A Brief Table of Integrals

Basic Forms

L L
xn + 1
1. k dx = kx + C (any number k) 2. xn dx = + C (n ≠ -1)
n + 1

L L
dx
3. x = ln 0 x 0 + C 4. ex dx = ex + C

L L
ax
5. ax dx = + C (a 7 0, a ≠ 1) 6. sin x dx = -cos x + C
ln a

L L
7. cos x dx = sin x + C 8. sec2 x dx = tan x + C

L L
9. csc2 x dx = -cot x + C 10. sec x tan x dx = sec x + C

L L
11. csc x cot x dx = -csc x + C 12. tan x dx = ln 0 sec x 0 + C

L L
13. cot x dx = ln 0 sin x 0 + C 14. sinh x dx = cosh x + C

L L 2a2 - x2
dx x
15. cosh x dx = sinh x + C 16. = sin-1 a + C

La + x L x 2x - a
dx 1 x dx 1 x
17. 2 2
= a tan-1 a + C 18. 2 2
= a sec-1 2 a 2 + C

L 2a + x L 2x - a
dx x dx x
19. 2
2
= sinh-1 a + C (a 7 0) 20. 22
= cosh-1 a + C (x 7 a 7 0)

Forms Involving ax + b
(ax + b)n + 1
L
21. (ax + b)n dx = + C, n ≠ -1
a(n + 1)
(ax + b)n + 1 ax + b
L
b
22. x(ax + b)n dx = c - d + C, n ≠ -1, -2
a2 n + 2 n + 1

L L
1 x b
23. (ax + b)-1 dx = a ln 0 ax + b 0 + C 24. x(ax + b)-1 dx = a - 2 ln # ax + b # + C
a

L L x(ax + b) b
1 b dx 1 x 2
25. x(ax + b)-2 dx = c ln 0 ax + b 0 + d + C 26. = ln 2 + C
a2 ax + b ax + b

2 1 2ax + b 2
n+2

L L L x 2ax + b
2ax + b dx
27. 1 2ax + b2
n
dx = a
n + 2
+ C, n ≠ -2 28. x dx = 2 2ax + b + b

T-1
T-2 A Brief Table of Integrals

L x 2ax + b L x 2ax - b
dx 1 2ax + b - 2b dx 2 ax - b
29. (a) = ln ` ` + C (b) = tan-1 + C
2b 2ax + b + 2b 2b A b

L 2L x 2ax + b L L
2ax + b 2ax + b a dx dx 2ax + b a dx
30. dx = - + + C 31. = - - + C
x2 x x 2
2ax + b bx 2b x 2ax + b
Forms Involving a 2 + x 2

L L (a + x )
dx 1 x dx x 1 x
32. = a tan-1 a + C 33. = + 3 tan-1 a + C
a 2
+ x 2 2 2 2
2a2 ( a2 + x2 ) 2a

L 2a2 + x2
dx x
34. = sinh-1 a + C = ln 1 x + 2a2 + x2 2 + C

L
x a2
35. 2a2 + x2 dx = 2a2 + x2 + ln 1 x + 2a2 + x2 2 + C
2 2

L
4
x 2
36. x2 2a2 + x2 dx =
8
( a + 2x2 ) 2a2 + x2 - a8 ln 1 x + 2a2 + x2 2 + C

L
2a2 + x2 a + 2a2 + x2
37. x dx = 2a2 + x2 - a ln ` x ` + C

L
2a2 + x2 2a2 + x2
38. 2
dx = ln 1 x + 2a2 + x2 2 - x + C
x

L 2a + x
x2 a2 x 2a2 + x2
39. dx = - ln 1 x + 2a2 + x2 2 + + C
2
2 2 2

L x 2a2 + x2 L x2 2a2 + x2
dx 1 a + 2a2 + x2 dx 2a2 + x2
40. = - a ln ` x ` + C 41. = - + C
a2x

Forms Involving a 2 − x 2

La - x L (a - x )
dx 1 x + a dx x 1 x + a
42. = ln 2 x - a 2 + C 43. = 2 2 + 3 ln 2 x - a 2 + C
2 2 2a 2 2 2
2a ( a - x2 ) 4a

L 2a - x L
dx x x a2 -1 x
44. = sin-1 a + C 45. 2a2 - x2 dx = 2a2 - x2 + sin a + C
2
2 2 2

