Module 2
Unit 1: Machine Tool Operation
Machine Tool: It is defined as a power driven machine, which accomplishes the cutting or machining operations on it.
Fundamental machine tools that are used for machining operations are lathe, drilling, milling, grinding etc.
Lathe: Lathe is a machine tool employed generally to produce circular objects. It is called mother of all the machines,
because almost all the machining operations can be carried in this machine.
Working Principle of Lathe Machine:
• Lathe is a turning machine works on the principle that a cutting tool can remove material in the form of chips from rotating
workpieces to produce circular objects.
• This is accomplished in a lathe which holds the workpiece rigidly and rotates them at high speeds, while a cutting tool is
moved against it.
• As shown in the figure, workpiece is held rigidly by one of the work holding devices known as chuck and workpiece is
rotated at very high speed.
• A V-shaped cutting tool is held against the workpiece, opposite to the direction of rotation of workpiece,
• When tool is moved parallel to the axis of workpiece, circular surfaces are produced, as shown in the figure.
• Material of the tool should be harder than the material of workpiece.
Lathe Operations:
Turning, Facing, Knurling
1. Turning (Plain Turning): In this operation the workpiece is reduced to the cylindrical section of required diameter.
• Workpiece is supported in-between the two centers, which permits the rotation of the workpiece.
• A single point cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of workpiece to known predetermined depth of cut.
• Tool is then moved parallel to the axis of workpiece.
• In this way the material is removed to get the required dimension and shape.
• Taper Turning: It is an operation carried out on lathe to get the conical surfaces on the workpiece.
• Taper turning operation can be accomplished in two ways
1. Workpiece is held horizontally, aligned with lathe axis center and cutting tool is moved linearly inclined to the
workpiece.
2. Workpiece itself is inclined with axis of lathe center and cutting tool is moved linearly parallel to the axis of lathe
center.
2. Facing Operation: It is an operation performed on the lathe to generate either flat surface or roundness (shoulder) at the
end of workpiece.
• The workpiece is held firmly in the chuck and facing tool is fed either from the outer edge of the workpiece progressing
towards the center of the workpiece or vice-versa.
• The cutting tool is held by tool holder in a tool post.
• Axial movement of the tool is restricted by locking the carriage.
• Feed of tool is given perpendicular to the axis of rotation to get the required length of the workpiece.
• During rough cuts the tool may either fed from the outer edge progressing towards the center and vice-versa but during
finishing cuts the tool should always be fed from center progressing towards the outer edge.
3. Knurling: It is an operation performed on the lathe to generate serrated surfaces on the workpiece by using a special tool
called knurling tool, which impresses its pattern on the workpiece.
• The tool consists of upper and lower rollers, on which desired impression pattern can be seen.
• Impression pattern can be straight lines or diamond pattern.
• The serrated surface on the workpiece formed by knurling is used for applications where grip is required to hold the part.
• The knurling tool is set in the tool post in such a way that upper and lower rollers of the knurling tool touches the surface of
the workpiece to be knurled.
• Axis of rollers of the knurling tool should be parallel to the axis of rotation of workpiece.
• Usually 60-80 rpm speed and feed of 0.38 to 0.76 mm/rev is set during knurling operation.
Drilling Machine: It is an power operated machine tool, which holds the drill in its spindle rotating at very high speeds and
when manually actuated to move linearly simultaneously against the workpiece, to produce hole in the workpiece.
Working Principle of Drilling Machine:
• When power is given to the motor, the shaft of a motor rotates and thereby rotating the stepped pulley attached to it.
• On the other end, one more inverted stepped pulley attached to increase or decrease the speed of the rotational motion.
• A V-belt is placed between the stepped pulleys for power transmission. V-belt is used instead of flat belt to increase the
power efficiency.
• As the power transmission takes place, drill spindle is attached to the pulley rotates.
• The drill is held firmly in the drill chuck rotates, as the drill chuck is attached to the drill spindle rotates.
• By the rotation of drill feed handle manually, the spindle moves up and down in the vertical direction in order to give
necessary amount of feed to the workpiece, so that the drill will make the hole in the workpiece of required dimensions,
whereas the workpiece is rigidly held in the work table.
