def markdamfaces
isregf = 2
isregup = 7
;
nnfefj = 0
nnzj = 0
nnfefu = 0
nnzu = 0

; foundation joint
ii=out(’ found. joint’)
ib = block_head
loop while ib#0
ii=out(’ ib ’+string(ib))
section
if b_region(ib) # 1
if b_region(ib) # 5
if b_z(ib) > za
exit section
endif
endif
endif
; fe faces
ibifef = ib+$kbfef
ii=out(’ ibifef ’+string(ibifef))
ifef = imem(ib+$kbfef)
ii=out(’ ifef ’+string(ifef))
loop while ifef#0
ii=out(’ ifef ’+string(ifef))
ifefvn = index(ifef+$kfefvn)
vnx = fmem(ifefvn)
vny = fmem(ifefvn+1)
vnz = fmem(ifefvn+2)
ii=out(’ vn ’+string(vnx)+’ ’+string(vny)+’ ’+string(vnz))
if vnz < -0.1

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3 - 42 Optional Features

nnfefj = nnfefj+1
imem(index(ifef+$kfefreg)) = b_region(ib)
ii=out(’ marked ifef ’+string(ifef)+’ b ’+string(b_region(ib)))
ii=out(’ vn ’+string(vnx)+’ ’+string(vny)+’ ’+string(vnz))
endif
ifefn = imem(index(ifef+$kfefn))
ifef = ifefn
endloop
; zone faces
ifa = b_face(ib)
loop while ifa#0
ii=out(’ ifa ’+string(ifa))
vn = face_n(ifa)
vnx = xcomp(vn)
vny = ycomp(vn)
vnz = zcomp(vn)
ii=out(’ vn ’+string(vnx)+’ ’+string(vny)+’ ’+string(vnz))
if vnz < -0.1
nnzj = nnzj+1
face_sreg(ifa) = b_region(ib)
ii=out(’ marked ifa ’+string(ifa)+’ b ’+string(b_region(ib)))
ii=out(’ vn ’+string(vnx)+’ ’+string(vny)+’ ’+string(vnz))
endif
ifa = face_next(ifa)
endloop
endsection
ib = b_next(ib)
endloop

; upstream face
ii=out(’ upstream face’)
ib = block_head
loop while ib#0
ii=out(’ ib ’+string(ib))
section
; fe faces
ibifef = ib+$kbfef
ii=out(’ ibifef ’+string(ibifef))
ifef = imem(ib+$kbfef)
ii=out(’ ifef ’+string(ifef))
loop while ifef#0
ii=out(’ ifef ’+string(ifef))
ifefvn = index(ifef+$kfefvn)
vnx = fmem(ifefvn)
vny = fmem(ifefvn+1)
vnz = fmem(ifefvn+2)

3DEC Version 5.2

STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 43

ii=out(’ vn ’+string(vnx)+’ ’+string(vny)+’ ’+string(vnz))

if abs(vnz) < 0.1
angxy = atan2(vnx,vny) / degrad
ii=out(’ angxy ’+string(angxy))
if angxy > -41.0
if angxy < 41.0
nnfefu = nnfefu+1
imem(index(ifef+$kfefreg)) = isregup
ii=out(’ marked ifef ’+string(ifef)+’ b ’+string(ib))
ii=out(’ vn ’+string(vnx)+’ ’+string(vny)+’ ’+string(vnz))
endif
endif
endif
ifefn = imem(index(ifef+$kfefn))
ifef = ifefn
endloop
; zone faces
ifa = b_face(ib)
loop while ifa#0
ii=out(’ ifa ’+string(ifa))
vn = face_n(ifa)
vnx = xcomp(vn)
vny = ycomp(vn)
vnz = zcomp(vn)
ii=out(’ vn ’+string(vnx)+’ ’+string(vny)+’ ’+string(vnz))
if abs(vnz) < 0.1
angxy = atan2(vnx,vny) / degrad
ii=out(’ angxy ’+string(angxy))
if angxy > -41.0
if angxy < 41.0
nnzu = nnzu+1
face_sreg(ifa) = isregup
ii=out(’ marked ifa ’+string(ifa)+’ b ’+string(ib))
ii=out(’ vn ’+string(vnx)+’ ’+string(vny)+’ ’+string(vnz))
endif
endif
endif
ifa = face_next(ifa)
endloop
endsection
ib = b_next(ib)
endloop

ii = out(’ foundation joint : marked ’+string(nnfefj)+’ fe faces’)

ii = out(’ foundation joint : marked ’+string(nnzj)+’ zone faces’)
ii = out(’ dam upstream face : marked ’+string(nnfefu)+’ fe faces’)