L
4
a x 1
46. x2 2a2 - x2 dx = sin-1 a - x 2a2 - x2 ( a2 - 2x2 ) + C
8 8

L L
2a2 - x2 a + 2a2 - x2 2a2 - x2 x 2a2 - x2
47. x dx = 2a2 - x2 - a ln ` x ` + C 48. 2
dx = -sin-1 a - x + C
x

L 2a - x L x 2a - x
x2 a2 -1 x 1 dx 1 a + 2a2 - x2
49. dx = sin a - x 2a2 - x2 + C 50. = - a ln ` x ` + C
2
2 2 2 2 2

L x 2a - x
dx 2a2 - x2
51. = - + C
22 2 a2x

Forms Involving x 2 − a 2

L 2x2 - a2
dx
52. = ln 0 x + 2x2 - a2 0 + C

L
x a2
53. 2x2 - a2 dx = 2x2 - a2 - ln 0 x + 2x2 - a2 0 + C
2 2
 A Brief Table of Integrals T-3

x1 2x2 - a2 2
n

L n + 1L
na2
54. 1 2x 2
- a 2
2 n
dx =
n + 1
- 1 2x2 - a2 2n - 2 dx, n ≠ -1
x1 2x2 - a2 2
2-n

L 1 2x2 - a2 2 (n - 2)a2L 1 2x2 - a2 2n - 2

dx n - 3 dx
55. = - , n≠2
n
(2 - n)a2
1 2x2 - a2 2n + 2
L
x1 2x2 - a2 2 dx =
n
56. + C, n ≠ -2
n + 2

L
4
x
57. x2 2x2 - a2 dx =
8
( 2x2 - a2 ) 2x2 - a2 - a8 ln 0 x + 2x2 - a2 0 + C

L
2x2 - a2 x
58. x dx = 2x2 - a2 - a sec-1 ` a ` + C

L
2x2 - a2 2x2 - a2
59. 2
dx = ln 0 x + 2x2 - a2 0 - x + C
x

L 2x - a
x2 a2 x
60. dx = ln 0 x + 2x2 - a2 0 + 2x2 - a2 + C
2 2 2 2

L x 2x2 - a2 L x 2x - a
dx 1 x 1 a dx 2x2 - a2
61. = a sec-1 ` a ` + C = a cos-1 ` x ` + C 62. = + C
22 2 a2x

Trigonometric Forms

L L
1 1
63. sin ax dx = - a cos ax + C 64. cos ax dx = a sin ax + C

L L
x sin 2ax x sin 2ax
65. sin2 ax dx = - + C 66. cos2 ax dx = + + C
2 4a 2 4a

L L
sinn - 1 ax cos ax n - 1
67. sinn ax dx = - na + n sinn - 2 ax dx

L L
cosn - 1 ax sin ax n - 1
68. cosn ax dx = cosn - 2 ax dx
na + n

cos(a + b)x cos(a - b)x

L
69. (a) sin ax cos bx dx = - - + C, a2 ≠ b2
2(a + b) 2(a - b)
sin(a - b)x sin(a + b)x
L
(b) sin ax sin bx dx = - + C, a2 ≠ b2
2(a - b) 2(a + b)

sin(a - b)x sin(a + b)x

L
(c) cos ax cos bx dx = + + C, a2 ≠ b2
2(a - b) 2(a + b)

L L
cos 2ax sinn + 1 ax
70. sin ax cos ax dx = - + C 71. sinn ax cos ax dx = + C, n ≠ -1
4a (n + 1)a

L L
cos ax 1 cosn + 1 ax
72. dx = a ln # sin ax # + C 73. cosn ax sin ax dx = - + C, n ≠ -1
sin ax (n + 1)a

L
sin ax 1
74. cos ax dx = - a ln # cos ax # + C

L m + nL
sinn - 1 ax cosm + 1 ax n - 1
75. sinn ax cosm ax dx = - + sinn - 2 ax cosm ax dx, n ≠ -m (reduces sinn ax)
a(m + n)

L m + nL
sinn + 1 ax cosm - 1 ax m - 1
76. sinn ax cosm ax dx = + sinn ax cosm - 2 ax dx, m ≠ -n (reduces cosm ax)
a(m + n)
T-4 A Brief Table of Integrals

