VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

HANOI UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

Faculty of Mathematics, Mechanics and Informatics
------------------------------------------------------------------

Members:
Doan Thi Minh Khue – ID: 23001894
Dong Vu Hoang Long – ID: 23001901
Le Quoc Huy – ID: 23001886

SEMESTER FINAL REPORT

NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS
Course: English for Specific Purposes (MAT1205E)

Major: Computer and Information Science

Ha Noi – 2024
Declaration of Authorship
We, <Doan Thi Minh Khue, Dong Vu Hoang Long, Le Quoc Huy>
hereby declare that this report titled “Network Fundamentals” is our own work.
It reflects our understanding and analysis of the documents assigned to us.
We confirm that:
• All sources used are properly cited and acknowledged.
• This report has not been submitted for any other course or purpose.
• While the report may include corrections made with the assistance of
ChatGPT tools, it was not generated by such tools.
• We understand that failure to comply with these principles with result
in a score of zero for this report.

2
Abstract
Computer networking has become an essential component of
modern society and plays a critical role in the functioning of businesses,
governments, and individuals alike. As technology continues to advance,
computer networking will continue to evolve and play an increasingly
important role in our daily lives.
In this report, we will present an exploration of the foundational
concepts and technologies in computer networking. Firstly, we introduce
definition and types of networks such as PAN, LAN, CAN, MAN, and
WAN with their features, advantages and limitations. Secondly, we
explain networking models, comparing the OSI and TCP/IP frameworks
in terms of structures, functions, and applications. Next, we delve into
essential protocols for communication, management, and security,
including HTTP, TCP, ICMP, and SSL and present some key networking
hardware like routers, switches, hubs, access points, and firewalls. Our
report also explores network topologies such as bus, star, ring, mesh, tree
and their pros and cons. Besides, we also explain IPv4 and IPv6,
subnetting processes, and the benefits of network segmentation. Finally,
we will give some examples of real-world applications of network
fundamentals like IoT, cloud networking, …
Overall, our report presents an in-depth look at several areas within
network fundamental, emphasizes the critical role of networking in
modern society, and its applications in various domains.

3
List of Abbreviations
CIS Computer and Information Science
PAN Personal Area Network
LAN Local Area Network
WAN Wide Area Network
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
CAN Campus Area Network
MAC Media Access Control
USB Universal Serial Bus
FDDI Fiber Distributed Data Interface
CDDI Copper Distributed Data Interface
ATM Automatic Teller Machine
CD Collision Detection
CSMA Carrier Sense Multiple Access
AHCP Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocols
SAC Standard Automatic Configuration
OSI Open Systems Interconnection
LLC Logical Link Control
NIC Network Interface Card
ARP Address Resolution Protocol
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
IP Internet Protocol
UDP User Datagram Protocol
NetBIOS Network Basic Input/Output System
PPTP Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol
NVT Network Virtual Terminal
FTAM Network Virtual Terminal
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
FTP File Transfer Protocol
DNS Domain Name System
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTPS Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
SSL Secure Socket Layer
TLS Transport Layer Security
NAT Network Address Translation
QoS Quality of Service
IoT Internet of Things