3DEC Version 5.2

3 - 44 Optional Features

ii = out(’ dam upstream face : marked ’+string(nnzu)+’ zone faces’)

end
@markdamfaces

; mark faces at abutments : sreg = 11 and 15

feb mark 11 range z 58 100 x @xxrbou @xxrightdown
feb mark 15 range z 58 100 x @xxleftdown @xxlbou
mark sreg 11 range z 58 79.9 x @xxrbou @xxrightdown y @yydbou @yyright
mark sreg 15 range z 58 79.9 x @xxleftdown @xxlbou y @yydbou @yyleft

; --- create rock blocks ---

; below dam
; feb base sreg @isregf proj z @zzbotbou
feb base sreg 1 proj z @zzbotbou
feb base sreg 2 proj z @zzbotbou
feb base sreg 3 proj z @zzbotbou
feb base sreg 4 proj z @zzbotbou
feb base sreg 5 proj z @zzbotbou

save dampanels

; upstream (region 21) and downstream

feblock base sreg 3 axis -1 proj y @yydbou proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 3 axis 1 proj y @yyubou proj z @zzbotbou reg 21
feblock base sreg 2 axis -3 proj y @yydbou proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 2 axis 3 proj y @yyubou proj z @zzbotbou reg 21
feblock base sreg 4 axis -3 proj y @yydbou proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 4 axis 3 proj y @yyubou proj z @zzbotbou reg 21
feblock base sreg 1 axis 2 proj y @yydbou proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 1 axis -2 proj y @yyubou proj z @zzbotbou reg 21
feblock base sreg 5 axis -1 proj y @yydbou proj z @zzbotbou
feblock base sreg 5 axis 1 proj y @yyubou proj z @zzbotbou reg 21

save damextrude

; abutments downstream
poly prism a @xxright @yyright @zzright @xxrightd @yyrightd @zd &
@xxrightd @yyrightd @zztopbou @xxright @yyright @zztopbou &
b @xxright @yydbou @zzright @xxrightd @yydbou @zd &
@xxrightd @yydbou @zztopbou @xxright @yydbou @zztopbou &
reg 0
poly prism a @xxleft @yyleft @zzleft @xxleftd @yyleftd @zd &
@xxleftd @yyleftd @zztopbou @xxleft @yyleft @zztopbou &
b @xxleft @yydbou @zzleft @xxleftd @yydbou @zd &

3DEC Version 5.2

STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 45

@xxleftd @yydbou @zztopbou @xxleft @yydbou @zztopbou &

reg 0

; abutments downstream, below foundation joint

poly prism a @xxright @yyright @zzright @xxrightd @yyrightd @zd &
@xxrightd @yyrightd @zzbotbou @xxright @yyright @zzbotbou &
b @xxright @yydbou @zzright @xxrightd @yydbou @zd &
@xxrightd @yydbou @zzbotbou @xxright @yydbou @zzbotbou &
reg 0
poly prism a @xxleft @yyleft @zzleft @xxleftd @yyleftd @zd &
@xxleftd @yyleftd @zzbotbou @xxleft @yyleft @zzbotbou &
b @xxleft @yydbou @zzleft @xxleftd @yydbou @zd &
@xxleftd @yydbou @zzbotbou @xxleft @yydbou @zzbotbou &
reg 0

; left and right boundary blocks

; upstream
poly brick @xxrbou @xxright @yyright @yyubou @zzbotbou @zztopbou reg 21
poly brick @xxleft @xxlbou @yyright @yyubou @zzbotbou @zztopbou reg 21
; downstream
poly brick @xxrbou @xxright @yydbou @yyright @zzbotbou @zztopbou
poly brick @xxleft @xxlbou @yydbou @yyright @zzbotbou @zztopbou

save damabut

; join rock blocks

join reg 0
join reg 21

; create wedge in left abutment

hide reg 21
hide reg 1 2 3 4 5
jset dip 90 dd -80 or @xxleft @yyleft 80
jset dip 90 dd -65 or 70 -60 80
jset dip 0 or @xx45 @yy45 @zz45
find