Operations Performed on Drilling Machine:
1. Drilling: It is a metal cutting process, carried out by a rotating tool to make circular holes in a solid material. The tool
which make the hole is called drill (twist drill).
• Sharp twisted edges formed around a cylindrical tool, provided with a helical groove along its length.
• Helical grooves will allow the cut material to escape through it.
• Sharp edges of the conical surfaces ground and forced against the upper face of the workpiece, rotating twist drill cuts the
material by peeling it circularly, layer by layer.
• The removed metal chips get curled and escapes through the helical grooves provided in the drill.
• A liquid coolant is used while drilling, to remove the heat at a faster rate, which is generated due to friction between the
two material and also to obtain a better finish for the hole.
2. Boring: It is an operation performed on the drilling machine to increase the
size (enlarging) of an already drilled hole.
• When a suitable size drill is not available, initially a hole is drilled to
the nearest size.
• Using single point cutting tool, the size of the hole is increased as
shown in the figure.
• Lowering the tool while it is continuously rotating, the size of the hole
is increased to its entire depth.
• Process of boring progress until it reaches the lower surface of the
workpiece.
3. Reaming: It is the process of smoothing the surface of the drilled hole with
tooled called reamer.
• A reamer is similar to the twist drill, but it has straight edges.
• Initially the hole is drilled using twist drill which is of slightly smaller
in size.
• Then reamer is used in the place of twist drill, and speed of the spindle
is reduced to half of that of the drilling.
• Reaming is done in the same way as drilling. It removes only a small
amount of material and produces a smooth finish on the drilled
surfaces.
Milling Machine: It is a power operated machine tool in which the workpiece mounted on a moving table, and it machined to
various shapes when moved under a slow revolving serrated cutter.
Working Principle Of Milling Machine:
Figure 1: Up Milling (Conventional Milling) Figure 2: Down Milling (Climb Milling)
• Milling is a metal cutting operation in which the operating tool is a slow revolving cutter having cutting teeth formed on its
periphery.
• Milling cutter is a multipoint cutting tool. The workpiece is mounted on a movable work table and it will be fed against the
revolving milling cutter to perform the cutting operation.
• Figure 1 & 2 shows the principle of cutting action of the milling cutter. The milling cutter is mounted on a rotating shaft
known as arbor.
• When the workpiece is fed opposite to the direction of cutter tooth at the point of contact is called as up milling
(conventional milling) as shown in figure 1.
• In up milling the workpiece moves against the rotating cutter, and the chip that is removed gets progressively thicker as
shown in figure 1.
• When the workpiece is fed in the same direction as that of cutter tooth at the point of contact is called as down milling
(climb milling) as shown in figure 2.
• In down milling the cutter enters the top of the workpiece and removes the metal in the form of chip.
• The chip that is removed during down milling gets progressively thinner as cutter tooth rotates as shown in the figure 2.
SL Up Milling Down Milling
NO (Conventional Milling) (Climb Milling)
1 In up milling, the workpiece is fed in opposite direction In down milling, the workpiece is fed in the same direction
to that of the rotating cutter. as that of the rotating cutter.
2 The thickness of chip is minimum at the beginning of The thickness of chip is maximum at the beginning of cut
cut and reaches to the maximum when cut ends and reaches to the minimum when the cut ends
3 In up milling, the cutting force is directed upwards and In down milling, the cutting force is directed downwards
this tends to lift the workpiece from the work table. and this tends to keep the workpiece firmly on the work
Hence, greater clamping force is required to clamp table. Hence, minimal clamping force is required to hold
workpiece firmly. the workpiece firmly.
4 During up milling, the chip gets accumulated at the tool During down milling, the chips do not interfere with the
workpiece interface (cutting zone), and these chips revolving cutter, since they are disposed easily by the
interfere with the rotating cutter thereby impairing the cutter. Hence will get good surface finish on the
surface finish on the work surface. workpiece.
5 In up milling, it is difficult for efficient circulation of In down milling, the coolant will reach easily to the
coolant. The cutter rotating in the upward direction cutting zone. Hence efficient cooling of the tool and the
carries away the coolant from the cutting zone. workpiece can be achieved.