4
Contents
I. Networking Basics ........................................................................................... 8
A. Definition of a Network ........................................................................... 8
B. Types of Networks: .................................................................................. 8
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) ............................................................ 8
2. Local Area Network (LAN) ................................................................ 9
3. Campus Area Network (CAN) .......................................................... 10
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ................................................. 11
5. Wide Area Network (WAN) ............................................................. 12
C. Network Topologies: .............................................................................. 13
1. Bus Topology .................................................................................... 13
2. Star Topology .................................................................................... 14
3. Ring Topology ................................................................................... 16
4. Mesh Topology .................................................................................. 16
5. Tree Topology ................................................................................... 17
II. Networking Models ...................................................................................... 19
A. OSI Model: ............................................................................................. 19
1. Physical Layer ................................................................................... 20
2. Data Link Layer ................................................................................. 20
3. Network Layer ................................................................................... 21
4. Transport Layer ................................................................................. 21
5. Session Layer..................................................................................... 22
6. Presentation Layer ............................................................................. 23
7. Application Layer .............................................................................. 23
B. TCP/IP Model: ....................................................................................... 24
1. Advantages of TCP/IP Model ........................................................... 24
2. Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model ....................................................... 24
C. Similarities Between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model ............................ 24
D. Differences Between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model ............................ 25
III. Protocols ................................................................ 27
A. Definition and Role of Protocols. ........................................................... 27
B. Types of Network Protocols ................................................................... 27
1. Network Communication .................................................................. 27
2. Network Management ....................................................................... 27
3. Network Security ............................................................................... 28
IV. Networking Hardware ................................................................................. 29
A. Definition and architecture of networking hardware. ............................ 29
B. Devices used in networks: ...................................................................... 29
1. Router ................................................................................................ 29
2. Switch ................................................................................................ 30

5
 3. Hub .................................................................................................... 30
4. Access Point ...................................................................................... 30
5. Network Interface Card (NIC) .......................................................... 30
6. Firewalls ............................................................................................ 31
V. IP Addressing and Subnetting ...................................................................... 32
A. IP address (IPv4 and IPv6). .................................................................... 32
B. Subnetting ............................................................................................... 32
C. Difference Between IP Addressing and Subnetting ............................... 33
VI. Real-World Applications ............................................................................. 35
VII.References .............................................................. 36

6
Table of Figures

Figure1: Types of networks ................................................................................. 8

Figure 2: Personal Area Network (PAN) ............................................................ 9
Figure 3: Local Area Network (LAN) ............................................................... 10
Figure 4: Campus Area Network (CAN) .......................................................... 11
Figure 5: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) .................................................. 12
Figure 6: Wide Area Network (WAN) .............................................................. 13
Figure 7: Bus Topology ..................................................................................... 14
Figure 8: Star Topology..................................................................................... 15
Figure 9: Ring Topology ................................................................................... 16
Figure 10: Mesh Topology ................................................................................ 17
Figure 11: Tree Topology .................................................................................. 18
Figure 12: OSI Model ........................................................................................ 19
Figure 13: Physical Layer .................................................................................. 20
Figure 14: Various Layer of the TCP/IP Model ................................................ 24
Figure 15: Differences between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model ...................... 25
Figure 16: Network architecture ........................................................................ 29
Figure 17: IP address ......................................................................................... 32
Figure 18: Subnetting ........................................................................................ 32

7
I. Networking Basics
A. Definition of a Network
Network has many different meanings, here we will only mention
the fields of computing and telecommunications.
A network is a system of interconnected devices that can
communicate with each other to share resources, information, and
services. According to GeeksforGeeks, a computer network is a system
that connects many independent computers (a collections of at least 2
computer systems that are linked together) to share information (data) and
resources. The integration of computers and other different devices allows
users to communicate more easily. A network connection can be
established using cable or wireless media.
B. Types of Networks:

Figure1: Types of networks

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of
network designed to connect devices within a short range, typically
around one person. It allows your personal devices, like smartphones,
tablets, laptops, and wearables, to communicate and share data with each
other.

8
 PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to
device providing communication. Its transmission speed is very high with
very easy maintenance and very low cost.

Figure 2: Personal Area Network (PAN)

There are 2 types of PANs:

• Wireless Personal Area Networks: created by simply utilizing
wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. It is a low-
range network.
• Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is
constructed using a USB.
PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short
network ranges. Second, it needs easy setup, has relatively low cost and
does not require frequent installations and maintenance. Moreover, it is
portable and needs fewer technical skills to use.
However, PAN has low network coverage area/range and is
limited to relatively low data rates. In some cases, devices are not
compatible with each other.
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer
network that connects computers through a common communication path,
contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two
or more computers connected over a server.