L b + c sin ax a 2b2 - c2
dx -2 b - c p ax
77. = tan-1 c tana - b d + C, b2 7 c2
Ab + c 4 2

L
dx -1 c + b sin ax + 2c2 - b2 cos ax
78. = ln ` ` + C, b2 6 c2
b + c sin ax 2
a 2c - b2 b + c sin ax

L L
dx 1 p ax dx 1 p ax
79. = - a tan a - b + C 80. = a tan a + b + C
1 + sin ax 4 2 1 - sin ax 4 2

L
dx 2 b - c ax
81. = tan-1 c tan d + C, b2 7 c2
b + c cos ax 2
a 2b - c2 A b + c 2

L b + c cos ax a 2c2 - b2
dx 1 c + b cos ax + 2c2 - b2 sin ax
82. = ln ` ` + C, b2 6 c2
b + c cos ax

L 1 + cos ax L 1 - cos ax
dx 1 ax dx 1 ax
83. = a tan + C 84. = - a cot + C
2 2

L L
1 x 1 x
85. x sin ax dx = 2
sin ax - a cos ax + C 86. x cos ax dx = 2
cos ax + a sin ax + C
a a

L L L L
n
x n xn n
87. xn sin ax dx = - a cos ax + a xn - 1 cos ax dx 88. xn cos ax dx = a sin ax - a xn - 1 sin ax dx

L L
1 1
89. tan ax dx = a ln 0 sec ax 0 + C 90. cot ax dx = a ln 0 sin ax 0 + C

L L
1 1
91. tan2 ax dx = a tan ax - x + C 92. cot2 ax dx = - a cot ax - x + C

L L L L
tann - 1 ax cotn - 1 ax
93. tann ax dx = - tann - 2 ax dx, n ≠ 1 94. cotn ax dx = - - cotn - 2 ax dx, n ≠ 1
a(n - 1) a(n - 1)

L L
1 1
95. sec ax dx = a ln 0 sec ax + tan ax 0 + C 96. csc ax dx = - a ln 0 csc ax + cot ax 0 + C

L L
1 1
97. sec2 ax dx = a tan ax + C 98. csc2 ax dx = - a cot ax + C

L n - 1L
n-2
sec ax tan ax n - 2
99. secn ax dx = + secn - 2 ax dx, n ≠ 1
a(n - 1)

L n - 1L
cscn - 2 ax cot ax n - 2
100. cscn ax dx = - + cscn - 2 ax dx, n ≠ 1
a(n - 1)

L L
secn ax cscn ax
101. secn ax tan ax dx = na + C, n ≠ 0 102. cscn ax cot ax dx = - na + C, n ≠ 0

Inverse Trigonometric Forms

L L
1 1
103. sin-1 ax dx = x sin-1 ax + a 21 - a2x2 + C 104. cos-1 ax dx = x cos-1 ax - a 21 - a2x2 + C

L
1
105. tan-1 ax dx = x tan-1 ax - ln ( 1 + a2x2 ) + C
2a

L n + 1 L 21 - a2x2
xn + 1 a xn + 1 dx
106. xn sin-1 ax dx = sin-1 ax - , n ≠ -1
n + 1

L n + 1 L 21 - a2x2
xn + 1 a xn + 1 dx
107. xn cos-1 ax dx = cos-1 ax + , n ≠ -1
n + 1

L n + 1 L 1 + a2x2
xn + 1 a xn + 1 dx
108. xn tan-1 ax dx = tan-1 ax - , n ≠ -1
n + 1
 A Brief Table of Integrals T-5

Exponential and Logarithmic Forms

L L
1 1 bax
109. eax dx = a eax + C 110. bax dx = + C, b 7 0, b ≠ 1
a ln b

L L L
ax
e 1 n
111. xeax dx = (ax - 1) + C 112. xneax dx = a xneax - a xn - 1eax dx
a2

L a ln b a ln b L
xnbax n
113. xnbax dx = - xn - 1bax dx, b 7 0, b ≠ 1

L
eax
114. eax sin bx dx = (a sin bx - b cos bx) + C
a + b2
2

L L
eax
115. eax cos bx dx = (a cos bx + b sin bx) + C 116. ln ax dx = x ln ax - x + C
a + b2
2

xn + 1(ln ax)m
L n + 1L
m
117. xn(ln ax)m dx = - xn(ln ax)m - 1 dx, n ≠ -1
n + 1
(ln ax)m + 1
L L
dx
118. x-1(ln ax)m dx = + C, m ≠ -1 119. = ln 0 ln ax 0 + C
m + 1 x ln ax