join reg 2
join reg 3
join reg 4

; mesh rock blocks

gen ed 50

3DEC Version 5.2

3 - 46 Optional Features

save damfebz.3dsav

; --- assign materials, properties ---

; rock : mat=1
change mat 1
; dam : mat=2
change mat 2 range region 1 2 3 4 5

; rock joints : jmat=1

change jmat 1
; faults
change jmat 6 range mint 1 1 ori dip 90 ori dd 280
change jmat 7 range mint 1 1 ori dip 90 ori dd 295
; dam vertical joints : jmat=2
change jmat 2 range mint 2 2
; foundation joint : jmat=3
change jmat 3 range mint 1 2

; rock
; E=20000 MPa, v=0.2, K=11111, G=8333
prop mat 1 dens 0.0027 k 11111 g 8333

; concrete
; use E/100 for insitu stage
; E=200 MPa, v=0.2, K=111.11, G=83.33
prop mat 2 dens 0.0024 k 111.11 g 83.33

; rock joints
prop jmat 1 kn 10000 ks 5000 jfric 38
prop jmat 6 kn 10000 ks 5000 jfric 38
prop jmat 7 kn 10000 ks 5000 jfric 38

; dam joints (elastic for now)

prop jmat 2 kn 10000 ks 5000 jcoh 1e20 jtens 1e20

; foundation joint (elastic for now)

prop jmat 3 kn 10000 ks 5000 jcoh 1e20 jtens 1e20

; --- stage 1 : insitu stresses ---

; (dam blocks soft and elastic)

; gravity
grav 0 0 -10

insitu stress -1.0e-4 -1.0e-4 -1.0e-4 0 0 0

3DEC Version 5.2

STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 47

; hide dam
hide mat 2

; topographic stresses
ins topo zup kox 0.3 koy 0.3

; find dam
find

save damfebs0.3dsav

; remove dam stresses

reset reg 1 2 3 4 5 stress
reset mint 1 2 jstr
reset mint 2 2 jstr

; remove dam weight

feb grav del

; boundary
bound yr -180.1 -179.9 yv 0.0
bound yr 149.9 150.1 yv 0.0
bound xr -150.1 -149.9 xv 0
bound xr 149.9 150.1 xv 0
bound zr -100.1 -99.9 zv 0

; hist
hist unbal
hist xdis 0 0 80
hist ydis 0 0 80
hist zdis 0 0 80
hide mat 2
hist xdis 0 0 0
hist ydis 0 0 0
hist zdis 0 0 0
find

set dyn off

set damp local

cy 15000
save damfebs1.3dsav

pri max
pri co sum

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3 - 48 Optional Features

; --- stage 2 : dam self weight ---

; (real dam properties, elastic joints)
rest damfebs1.3dsav

reset disp
reset jdisp
reset damp

; remove dam stresses

reset reg 1 2 3 4 5 stress
reset mint 2 2 jstr
reset mint 1 2 jstr

; concrete properties (real E)

; E=20000 MPa, v=0.2, K=11111, G=8333
prop mat 2 k 11111 g 8333

; hist
reset hist
hist unbal
hist xdis 0 0 80
hist ydis 0 0 80
hist zdis 0 0 80
hide mat 2
hist xdis 0 0 0
hist ydis 0 0 0
hist zdis 0 0 0
find
hist xdis 70 -40 66
hist ydis 70 -40 66
hist zdis 70 -40 66
hist xdis 57 -51 40
hist ydis 57 -51 40
hist zdis 57 -51 40

; dam self weight

feb grav
cycle 5000

save damfebs2.3dsav
pri max
pri co sum

; --- stage 3 - water load ---

; (elastic joints)

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rest damfebs2.3dsav

reset damp

; set wr on

; boundary, fix base

bound zr -100.1 -99.9 xv 0 yv 0 zv 0

; water load
bou str -0.8 -0.8 -0.8 0 0 0 zgrad 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 range sreg @isregup

pri bou for range sreg 7

step 5000

save damfebs3.3dsav
pri max
pri co sum

; --- stage 4 - water load ---

; (nonlinear dam & foundation joints)

prop jmat 2 kn 10000 ks 5000 jcoh 0 jtens 0 jfric 45

prop jmat 3 kn 10000 ks 5000 jcoh 3 jtens 2 jfric 40

reset damp

step 5000
save damfebs4.3dsav

; --- stage 5 : pp in rock joints ---

rest damfebs4.3dsav

def ppjoint

ic = contact_head
loop while ic#0
icx = c_cx(ic)
jmat = c_mat(ic)
if jmat = 0
jmat = cx_mat(icx)
endif
ib1 = c_b1(ic)
ib2 = c_b2(ic)
ir1 = b_region(ib1)