9
 The two important technologies involved in this network
are Ethernet and Wi-Fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very
high with easy maintenance and low cost. Examples of LAN are
networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

Figure 3: Local Area Network (LAN)

LANs offer several advantages, making it a popular choice for

localized networking. One of the key benefits is privacy, as LANs operate
as private networks free from external regulatory controls. They also
provide high-speed connectivity, typically around 100 Mbps, which is
significantly faster than Wide Area Networks (WANs). Additionally,
LANs support various transmission mediums, including Ethernet cables
(thin, thick, and twisted pair), fiber optics, and wireless communication.
They are also cost-effective and simple to manage, with relatively low
expenses for installation, expansion, and maintenance, as well as good
scalability.
However, LANs have their drawbacks. The initial setup costs can
be high due to the need for specialized software to establish a server.
Communication devices such as Ethernet cables, switches, hubs, routers,
and other hardware can also be expensive. Moreover, privacy concerns
arise as LAN administrators can monitor personal data files and internet
history of users, potentially compromising individual privacy. LANs are
limited in size and can only cover a restricted area. Furthermore,
centralized data storage on a single server poses a significant security risk,
as unauthorized access to the server could lead to serious data breaches.

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

Campus Area Network (CAN) is bigger than a LAN but smaller
than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is usually used in
places like schools or colleges. This network covers a limited
geographical area, that is, it spreads across several buildings within the

10
campus. This network covers a limited geographical area, that is, it
spreads across several buildings within the campus.
CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range from 1km to
5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance
cost and moderate cost.

Figure 4: Campus Area Network (CAN)

One significant CAN’s benefit is speed, as communication within

a CAN occurs over a LAN, resulting in faster data transfer rates compared
to the internet. Network administrators in CAN also ensure the network's
safety through continuous monitoring, tracking, and access control.
Firewalls are implemented to safeguard the network from unauthorized
access and external threats. Additionally, CAN is cost-effective, it
provides fast data transfer and multi-departmental network access with
minimal maintenance. This network can also be enabled wirelessly,
reducing the need for extensive wiring and cabling, further optimizing
costs while maintaining high performance.
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is larger than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that connects
computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication
path over a city, town, or metropolitan area.

11
 This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as technology
with a range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is
difficult to maintain, and it comes with a high cost. Examples of MAN
are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within
multiple buildings, etc.

Figure 5: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) offers high-speed

connectivity, with speeds ranging from 10 to 100 Mbps, making it ideal
for connecting users across a city or a large campus. It provides a higher
level of security compared to WAN, ensuring strict data protection. MAN
supports bidirectional data transmission through its dual bus architecture,
allowing data to flow in both directions simultaneously. It can efficiently
serve multiple users at the same time, providing consistent high-speed
internet to all. Centralized management and control are additional
advantages, simplifying the monitoring and management of network
resources and security.
However, MAN has certain limitations. Their architecture is
complex, making design and maintenance challenging. They are also
expensive to implement due to the high cost of setting up fiber optic
infrastructure. Additionally, MAN offers less fault tolerance and lower
data transfer rates compared to LAN.

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over
a large geographical distance through a shared communication path. It is
not restrained to a single location but extends over many locations.
WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that
communicate with each other with a range above 50km. Its transmission
speed is very low, and it comes with very high maintenance and very high
cost. The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

12
 Figure 6: Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN covers a large geographical area, enhancing an

organization's ability to transmit data quickly and cost-effectively across
vast distances. It enables centralized data storage, facilitated by remote
access capabilities, allowing users to access and manage data from
various locations. WAN also helps reduce travel costs associated with
covering extensive work areas by enabling seamless communication and
collaboration. Furthermore, it allows individuals and organizations to
connect globally, exchange data, and conduct business on an international
scale.
However, WAN has certain drawbacks. Traffic congestion is a
common issue due to the high number of users and devices connected to
the network. Its fault tolerance is relatively low, and the presence of noise
and errors is significant, stemming from the multiple connection points
involved. Additionally, the data transfer rate is slower compared to Local
Area Networks (LANs), primarily due to the greater distances and higher
number of connected systems within the network.
C. Network Topologies:
Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements
like nodes, links, or devices in a computer network. Common types of
network topology include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each
with its advantages and disadvantages.
1. Bus Topology
In a bus topology network, all the devices are linked together by a
single cable, which is referred to as a “bus” and the cable is known as
backbone cable. All the network’s devices can simultaneously receive the
same signal due to the shared communication medium provided by this
connection. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology,

13
various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN
ethernet connections.