6 Up milling is preferred for rough cuts, especially for Down milling produces better surface finish because there
casted and forged components, because this method is no dig in of the cutter. This method is particularly used
enables the cutter to dig in and start the cut below the for finishing operations and small work like cutting slots,
hard upper surface. grooves etc.
Milling Operations:
1. Plain Milling
2. Slot Milling
1. Plain Milling (Slab Milling):
• It is a process used to mill flat surfaces of workpiece in such a
way that the milling cutter axis is parallel to the surface that is
being milled.
• The figure shows the plain milling operation carried out on a
horizontal milling machine with a milling cutter mounted on the
standard milling arbor.
• In plain milling, the surface of the workpiece is parallel to the
work table surface.
2. Slot Milling
• It is the process of milling slots using different type of cutter slot
drill.
• Slot drill has the capacity to cut into solid material.
• Slot drill is majorly used in cases where it takes a lot of time pre-
drill a hole for an end mill, and there is not enough room for the
end mill to plunge using a helical motion.
• Typical slot milling operation is shown in figure.
Module 2
Unit 2: Introduction to Advance Manufacturing Systems
Numerical Control (NC): It is the method of automation of machine tools or other equipment's that are operated through
precise programmed commands containing coded alphanumeric data which are encoded on a punched paper tape or an
alternative storage medium.
Computer Numerical Control: It is an advanced form of numerical control system where the machine control unit is a
dedicated microcomputer instead of a hardwired controller & equipment operated through precise programmed commands
containing coded alphanumeric data.
Components (Elements of CNC System):
CNC system consists of following elements,
1. Input Device
2. Machine Control Unit (MCU)
3. Machine Tool
4. Driving System
5. Feedback Devices
6. Display Unit
1. Input Device: Part programs are entered into the CNC control or the MCU through the input devices.
Input devices used on a CNC machine are:
• USB (Universal Serial Bus) or Flash Drive: Here USB drive transfer data to the controlling unit.
• Serial Communication: It is a port that connects a computer system and a CNC machine tool through an interface
called RS-232 (cable).
• Ethernet Communication: It is a more reliable and efficient means of transferring part programs from computer to
the CNC control. Ethernet cable connects the computer with machine to enable data transfer.
• Conversational Programming: Here keyboard is used to input part programs to the controller. A built in intelligent
software inside the controller enables the operator to enter step by step data.
2. Machine Control Unit (MCU): It is a heart of CNC machine. It consists following components.
I. Central Processing Unit (CPU): It is a brain of MCU and it comprises of control section, ALU, IAM.
• Control Section: It extract data from memory and generates signals, which in turn activates all MCU
components.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): It performs integer arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, counting etc. and logic operations.
• Immediate Access Memory (IAM): It holds the data and programs temporarily that is required at that instant
by control section.
II. CNC Memory: It has two subsections that is main memory and secondary memory.
• Main Memory: It consists of Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory (RAM). ROM stores
the operating system and machine interface programs, where as RAM stores the part programs.
• Secondary Memory: Secondary memory devices like hard disk is used to store large programs and it can be
used by main memory when required.
III. Input/Output Interface: It establishes the communication between the machine operator and components of the
CNC system. The operator control panel is the interface through which machine operator communicates with the
CNC system. Keyboard and display screen are included in the panel.
IV. Machine Tool Controls: Machine tool consists various axes such as X, Y, Z and spindle rotates at desired RPM
(revolution per minute). The position and velocity control of each axis and rotational speed control is
accomplished by certain hardware components in MCU. The MCU generates control signal that is transformed
into a form which suitable for the specific position control systems that is required to drive the various axes of the
machine.
V. Sequence Controls for Auxiliary Functions: Certain auxiliary functions like coolant control, emergency stop, tool
changing function etc. are carried out under part program controls. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is
generally used to manage the input/output interface for such additional functions.
3. Machine Tool: It may be any type of material removal tool like lathe, milling, drilling etc. The essential parts of
machine tool include machine table, machine slide, lead screw, rigid and heavy machine structure, automatic tool
changing system, spindle etc.
4. Driving System: Drive system essentially made up of amplifier circuits, drive motors and ball lead screws. First control
signals are fed by the MCU to amplifier circuits. Then, the control signal will actuate the drive motors which in turn
rotate the ball lead screws to position the machine table.
