Operational Amplifiers

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I8tbRibujcY
Operational amplifiers or op-amps are high-gain differential amplifiers with two inputs
and one output.
They can be configured in either open-loop or closed-loop modes, with closed-loop
using negative feedback to reduce gain but improve characteristics.
Op-amps are used to build various circuits including inverting and non-inverting
amplifiers, followers, summers, integrators, and differentiators.
 Op-amp Parameters
•Open Loop Gain, (Avo)
• The main function of an operational amplifier is to amplify the input signal and the more open
loop gain it has the better. Open-loop gain is the gain of the op-amp without positive or
negative feedback and for such an amplifier the gain will be infinite but typical real values
range from about 20,000 to 200,000.
•Input impedance, (ZIN)
• Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and is assumed to be infinite to
prevent any current flowing from the source supply into the amplifiers input circuitry ( IIN =
0 ). Real op-amps have input leakage currents from a few pico-amps to a few milli-amps.

• Output impedance, (ZOUT)

– The output impedance of the ideal operational amplifier is assumed to be zero acting as a perfect
internal voltage source with no internal resistance so that it can supply as much current as necessary
to the load. This internal resistance is effectively in series with the load thereby reducing the output
voltage available to the load. Real op-amps have output impedances in the 100-20kΩ range
•Bandwidth, (BW)
– An ideal operational amplifier has an infinite frequency response and can amplify any frequency
signal from DC to the highest AC frequencies so it is therefore assumed to have an infinite bandwidth.
With real op-amps, the bandwidth is limited by the Gain-Bandwidth product (GB), which is equal to
the frequency where the amplifiers gain becomes unity.
• Input offset voltage
Input offset voltage is the voltage that must be applied between the two input terminals of an op-amp
to null the output
– The amplifiers output will be zero when the voltage difference between the inverting and the non-
inverting inputs is zero, the same or when both inputs are grounded. Real op-amps have some amount
of output offset voltage.
• Slew rate
Slew Rate (SR) is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage and is expressed in volts
per micro-seconds
SR= (dVo /dt)max V/µs,
Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an op-amp can change in response to changes in the
input frequency. The slew rate changes with change in voltage gain and is normally specified at unity
(+1) gain. The slew rate of an op-amp is fixed;
Characteristics of an ideal op-amp:

An ideal op-amp would exhibit the following characteristics:

• Infinite voltage gain A.

• Infinite input resistance Ri, so that almost any signal source can drive it and there is no
loading of the preceding stage.
• Zero output resistance Ro, so that the output can drive an infinite number of other
devices.
• Zero output voltage when input voltage is zero.
• Infinite bandwidth, so that any frequency signal from 0 to ∞ Hz can be amplified
without attenuation.
• Noise contribution is zero
• Zero input offset voltage
• Infinite slew rate, so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input
voltage changes.
Characteristics of Practical op-amp:

Practical op-amp would exhibit the following characteristics:

• open loop voltage gain should be very high.

• Input resistance Ri, should be very high(2MΩ)
• Output resistance Ro, should be very low(75Ω)
• Small non-zero out put voltage.
• Its bandwidth, in open loop configuration is very slow.
• Thermal noise is common.
• Small input offset voltage
•Slew rate is 0.5V/micro sec
•Input Stage − The input stage is the dual input, balanced output differential amplifier. This stage provides
most of the voltage gain and introduces the input resistance of operational amplifier.
•Intermediate Stage − This stage is dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier, which is driven by
the output of first stage.
•Level Shifting Stage − Since direct coupling is used, therefore the DC voltage at the output of intermediate
stage is above the ground potential. Hence, the level shifting transistor circuit is used after intermediate
stage to shift the DC level at intermediate stage output downward to zero volts with respect to ground. The
level shifter block removes unwanted DC shift in amplified signal.
•Output Stage − The output stage is a push-pull complementary amplifier. The output stage increases the
output voltage. The output stage also provides low output resistance.
 Inverting Operational Amplifier
In the inverting operational amplifier circuit, the
signal is applied at the inverting input and the non-
inverting input is connected to the ground. In this
type of amplifier, the output is 180• ° out of phase to
the input, i.e. when positive signal is applied to
circuit, the output of the circuit will be negative.

Gain can be set to any value by manipulating the values of Rf and R1 The
positive sign denotes that input and output are in same phase
Non-Inverting Operational Amplifier
When the signal is applied at the non-inverting input, the
resulting circuit is known as Non-Inverting Op-Amp. In this
amplifier the output is exactly in phase with the input i.e.
when a positive voltage is applied to the circuit, the output
will also be positive. By assuming the Op-Amp is ideal, then
concept of virtual short can be applied i.e. the voltage at the
inverting and non-inverting terminal is equal.

Gain can be set to any value by manipulating the values of Rf and R1

The positive sign denotes that input and output are in same phase
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
A circuit that amplifies the difference between two input signals
is called difference amplifier or subtractor amplifier.
So, Circuit works as a difference or
subtractor amplifier.
Characteristics of Ideal Operational Amplifier

1.Open loop gain is infinite i.e. the circuit without any feedback resistor*.
2.Input resistance is infinite i.e. its input current is zero.
3.Output resistance is zero i.e. its output current is infinite.
4.Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is infinite.
5.Propagation delay is zero i.e. it responds instantaneously i.e. without any delay.
6.Infinite bandwidth i.e. opamp gives infinite (practically constant) gain for any input
signal frequency from zero to infinity
7.Infinite slew rate.
8.zero input offset voltage
Voltage Follower