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3 - 50 Optional Features

ir2 = b_region(ib2)
ibm1 = b_mat(ib1)
ibm2 = b_mat(ib2)
vnx = c_nx(ic)
vny = c_ny(ic)
vnz = c_nz(ic)

section

if icx = 0
exit section
endif

; skip dam and foundation joints

if ibm1 # 1
exit section
endif
if ibm2 # 1
exit section
endif

loop while icx#0

xx = cx_x(icx)
yy = cx_y(icx)
zz = cx_z(icx)
ar = cx_area(icx)
iver = cx_vertex(icx)
ppold = cx_pp(icx)

flag = 1

; pp only in joints in vicinity of dam

if xx < -82.1
flag = 0
endif
if xx > 82.1
flag = 0
endif
if yy < -60
flag = 0
endif
if yy > 0.1
flag = 0
endif

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if flag=1

ppnew = (80-zz)*0.01

if ppnew < 0.0

ppnew = 0.0
endif
fpnew = ppnew*ar

s1=’ icx ’+string(icx)+’ xyz ’+string(xx)+’ ’+string(yy)

s1=s1+’ ’+string(zz)+’ pp ’+string(ppnew)
ii=out(s1)

; set pp force in contact

cx_ppforce(icx) = fpnew

endif

icx = cx_next(icx)
endloop

endsection

ic = c_next(ic)
endloop

end
@ppjoint

;
set nucx 0

step 5000
step 5000
save damfebs5.3dsav

; --- stage 6 - reduce friction on rock joints ---

rest damfebs5.3dsav

; xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
prop jmat 1 jfric 20

prop jmat 6 jfric 20

prop jmat 7 jfric 20
; assume foundation cracked
prop jmat 3 jcoh 0 jtens 0

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3 - 52 Optional Features

step 5000
step 5000
step 5000
save damfebs6.3dsav

ret

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STRUCTURAL LINERS AND FINITE ELEMENT BLOCKS 3 - 53

3.4 References

Brierley, G. “The Performance during Construction of the Liner of a Large, Shallow Underground
Opening in Rock.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1975).
Cheung, Y. K., I. P. King and O. C. Zienkiewicz. “Slab Bridges with Arbitrary Shape and Support
Conditions – A General Method of Analysis Based on Finite Elements,” Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 40,
9-36 (1968).
Desai, C. S., and J. F. Abel. Introduction to the Finite Element Method – A Numerical Method
for Engineering Analysis. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company (1972).
Dixon, J. D. “Analysis of Tunnel Support Structure with Consideration of Support-Rock Interac-
tion,” U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Mines Investigation, Report RI7526 (June 1971).
Hughes, T. J. R. The Finite Element Method: Linear Static and Dynamic Finite Element Analysis.
Prentice Hall (1987).
Lemos, J. V. “Modelling of Arch Dams on Jointed Rock Foundations,” in Prediction and Perfor-
mance in Rock Mechanics & Rock Engineering (Proceedings of ISRM International Symposium
EUROCK ‘96, Turin, Italy, September 1996), Vol. 1, pp. 519-526. G. Barla, ed. Rotterdam: A.
A. Balkema (1996).
Lemos, J. V., et al. “Experimental Study of an Arch Dam on a Jointed Foundation,” in Proceedings
of the Eighth International Congress on Rock Mechanics (Tokyo, Japan, September 1995), Vol.
3, pp. 1263-1266. T. Fujii, ed. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema (1995).
Lorig, L. J. “A Hybrid Computational Model for Excavation and Support Design in Jointed Media.”
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota (1984).
Monsees, J. E. “Station Design for the Washington Metro System,” in Proceedings of the Engi-
neering Foundation Conference – Shotcrete Support. ACI Publication SP-54 (1977).
Paul, S. L., et al. “Design Recommendations for Concrete Tunnel Linings,” University of Illinois,
DOT Report No. DOT-TSC-UMTA-83-16 (1983).
Zienkiewicz, O. C. The Finite Element Method. London: McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK)
Limited (1977).

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