Figure 7: Bus Topology

Pros and cons:

Bus topology has a simple and cost - effective structure, requiring
only a main cable (backbone) running along the network, with devices
connected directly to this cable. Therefore, it is easy to expand the
network by adding new devices without complex configurations. One of
its primary advantages is its low cost, as it requires fewer cables compared
to other topologies like star or ring, and does not need additional hardware
such as switches or hubs, further reducing expenses. Additionally, bus
topology is easily expandable, allowing new devices to be integrated into
the main cable without disrupting the existing network, provided the
backbone has sufficient capacity. It is particularly well-suited for small
networks with a limited number of devices. Furthermore, in low-traffic
environments, it operates effectively without frequent signal collisions,
making it an ideal choice for basic networking needs.
A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down. If the
network traffic is heavy, it also increases collisions in the network.
Moreover, adding new devices to the network would slow down networks
and its security is very low.

2. Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub
through a cable. This hub is the central node, and all other nodes are
connected to the central node. Many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are
used in Star Topology like CD (Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access), etc.

14
 Figure 8: Star Topology

Pros and cons:

Star topology is easy to set up and expand flexibly. In this
topology, faults can be easily identified and isolated without affecting the
entire network. If one device or connection fails, the rest of the network
remains functional. Data flows through the central hub or switch,
reducing collisions compared to bus topology. Switch-based star
networks can achieve high efficiency. The centralized structure allows
better control of data flow and easier implementation of security
measures.
If the central hub or switch fails, the entire network becomes
inoperative. Compared to bus topology, star topology requires more
cables and additional hardware (like hubs or switches), leading to higher
installation and maintenance costs. The network’s performance heavily
relies on the capacity and performance of the central hub or switch.

15
 3. Ring Topology
In a ring topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly
two neighboring devices. The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is
unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections
between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring
Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations
to transmit the data.

Figure 9: Ring Topology

Pros and cons:

Ring topology allows for high-speed data transmission, as data
flows in a structured circular path, ensuring efficient communication. The
possibility of data collisions is minimal in this setup since each device
sends data in turn. Additionally, ring topology is relatively inexpensive to
install and expand, especially for small to medium-sized networks.
Despite these benefits, ring topology has significant drawbacks.
The failure of a single node can disrupt the entire network, as each device
is interconnected in a continuous loop. Troubleshooting such issues can
be complex and time-consuming, as each node must be inspected
sequentially. Adding or removing devices within the network can disturb
its functionality, leading to temporary interruptions. Moreover, it is less
secure than other topologies, making it less ideal for environments
requiring robust data protection.

4. Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device
via a particular channel. Every device is connected to another via
dedicated channels. These channels are known as links. In Mesh

16
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Figure 10: Mesh Topology

Pros and cons:

Communication between nodes in mesh topology is exceptionally
fast due to the direct links between devices. This topology is highly
robust, as the failure of one node or link does not disrupt the entire
network, ensuring consistent performance. Additionally, each link can be
individually checked, so faults are easy to diagnose. Data reliability is
another strength, as dedicated channels or links between devices
minimize interference and ensure secure data transfer. Furthermore, it
also enhances privacy and security because of multiple pathways between
nodes.
However, installation and configuration of this topology are
complex due to the extensive interconnection of devices. The cost of
cables is quite high, as bulk wiring is required to establish direct links, so
it is more suitable for networks with fewer devices. Maintenance is also
expensive, as the intricate wiring and connections demand regular
upkeep.

5. Tree Topology
Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology
has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP
and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration) are used.
In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the
central hub which contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom
i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the devices or from
bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub.