Voltage follower is an electronic circuit designed using an operational amplifier and has an
output voltage equal to its input voltage. It is named so because its output voltages follows the
input voltage.
A voltage follower is also referred to as a Buffer Amplifier, or Isolation Amplifier, or Unity Gain
Amplifier. Since the voltage follower does not amplify the input voltage, its voltage gain is unity.
It is mainly used to provide the buffering in the circuit.
The input impedance of a voltage follower is very high. For this reason, it is commonly used in
several types of electronic circuits where an electrical isolation between the input and output is
required.
Input signal is applied to the Non inverting terminal and Inverting terminal is connected with
output to make negative feedback. Bias pins are connected with battery and output is connected
to the 1KΩ Load resistor.
Input impedance of operational amplifier will be very high (upto 1MΩ) when we implement in
voltage follower or buffer amplifier circuit. Due to the high input impedance very low current
will be drawn from input source and then gives high current output to the load. Here output
impedance will be very low.
Here the voltage follower gives same output voltage as input voltage but it draws low input current
from input source due to high input impedance and gives high gain output due to the low output
impedance. Due to same level input and output it is called as unity gain amplifier.
 Differentiator
A differentiator is an electronic circuit that produces an output equal to the first derivative of
its input.
An op-amp based differentiator produces an output, which is equal to the differential of input
voltage that is applied to its inverting terminal. The circuit diagram of an op-amp based
differentiator is shown in the following figure −
Integrator
An integrator is an electronic circuit that produces an output that is the integration of the applied
input. An op-amp based integrator produces an output, which is an integral of the input voltage
applied to its inverting terminal. The circuit diagram of an op-amp based integrator is shown in
the following figure −
In the circuit shown, the non-inverting
input terminal of the op-amp is connected
to ground. That means zero volts is
applied to its non-inverting input
terminal.
If we apply a constantly changing input signal such as a square wave to the input of an
Integrator Amplifier then the capacitor will charge and discharge in response to changes in the
input signal. This results in the output signal being that of a saw-tooth waveform whose output
is affected by the RC time constant of the resistor/capacitor combination because at higher
frequencies, the capacitor has less time to fully charge. This type of circuit is also known as a
Ramp Generator and the transfer function is given below
According to virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of op-
amp will be equal to the voltage present at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the
voltage at the inverting input terminal of op-amp will be zero volts.
Comparator
A comparator is an electronic circuit, which compares the two inputs that are applied to it and
produces an output. The output value of the comparator indicates which of the inputs is greater
or lesser.
Types of Comparators
Comparators are of two types : Inverting and Non-inverting

Inverting Comparator
An inverting comparator is an op-amp based
comparator for which a reference voltage is
applied to its non-inverting terminal and the
input voltage is applied to its inverting terminal.
This comparator is called as inverting comparator
because the input voltage, which has to be
compared is applied to the inverting terminal of
op-amp.
. Due to open loop configuration of op-amp, the
output goes into saturation.
 •During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal,
the voltage present at the inverting terminal of op-amp is
greater than zero volts. Hence, the output value of the
inverting comparator will be equal to −Vsat during positive
half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal.
Vref = • If Vin>Vref then Vo= – Vsat

•Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal

input signal, the voltage present at the inverting terminal
of the op-amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the output
value of the inverting comparator will be equal
to +Vsat during negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input
signal.
If Vin<Vref then Vo= +Vsat
In the figure shown above, we can observe that the
output transitions either from −Vsat to +Vsat or
from +Vsat to −Vsat whenever the sinusoidal input signal
is crossing zero volts. In other words, output changes its
value when the input is crossing zero volts. Hence, the
above circuit is also called as inverting zero crossing
detector.
Non-Inverting Comparator
A non-inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is
applied to its inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal.
This op-amp based comparator is called as non-inverting comparator because the input voltage,
which has to be compared is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.
The circuit diagram of a non-inverting comparator is shown in the following figure
 •During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal,
the voltage present at the non-inverting terminal of op-amp is
greater than zero volts. Hence, the output value of a non-
inverting comparator will be equal to +Vsat during the
positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal.
•Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal
Vref =
input signal, the voltage present at the non-inverting
terminal of op-amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the output
value of non-inverting comparator will be equal
to −Vsat during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal
input signal.

•From the figure shown , we can observe that the output

transitions either from +Vsat to −Vsat or
from −Vsat to +Vsat whenever the sinusoidal input signal
crosses zero volts. That means, the output changes its value
when the input is crossing zero volts. Hence, the above circuit
is also called as non-inverting zero crossing detector
Summing Amplifier
The summing amplifier circuit is a circuit that adds multiple input voltages together for output.

In the above circuit, the non-inverting input terminal

of the op-amp is connected to ground. That means
zero volts is applied at its non-inverting input
terminal.
According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at
the inverting input terminal of an op-amp is same as
that of the voltage at its non-inverting input
terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting input
terminal of the op-amp will be zero volts.
The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal's
node is
The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal's node is

Therefore, the op-amp based adder circuit discussed above will produce the sum of the two input
voltages V1 and V2, as the output, when all the resistors present in the circuit are of same value.
Note that the output voltage V0 of an adder circuit is having a negative sign, which indicates that
there exists a 1800 phase difference between the input and the output.
Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier
1.Discuss various blocks of OP-AMP and discuss its measurable
parameters.
2.Explain parameters of OP-AMP with their typical values.
3.State ideal and practical Characteristics of OP-AMP.
4. Explain briefly inverting and non-inverting amplifier configurations.
5. With neat circuit diagram and waveform explain Voltage fallower.
Differentiator, Integrator, Comparator and Summing amplifier.