Forms Involving 22ax − x 2, a + 0

L 22ax - x2
dx x - a
120. = sin-1 a a b + C

L
x - a a2 -1 x - a
121. 22ax - x2 dx = 22ax - x2 + sin a a b + C
2 2
(x - a)1 22ax - x2 2
n

L n + 1L
na2
122. 1 22ax - x 2
2 n
dx =
n + 1
+ 1 22ax - x2 2n - 2 dx
(x - a)1 22ax - x2 22 - n
L L
dx n - 3 dx
123. = +
1 22ax - x 2
2 n (n - 2)a 2
(n - 2)a 2
1 22ax - x2 2
n-2

(x + a)(2x - 3a) 22ax - x2 a3 -1 x - a

L
124. x 22ax - x2 dx = + sin a a b + C
6 2

L
22ax - x2 x - a
125. x dx = 22ax - x2 + a sin-1 a a b + C

L
22ax - x2 2a - x x - a
126. dx = -2 x - sin-1 a a b + C
x2 A

L 22ax - x L x 22ax - x
x dx x - a dx 1 2a - x
127. = a sin-1 a a b - 22ax - x2 + C 128. = -a + C
2 2 A x
Hyperbolic Forms

L L
1 1
129. sinh ax dx = a cosh ax + C 130. cosh ax dx = a sinh ax + C

L L
sinh 2ax x sinh 2ax x
131. sinh2 ax dx = - + C 132. cosh2 ax dx = + + C
4a 2 4a 2

L L
n-1
sinh ax cosh ax n - 1
133. sinhn ax dx = na - n sinhn - 2 ax dx, n ≠ 0
T-6 A Brief Table of Integrals

L L
coshn - 1 ax sinh ax n - 1
134. coshn ax dx = na + n coshn - 2 ax dx, n ≠ 0

L L
x 1 x 1
135. x sinh ax dx = a cosh ax - 2 sinh ax + C 136. x cosh ax dx = a sinh ax - 2 cosh ax + C
a a

L L L L
xn n xn n
137. xn sinh ax dx = a cosh ax - a xn - 1 cosh ax dx 138. xn cosh ax dx = a sinh ax - a xn - 1 sinh ax dx

L L
1 1
139. tanh ax dx = a ln (cosh ax) + C 140. coth ax dx = a ln # sinh ax # + C

L L
1 1
141. tanh2 ax dx = x - a tanh ax + C 142. coth2 ax dx = x - a coth ax + C

L L
tanhn - 1 ax
143. tanhn ax dx = - + tanhn - 2 ax dx, n ≠ 1
(n - 1)a

L L
cothn - 1 ax
144. cothn ax dx = - + cothn - 2 ax dx, n ≠ 1
(n - 1)a

L L
1 1 ax
145. sech ax dx = a sin-1 (tanh ax) + C 146. csch ax dx = a ln 2 tanh 2 + C
2

L L
1 1
147. sech2 ax dx = a tanh ax + C 148. csch2 ax dx = - a coth ax + C

L n - 1L
n-2
sech ax tanh ax n - 2
149. sechn ax dx = + sechn - 2 ax dx, n ≠ 1
(n - 1)a

L n - 1L
cschn - 2 ax coth ax n - 2
150. cschn ax dx = - - cschn - 2 ax dx, n ≠ 1
(n - 1)a

L L
sechn ax cschn ax
151. sechn ax tanh ax dx = - na + C, n ≠ 0 152. cschn ax coth ax dx = - na + C, n ≠ 0

L
ax bx -bx
e e e
153. eax sinh bx dx = c - d + C, a2 ≠ b2
2 a + b a - b

L
eax ebx e-bx
154. eax cosh bx dx = c + d + C, a2 ≠ b2
2 a + b a - b

Some Definite Integrals

q q

L0 L0
2 1 p
155. xn - 1e-x dx = Γ(n) = (n - 1)!, n 7 0 156. e-ax dx = , a 7 0
2A a