17
It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the
backbone fails the topology crashes.

Figure 11: Tree Topology

Pros and cons:

Tree topology allows multiple devices to connect to a single
central hub, reducing the distance signals need to travel and improving
communication efficiency. This topology also enables network isolation
and prioritization between different computers, allowing better
management of data traffic. Adding new devices to the existing network
is straightforward, making it flexible for expansion. Furthermore, error
detection and correction are simple, as the hierarchical structure makes
troubleshooting more organized.
Despite these above benefits, tree topology has its drawbacks. The
central hub is a critical component, and its failure can bring down the
entire system. The extensive cabling required for this setup increases
costs, making it less economical than simpler topologies. Additionally, as
new devices are added, reconfiguration becomes more complex,
potentially leading to downtime and additional maintenance challenges.

18
II. Networking Models
A. OSI Model:
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules
that explains how different computer systems communicate over a
network. OSI Model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer
has specific functions and responsibilities.
This layered approach makes it easier for different devices and
technologies to work together. OSI Model provides a clear structure for
data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely
used as a reference to understand how network systems function.
In this article, we will discuss the OSI Model and each layer of the
OSI Model in detail. We will also discuss the flow of data in the OSI
Model and how the OSI Model is different from the TCP/IP Model.

Figure 12: OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model, and each layer has its specific
role in handling data. All the layers are mentioned below:
o Physical Layer
o Data Link Layer
o Network Layer
o Transport Layer
o Session Layer
o Presentation Layer
o Application Layer

19
 1. Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer.
It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. Physical
Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and
convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will
put the frame back together. Common physical layer devices are Hub,
Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Figure 13: Physical Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer:
• Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the
synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
• Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the
transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
• Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the
different devices/nodes are arranged in a network.
• Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the
data flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and
full duplex.
2. Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of
the message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer
is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a
packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit
it to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is
referred to as Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer
devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into
frames depending on the frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card).
DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.

20
 The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP
(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking, “Who has
that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer:

• Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a
way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
• Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer
adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.
• Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
• Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount
of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
• Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared
by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps
to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.
3. Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host
to the other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet
routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the
number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s IP address are
placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer
is referred to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking
devices such as routers and switches.
Functions of the Network Layer:
• Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is
suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.
• Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The
sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and
takes services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is
referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of
the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the

21
data if an error is found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP
NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data
from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and implements Flow and
error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to
the Network Layer.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by
default or manually. For example, when a web application requests a web
server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port
assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports
assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from
its header and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective
application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer:
• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message
from the (session) layer and breaks the message into smaller units.
Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this
address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.
• Services Provided by Transport Layer
• Connection-Oriented Service
• Connectionless Service
5. Session Layer
The Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the
establishment of connections, management of connections, terminations
of sessions between two devices. It also provides authentication and
security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer:
• Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The
layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and
terminate a connection.
• Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add
checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in
the data. These synchronization points help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends
of the messages are not cut prematurely, and data loss is
avoided.

22
 • Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to
start communication with each other in half-duplex or full
duplex.
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data
from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network. Protocols used in the
Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Functions of the Presentation Layer:
• Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
• Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data
into another form or code. The encrypted data is known as
the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known as plain text.
A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting
data.
• Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
7. Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we
find the Application layer which is implemented by the network
applications. These applications produce data to be transferred over the
network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services
to access the network and for displaying the received information to the
user. Protocols used in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.
Functions of the Application Layer:
• Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on
to a remote host.
• File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This
application allows a user to access files in a remote host,
retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files
from a remote computer.
• Mail Services: Provide email service.
• Directory Services: This application provides distributed
database sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.

23
B. TCP/IP Model:
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol. It has 4 layers named Physical layer, Network layer, Transport
layer, and Application layer. It also can be used as a communications
protocol in a private computer network. It was designed by Vint Cerf and
Bob Kahn in the 1970s.