5. Feedback Devices: For accurate operation of a CNC machine, the positional values and speed of the axes needs to be
continuously updated. This is done by feedback devices.
There are two types of feedback devices:
I. Positional Feedback Devices:
• Linear Position Measuring Transducers: It is a feedback device which is mounted on the machine table to
measure the actual displacement of the slide in a manner that the reactive force of screw, motor etc. shall not
cause any error in the feedback data.
• Rotary Encoders: It is a device used to convert rotational position information into an electrical output signal.
This is mounted at the end of the motor shaft or screw to measure angular displacement.
II. Velocity Feedback Devices: A tachometer or tachogenerator is mounted at the end of motor shaft. The tachometer
measures the actual speed of motor in terms of voltage generated. The output voltage from tachometer is compared
with desired speed and difference is fed back to monitor the motor speed.
6. Display Unit: It is the device that ensures interaction between the machine operator and the machine. It display the
current status of operation such as the spindle RPM, running part program, feed rate, position of machine slide etc.
Advantages of CNC Machines:
1. Complex shaped contours can be machined easily in CNC machines, for example turbine blades, impellers etc.
2. High volume of production will be obtained in CNC machine as compared to conventional machines.
3. High accuracy and repeatability can be obtained in CNC machine. That is why most of the aircraft parts are produced by
CNC machines.
4. Less trained workers can also operate CNC machines unlike conventional machines, where highly skilled people are
required.
5. CNC machines can be used uninterruptedly without turning them off.
6. Errors can be avoided during machining in CNC, unlike in conventional machines were humans are operating, errors may
incur.
7. Since CNC machines are programmed, therefore one worker can take care of multiple machines. This will reduce the
labor cost.
8. Prototypes can be produced faster and thus results in reduced lead times.
Disadvantages of CNC Machine:
1. Cost of CNC machine is high as compared to conventional machines.
2. The spares of CNC machines are relatively costlier than the conventional machines.
3. CNC machines require air conditioned environment. Thus extra costs are involved.
4. Thorough programming knowledge is required by the operator. This again requires skilled programmers, hence labor cost
becomes high.
Applications of CNC Machines:
1. Aerospace Industry: Machining of aircraft components occurs at the highest precision. This is highly essential safety
during critical applications. Machining in CNC will give highest accuracy during machining. Some of the aircraft
components machined in CNC include landing gear parts, fuel access panel, engine mounts etc.
2. Automotive Industry: Automotive industries regularly use CNC milling machines for both prototyping and production.
Some of the automotive components machined in CNC machines include cylinder blocks, gear boxes, valve, Axels etc.
3. Consumer Electronics: CNC machining helps in prototyping and machining of consumer electronics components like
laptops, smartphones etc.
4. Defence Industry: CNC machines provide on demand replacement parts and upgraded components, which is particularly
useful in defence industry.
5. Health Care Industry: CNC machining process is suited in many custom made medical equipment manufacturing. The
tight tolerance are achieved during machining using CNC are essential to the high performance of machined medical
components.
3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing) Technology:
It is the process in which digital 3D design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing material.
Additive Manufacturing Process:
Steps Involved in Additive Manufacturing Process:
1. Creating CAD model using any CAD software like solid works, solid edge, catia etc.
2. Converting CAD model file format of respective CAD software in STL file format.
3. Transferring STL file format to the machine through USB or any other transfer media.
4. Set the 3D printing machine accordingly.
5. Build the component.
6. Remove excess material.
7. Post process (checking the dimensions).
8. Application of component.
Conversion of CAD Model in STL File
STL uses triangles to describe the surface to be built. Each Triangle is described as
three points and a facet normal vector indicating the outward side of the triangle.
Advantages of 3D Printing: Disadvantages of 3D Printing:
1. Minimal material wastage. 1. High process cost.
2. Energy efficient. 2. Pre and post processing requirement.
3. Elimination of tooling. 3. Lack of industry standards.
4. Green manufacturing. 4. Low speed, not suitable for mass production.
5. Enables personalized manufacturing. 5. Inconsistent materials.
6. Excellent for mass customization. 6. Limited number of materials.
7. Rapid iteration through design permutation. 7. High equipment cost for high end manufacturing.
8. Freedom to design and innovate without penalties.
END OF MODULE 2