1 # 3 # 5 # g # (n - 1) # p
2#4#6# g#n
p>2 p>2 , if n is an even integer Ú 2
2
L0 L0 2 # 4 # 6 # g # (n - 1)
157. sinn x dx = cosn x dx = d
3#5#7# g#n
, if n is an odd integer Ú 3
Trigonometry Formulas tan (A + B) =
tan A + tan B
1 - tan A tan B
y tan A - tan B
Definitions and Fundamental Identities tan (A - B) =
1 + tan A tan B
y 1 P(x, y) p p
Sine: sin u = r = sin aA - b = -cos A, cos aA - b = sin A
csc u r 2 2
y
x 1 u
Cosine: cos u = r = x x p p
sec u 0 sin aA + b = cos A, cos aA + b = -sin A
2 2
y 1
Tangent: tan u = x = 1 1
cot u sin A sin B = cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)
2 2
1 1
cos A cos B = cos (A - B) + cos (A + B)
Identities 2 2
sin (-u) = -sin u, cos (-u) = cos u 1 1
sin A cos B = sin (A - B) + sin (A + B)
sin2 u + cos2 u = 1, sec2 u = 1 + tan2 u, csc2 u = 1 + cot2 u 2 2
1 1
sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u, cos 2u = cos2 u - sin2 u sin A + sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A - B)
2 2
1 + cos 2u 1 - cos 2u
cos2 u = , sin2 u = 1 1
2 2 sin A - sin B = 2 cos (A + B) sin (A - B)
2 2
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
1 1
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B cos A + cos B = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A - B)
2 2
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B 1 1
cos A - cos B = -2 sin (A + B) sin (A - B)
cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B 2 2

Trigonometric Functions y y
y = sin x y = cos x
Degrees Radians
Radian Measure
x x
–p – p 0 p p 3p 2p –p – p 0 p p 3p 2p
45 p 2 2 2 2 2 2
4
s "2 1 "2 1
Domain: (−∞, ∞) Domain: (−∞, ∞)
u p p
1 Range: [−1, 1] Range: [−1, 1]
45 90 4 2
r 1 1
Un l
e

it circ y
y
y = tan x y = sec x
C ir sr
cle of radiu
p
30 1
s u s 6
x x
r = 1 = u or u = r , 2 "3 2 "3 – 3p –p – p 0 p p 3p – 3p –p – p 0 p p 3p
180° = p radians. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
p p
60 90 3 2
1 1 Domain: All real numbers except odd Domain: All real numbers except odd
integer multiples of p"2 integer multiples of p"2
The angles of two common triangles, in Range: (−∞, ∞) Range: (−∞, −1] ´ [1, ∞)
degrees and radians.
y y
y = csc x y = cot x

1 1
x x
–p – p 0 p p 3p 2p –p – p 0 p p 3p 2p
2 2 2 2 2 2

Domain: x ≠ 0, ±p, ±2p, . . . Domain: x ≠ 0, ±p, ±2p, . . .

Range: (−∞, −1] ´ [1, ∞) Range: (−∞, ∞)
 SERIES

5. Series with some negative terms: Does g # an # converge?

Tests for Convergence of Infinite Series

2. Geometric series: g ar converges if # r # 6 1; otherwise it If yes, so does g an since absolute convergence implies con-
1. The nth-Term Test: Unless an S 0, the series diverges.
n

6. Alternating series: g an converges if the series satisfies the

vergence.
3. p-series: g 1>np converges if p 7 1; otherwise it diverges.
diverges.

conditions of the Alternating Series Test.

4. Series with nonnegative terms: Try the Integral Test, Ratio
Test, or Root Test. Try comparing to a known series with the
Comparison Test or the Limit Comparison Test.

Taylor Series
= 1 + x + x2 + g + xn + g = a xn,
q
1
0x0 6 1
1 - x n=0

= 1 - x + x2 - g + (-x)n + g = a (-1)nxn,
q
1
0x0 6 1
1 + x n=0

+ g = a ,
q
x2 xn xn
ex = 1 + x + + g + 0x0 6 q
2! n! n = 0 n!

+ g = a
q
x3 x5 x2n + 1 (-1)nx2n + 1
sin x = x - + - g + (-1)n , 0x0 6 q
3! 5! (2n + 1)! n = 0 (2n + 1)!