Figure 14: Various Layer of the TCP/IP Model

1. Advantages of TCP/IP Model

• Many Routing protocols are supported.
• It is highly scalable and uses a client-server architecture.
• It is lightweight.
2. Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model
• Little difficult to set up.
• Delivery of packets is not guaranteed by the transport layer.
• Vulnerable to a synchronization attack.
C. Similarities Between OSI Model and TCP/IP
Model
OSI and TCP/IP both are logical models. One of the main
similarities between the OSI and TCP/IP models is that they both describe
how information is transmitted between two devices across a network.
Both models define a set of layers. Each layer performs a specific set of
functions to enable the transmission of data.

Another similarity between the two models is that they both use
the concept of encapsulation, in which data is packaged into a series of
headers and trailers that contain information about the data being
transmitted and how it should be handled by the network.

24
D. Differences Between OSI Model and TCP/IP
Model

Figure 15: Differences between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model and the TCP/IP

(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model are two
frameworks used to understand how data moves through networks. While
they both help in organizing network communication, they have distinct
structures and purposes. Understanding these differences is essential for
anyone learning about or working with computer networks.

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission

Interconnection. Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

OSI model has 7 layers. TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers.

Package delivery is guaranteed Package delivery is not guaranteed

in OSI Model. in the TCP/IP Model.

In the OSI model, only layers 1,

All layers of the TCP/IP model are
2 and 3 are necessary for data
needed for data transmission.
transmission.

25
 OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Layers are integrated, some layers

Protocols at each layer are
are required by other layers of the
independent of the other layer.
TCP/IP model.

OSI Model is a conceptual Widely used in actual networks like

framework, less used in practical the Internet and Communication
applications. Systems.

26
III. Protocols
A. Definition and Role of Protocols.
Protocols are rules or standards that define how data is transmitted
and across a network. They ensure compatibility between devices and
manage various aspects of communication, including addressing, error
detection, encryption, and reliability. Without protocols, devices from
different manufacturers and operating systems would not be able to
communicate effectively.
B. Types of Network Protocols
Network Protocols can be broadly classified into three major
categories:
• Network Communication
• Network Management
• Network Security
1. Network Communication
Communication protocols are important for the functioning of a
network. They are so crucial that it is not possible to have computer
networks without them. These protocols formally set out the rules and
formats through which data is transferred. These protocols handle syntax,
semantics, error detection, synchronization, and authentication. Below
mentioned are some network communication protocols:
a. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
It is a layer 7 protocol that is designed for transferring a hypertext
between two or more systems. HTTP works on a client-server model,
most of the data sharing over the web is done through using HTTP.
b. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
TCP layouts a reliable stream delivery by using sequenced
acknowledgment. It is a connection-oriented protocol i.e., it establishes a
connection between applications before sending any data. It is used for
communicating over a network. It has many applications such as emails,
FTP, streaming media, etc.
c. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
It is a connectionless protocol that lay-out a basic but unreliable
message service. It adds no flow control, reliability, or error-recovery
functions. UPD is functional in cases where reliability is not required. It
is used when we want faster transmission, for multicasting and
broadcasting connections, etc.
2. Network Management
These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies
that are used in monitoring, maintaining, and managing the computer
network. These protocols also help in communicating these requirements

27
across the network to ensure stable communication. Network
management protocols can also be used for troubleshooting connections
between a host and a client.
a. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
It is a layer 3 protocol that is used by network devices to forward
operational information and error messages. ICMP is used for reporting
congestions, network errors, diagnostic purposes, and timeouts.
b. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
It is a layer 7 protocol that is used for managing nodes on an IP
network. There are three main components in the SNMP protocol i.e.,
SNMP agent, SNMP manager, and managed device. SNMP agent has the
local knowledge of management details, it translates those details into a
form that is compatible with the SNMP manager. The manager presents
data acquired from SNMP agents, thus helping in monitoring network
glitches, and network performance, and troubleshooting them.
c. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
FTP is a client/server protocol that is used for moving files to or
from a host computer, it allows users to download files, programs, web
pages, and other things that are available on other services.
3. Network Security
These protocols secure the data in passage over a network. These
protocols also determine how the network secures data from any
unauthorized attempts to extract or review data. These protocols make
sure that no unauthorized devices, users, or services can access the
network data. Primarily, these protocols depend on encryption to secure
data.
a. Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
It is a network security protocol mainly used for protecting
sensitive data and securing internet connections. SSL allows both server-
to-server and client-to-server communication. All the data transferred
through SSL is encrypted thus stopping any unauthorized person from
accessing it.
b. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTPS)
It is the secured version of HTTP. This protocol ensures secure
communication between two computers where one sends the request
through the browser and the other fetches the data from the web server.
c. Transport Layer Security (TLS)
It is a security protocol designed for data security and privacy over
the internet. Its functionality is encryption, checking the integrity of data
i.e., whether it has been tampered with or not, and authentication. It is
generally used for encrypted communication between servers and web
apps, like a web browser loading a website, it can also be used for
encryption of messages, emails, and VoIP.

28
IV. Networking Hardware
A. Definition and architecture of networking
hardware.
Network hardware is a set of physical or network devices that are
essential for interaction and communication between hardware units
operational on a computer network. These are dedicated hardware
components that connect to each other and enable a network to function
effectively and efficiently.

Figure 16: Network architecture

Network architecture defines the structural and logical design of a

network. It constitutes hardware devices, physical connections, software,
wireless networks, protocols, and transmission media. It gives a detailed
overview of the whole network, which organizations use to create LAN,
WAN, and other specific communication tunnels.

B. Devices used in networks:

1. Router
A router is an essential device that connects different networks and
makes sure data gets to the right place by using IP addresses. One of its
handy features is Network Address Translation (NAT), which lets devices
with private IP addresses, like those in your home, access the internet. It
also supports Quality of Service (QoS), meaning it can prioritize certain
types of traffic, like video calls or streaming, so everything runs smoothly.
Many routers even come with VPN support, giving you a secure way to
access your network remotely. For example: connecting a home LAN to
the internet.

29
 2. Switch
A switch is a vital networking device that connects multiple
devices within the same network and forwards data to the correct
destination using MAC addresses. There are two main types of switches
to consider. Unmanaged switches are straightforward, plug-and-play
devices that require no configuration—perfect for basic setups. On the
other hand, managed switches offer advanced features, allowing for
configuration, monitoring, and better control over the network. This
makes them ideal for more complex or large-scale networks where
performance and security need to be fine-tuned. For example: Office
networks connecting PCs and printers.

3. Hub
A hub is a simple networking device that broadcasts data to all
connected devices within the network. While it helps devices
communicate, its major limitation is inefficiency, as it lacks the ability to
filter data. This means every connected device receives all the data, even
if it’s not intended for them, which can lead to unnecessary network
congestion and slower performance. For example: Used in basic network
setups.

4. Access Point
Access points play a crucial role in extending wireless network
coverage, ensuring consistent and reliable Wi-Fi access across a wide
area. They typically support dual-band functionality, operating on both
2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequencies, allowing for a balance between wider
coverage and faster speeds. Many access points also feature mesh
networking, enabling seamless connectivity as users move between
different areas without experiencing drops in signal. For instance, access
points are commonly used in large buildings like offices, schools, or
shopping malls to eliminate dead zones and provide uninterrupted Wi-Fi
access to all connected devices.

5. Network Interface Card (NIC)

Network Interface Card (NIC) is an essential hardware component
that enables devices to connect to a network, facilitating communication
and data transfer. NIC comes in two main types: wired NIC, which
connects via Ethernet cables for stable and high-speed connections, and
wireless NICs, which use Wi-Fi to provide flexible, cable-free
connectivity. A common example is the Wi-Fi card in a laptop, allowing
it to access wireless networks seamlessly. Whether wired or wireless,
NICs are a fundamental part of modern networking.