+ g = a
q
x2 x4 x2n (-1)nx2n
cos x = 1 - + - g + (-1)n , 0x0 6 q
2! 4! (2n)! n = 0 (2n)!

- g + (-1)n - 1 n + g = a
q
x2 x3 xn (-1)n - 1xn
ln (1 + x) = x - + n , -1 6 x … 1
2 3 n=1

+ gb = 2 a
q
1 + x x3 x5 x2n + 1 x2n + 1
ln = 2 tanh-1 x = 2ax + + + g + , 0x0 6 1
1 - x 3 5 2n + 1 n = 0 2n + 1

+ g = a
q
x3 x5 x2n + 1 (-1)nx2n + 1
tan-1 x = x - + - g + (-1)n , 0x0 … 1
3 5 2n + 1 n = 0 2n + 1

Binomial Series
m(m - 1)x2 m(m - 1)(m - 2)x3 m(m - 1)(m - 2) g(m - k + 1)xk
(1 + x)m = 1 + mx + + + g + + g
2! 3! k!

= 1 + a a b xk,
q
m
0 x 0 6 1,
k=1 k
where
m m m(m - 1) m m(m - 1) g(m - k + 1)
a b = m, a b = , a b = for k Ú 3.
1 2 2! k k!
 VECTOR OPERATOR FORMULAS (CARTESIAN FORM)

Formulas for Grad, Div, Curl, and the Laplacian

Cartesian (x, y, z) The Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals
i, j, and k are unit vectors Part 1 Let F = Mi + Nj + Pk be a vector field whose components
in the directions of are continuous throughout an open connected region D in space.
Then there exists a differentiable function ƒ such that
increasing x, y, and z.
M, N, and P are the 0ƒ 0ƒ 0ƒ
F = ∇ƒ = i + j + k
scalar components of 0x 0y 0z
if and only if for all points A and B in D the value of 1A F # dr is
B
F(x, y, z) in these
directions. independent of the path joining A to B in D.
0ƒ 0ƒ 0ƒ Part 2 If the integral is independent of the path from A to B, its value is
Gradient ∇ƒ = i + j + k
0x 0y 0z B
F # dr = ƒ(B) - ƒ(A).
∇#F =
0M 0N 0P
+ + LA
Divergence 0x 0y 0z

i j k
0 0 04 Green’s Theorem and Its Generalization to Three Dimensions
Curl ∇ * F = 4
0x 0y 0z
F # T ds = ∇ * F # k dA
F O
M N P Tangential form of Green’s Theorem:
C R
0 2ƒ 0 2ƒ 0 2ƒ
F # T ds = ∇ * F # n ds
F O
Laplacian ∇ 2ƒ = 2 + 2 + 2 Stokes’ Theorem:
0x 0y 0z
C S

F # n ds = ∇ # F dA
F O
Vector Triple Products Normal form of Green’s Theorem:
(u * v) # w = (v * w) # u = (w * u) # v C R

u * (v * w) = (u # w)v - (u # v)w F # n ds = ∇ # F dV
O l
Divergence Theorem:
S D

Vector Identities
In the identities here, ƒ and g are differentiable scalar functions, F, F1, and F2 are differentiable vector fields, and a and b are real
constants.
∇ * ( ∇ƒ ) = 0 ∇ # ( F1 * F2 ) = F2 # ∇ * F1 - F1 # ∇ * F2
∇ ( ƒg ) = ƒ∇g + g∇ƒ
∇ * ( F1 * F2 ) = ( F2 # ∇ ) F1 - ( F1 # ∇ ) F2 +
∇ # ( gF ) = g∇ # F + ∇g # F ( ∇ # F2 ) F1 - ( ∇ # F1 ) F2
∇ * ( gF ) = g∇ * F + ∇g * F
∇ * ( ∇ * F ) = ∇ ( ∇ # F ) - ( ∇ # ∇ ) F = ∇ ( ∇ # F ) - ∇ 2F
∇ # ( aF1 + bF2 ) = a∇ # F1 + b∇ # F2 ( ∇ * F ) * F = ( F # ∇ ) F - 12 ∇ ( F # F )
∇ * ( aF1 + bF2 ) = a∇ * F1 + b∇ * F2

∇ ( F1 # F2 ) = ( F1 # ∇ ) F2 + ( F2 # ∇ ) F1 +
F1 * ( ∇ * F2 ) + F2 * ( ∇ * F1 )
 BASIC ALGEBRA FORMULAS

Arithmetic Operations
a#c ac
a(b + c) = ab + ac, =
b d bd
a>b a d
= #
a c ad + bc
+ = ,
b d bd c>d b c

Laws of Signs
-a a a
-(-a) = a, = - =
b b -b

Zero Division by zero is not defined.