30
 6. Firewalls
Firewalls are critical for network security, protecting systems by
filtering incoming and outgoing traffic based on predefined security rules.
They serve as a barrier between trusted internal networks and untrusted
external networks, such as the internet. Firewalls come in two main types:
hardware firewalls, which are standalone devices often used in larger
networks, and software firewalls, which are integrated into operating
systems and ideal for individual devices. For example: Blocking
malicious traffic from the internet.

31
V. IP Addressing and Subnetting
A. IP address (IPv4 and IPv6).
An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to devices on a network to
enable communication. It consists of two parts the network and host address. IP
Addresses are necessary for routing data packets between devices and enabling
Internet communication between devices. Dotted decimal notation, which
depicts four sets of bit. The network, separated by periods, is the most common
way to express IP addresses. The address is 32 bits, and every number
corresponds to a byte of the address.
There are two primary forms of IP addresses IPv4 and IPv6. Because of
the 32-bit length and the limited amount of unique IPv4 addresses, subnets and
various methods for storing IP addresses have been developed. There are many
more unique addresses available for IPv6 addresses that are 128-bit.

Figure 17: IP address

B. Subnetting
A network is divided into smaller subnetworks, or subnetworks,
through the process known as a subnetwork. For this purpose, a network
part of the IP address is created by taking bits from the host part. The host
party identifies the specific device on the subnetwork, while the network
party identifies the subnetwork.

Figure 18: Subnetting

The sub-network enables network managers to create more
controllable and segmented networks for performance or security needs.
32
 For example, a large enterprise could segment its network into
subnetworks for multiple divisions or locations.
C. Difference Between IP Addressing and
Subnetting
Parameters IP Addressing Subnetting

Divide a network into smaller

Assign unique identifiers
Purpose subnetworks for better
to devices on a network.
management and performance.

Divides a network into smaller

Assigns unique IP subnets by borrowing bits from
Process addresses to devices on a the host portion of the IP
network. address to create a network
portion.

The network is broken down

Each device on the
into smaller subnets, each with
Result network has a unique IP
its unique network ID and
address.
range of IP addresses.

Improves network performance

and security by reducing
Enables devices to
network congestion, isolating
communicate with each
Benefits network traffic, and making it
other over the Internet.
easier to manage IP address
assignments and security.

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain

Types IPv4 and IPv6
Routing)

Subnet mask (e.g.,

Dotted decimal notation
Notation 255.255.255.0) or CIDR
(e.g., 192.168.0.1)
notation (e.g., /24)

Variable (depends on the

32 bits (IPv4) or 128 bits number of bits borrowed for
Length
(IPv6) the network portion of the IP
address).

33
Parameters IP Addressing Subnetting

Example 192.168.0.1 192.168.0.0/24

34
 VI. Real-World Applications
Networks play a crucial role in our daily lives on many fields, connecting devices
and enabling seamless communication and access to resources.
• At home, networks link smartphones, laptops, smart TVs, and gaming consoles
to the internet, making activities like streaming Netflix or controlling smart home
devices effortless.
• In offices and businesses, networks empower employees to share resources,
access company databases, and collaborate on shared drives.
• Public Wi-Fi in coffee shops, airports, and malls allows people to browse social
media or check emails on the go.
• Educational institutions leverage campus-wide networks to provide students
with access to e-learning platforms and library databases.
• In healthcare, networks facilitate instant access to patient data by connecting
monitoring systems, medical imaging devices, and electronic health records.
• Cloud networks are vital for storing files, computing, and collaboration, seen in
services like Google Drive or Microsoft Teams.
• IoT networks connect smart devices like wearables and home security cameras,
syncing fitness data or enhancing home security. These interconnected systems
power the communication, efficiency, and convenience we rely on every day.

35
VII. References
• What is Computer Networking? - GeeksforGeeks

• Importance of Computer Networking - GeeksforGeeks

• Types of Computer Networks - GeeksforGeeks

• Types of Network Topology - GeeksforGeeks

• Difference Between IP Addressing and Subnetting - GeeksforGeeks

• Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)
- GeeksforGeeks

• Types of Network Protocols and Their Uses - GeeksforGeeks

• Difference Between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model - GeeksforGeeks

36