0
If a ≠ 0: 0
a = 0, a = 1, 0 = 0
a

For any number a: a # 0 = 0 # a = 0

Laws of Exponents
aman = am + n, (ab)m = ambm, (am)n = amn,
n
am>n = 2am = 12
n
a2
m

If a ≠ 0,
am 1
= am - n, a0 = 1, a-m = .
an am

The Binomial Theorem For any positive integer n,

n(n - 1) n - 2 2
1#2
(a + b)n = an + nan - 1b + a b

n(n - 1)(n - 2) n - 3 3
1#2#3
+ a b + g + nabn - 1 + bn.
For instance,
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2, (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3, (a - b)3 = a3 - 3a2b + 3ab2 - b3.

Factoring the Difference of Like Integer Powers, n + 1

an - bn = (a - b)(an - 1 + an - 2b + an - 3b2 + g + abn - 2 + bn - 1)
For instance,
a2 - b2 = (a - b)(a + b),
a3 - b3 = (a - b) ( a2 + ab + b2 ) ,
a4 - b4 = (a - b) ( a3 + a2b + ab2 + b3 ) .

Completing the Square If a ≠ 0,

b2
ax2 + bx + c = au 2 + C au = x + (b>2a), C = c - b
4a

The Quadratic Formula If a ≠ 0 and ax2 + bx + c = 0, then

-b { 2b2 - 4ac
x = .
2a
 GEOMETRY FORMULAS

A = area, B = area of base, C = circumference, S = lateral area or surface area, V = volume

Triangle Similar Triangles Pythagorean Theorem

c c′ a′ a c
b
h b′

b b a
a′ = b′ = c′
a b c
A = 1 bh a2 + b2 = c2
2

Parallelogram Trapezoid Circle

h
h A = pr 2,
r
C = 2pr
b
b
A = bh
A = 1 (a + b)h
2

Any Cylinder or Prism with Parallel Bases Right Circular Cylinder

h h
h

V = Bh
B B
V = pr2h
S = 2prh = Area of side

Any Cone or Pyramid Right Circular Cone Sphere

h h

V = 1 pr2h V = 43 pr3, S = 4pr2

3
B V= 1
Bh B S = prs = Area of side
3
 LIMITS

General Laws Specific Formulas

If L, M, c, and k are real numbers and If P(x) = an xn + an - 1 xn - 1 + g + a0, then
lim ƒ(x) = L and lim g(x) = M, then lim P(x) = P(c) = an cn + an - 1 cn - 1 + g + a0.
xSc xSc xSc

Sum Rule: lim (ƒ(x) + g(x)) = L + M If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and Q(c) ≠ 0, then
xSc
Difference Rule: lim (ƒ(x) - g(x)) = L - M P(x) P(c)
xSc
lim (ƒ(x) # g(x)) = L # M
lim = .
Product Rule: xSc Q(x) Q(c)
xSc
Constant Multiple Rule: lim (k # ƒ(x)) = k # L
xSc
ƒ(x) L
Quotient Rule: lim = , M≠0 If ƒ(x) is continuous at x = c, then
xSc g(x) M
lim ƒ(x) = ƒ(c).
xSc

The Sandwich Theorem

If g(x) … ƒ(x) … h(x) in an open interval containing c, except
possibly at x = c, and if sin x 1 - cos x
lim x = 1 and lim x = 0
xS0 xS0
lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L,
xSc xSc

then limx S c ƒ(x) = L.

L’Hôpital’s Rule
If ƒ(a) = g(a) = 0, both ƒ′ and g′ exist in an open interval I
Inequalities containing a, and g′(x) ≠ 0 on I if x ≠ a, then
If ƒ(x) … g(x) in an open interval containing c, except possibly
at x = c, and both limits exist, then ƒ(x) ƒ′(x)
lim = lim ,
x S a g(x) x S a g′(x)
lim ƒ(x) … lim g(x).
xSc xSc
assuming the limit on the right side exists.

Continuity
If g is continuous at L and limx S c ƒ(x) = L, then
lim g(ƒ(x)) = g(L).
xSc
 DIFFERENTIATION RULES

General Formulas Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Assume u and y are differentiable functions of x. d 1 d 1
(sin-1 x) = (cos-1 x) = -
d dx 21 - x2 dx 21 - x2
Constant: (c) = 0
dx d 1 d 1
d du dy (tan-1 x) = (sec-1 x) =
Sum: (u + y) = + dx 1 + x2 dx 0 x 0 2x2 - 1
dx dx dx
d 1 d 1
d du dy (cot-1 x) = - (csc-1 x) = -
Difference: (u - y) = - dx 1 + x2 dx 0 x 0 2x2 - 1
dx dx dx
d du
Constant Multiple: (cu) = c
dx dx
Hyperbolic Functions
d dy du
Product: (uy) = u + y d d
dx dx dx (sinh x) = cosh x (cosh x) = sinh x
dx dx
du dy
y - u d d
d u dx dx (tanh x) = sech2 x (sech x) = -sech x tanh x
Quotient: ayb = dx dx
dx y2
d d
d n (coth x) = -csch2 x (csch x) = -csch x coth x
Power: x = nxn - 1 dx dx
dx
(ƒ(g(x)) = ƒ′(g(x)) # g′(x)
d
Chain Rule: Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
dx
d 1 d 1
(sinh-1 x) = (cosh-1 x) =
dx 21 + x2 dx 2x2 - 1
Trigonometric Functions
d 1 d 1
d d (tanh-1 x) = (sech-1 x) = -
(sin x) = cos x (cos x) = -sin x dx 1 - x2 dx x 21 - x2
dx dx
d d d 1 d 1
(tan x) = sec2 x (sec x) = sec x tan x (coth-1 x) = (csch-1 x) = -
dx dx dx 1 - x2 dx 0 x 0 21 + x2
d d
(cot x) = -csc2 x (csc x) = -csc x cot x
dx dx
Parametric Equations
If x = ƒ(t) and y = g(t) are differentiable, then
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
d x d 1 dy dy>dt d 2y dy′>dt
e = ex ln x = x y′ = = and = .
dx dx dx dx>dt dx2 dx>dt
d x d 1
a = ax ln a (loga x) =
dx dx x ln a
 INTEGRATION RULES

General Formulas
a

La
Zero: ƒ(x) dx = 0

a b

Lb La
Order of Integration: ƒ(x) dx = - ƒ(x) dx

b b

La La
Constant Multiples: kƒ(x) dx = k ƒ(x) dx (Any number k)

b b

La La
-ƒ(x) dx = - ƒ(x) dx (k = -1)

b b b

La La La
Sums and Differences: (ƒ(x) { g(x)) dx = ƒ(x) dx { g(x) dx

b c c

La Lb La
Additivity: ƒ(x) dx + ƒ(x) dx ƒ(x) dx =

Max-Min Inequality: If max ƒ and min ƒ are the maximum and minimum values of ƒ on 3 a, b4 , then
b
min ƒ # (b - a) … ƒ(x) dx … max ƒ # (b - a).
La
b b

La La
Domination: ƒ(x) Ú g(x) on 3 a, b4 implies ƒ(x) dx Ú g(x) dx

La
ƒ(x) Ú 0 on 3 a, b4 implies ƒ(x) dx Ú 0

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Part 1 If ƒ is continuous on 3 a, b4 , then F(x) = 1a ƒ(t) dt is continuous on
x

3 a, b4 and differentiable on (a, b) and its derivative is ƒ(x):

x

dxLa
d
F′(x) = ƒ(t) dt = ƒ(x).

Part 2 If ƒ is continuous at every point of 3 a, b4 and F is any antiderivative of

ƒ on 3 a, b4 , then
b

La
ƒ(x) dx = F(b) - F(a).

Substitution in Definite Integrals Integration by Parts

b g(b) b b b
ƒ(g(x)) # g′(x) dx =
La Lg(a) La La
ƒ(u) du ƒ(x)g′(x) dx = ƒ(x)g(x) d - ƒ′(x)g(x) dx
a