Modern Communication System Scheme, Information Source and Input Transducer, Transmitter,

Channel or Medium – Hardwired and Softwired, Noise, Receiver, Multiplexing, Types of

Communication Systems.
Types of Modulation (only concepts) – AM, FM.
Concept of Radio Wave Propagation (Ground, Space, Sky).

Advantages of digital communication over analog communication, ASK, FSK, PSK.

Radio Signal Transmission

Multiple Access Techniques

0
3
S L Kakani and
Priyanka Punglia
New Age International
Publisher
2017

4
 What is Communication?
• Communication is the science and practice of transmitting information.
• Communication Engineering deals with the techniques of transmitting
information.
• In brief, Communication Engineering means Electrical
Communication
• Electrical Communication is a process by which the
information/message is transmitted from one point to another in
the form of electrical signals, through some communication link.

4
 Modern Communication System
•Scheme
A basic communication system provides a link between the
information source and its destination.
• The process of electrical communication involves sending,
receiving and processing information in electrical form.
• The information to be transmitted passes through a
number of stages of the communication system before it
reaches its destination.
• Fig. 1.1 shows a block schematic diagram of the most
general form of basic communication system.
5
Modern Communication System
Scheme (continued)

n(t)

6
Modern Communication System Scheme (cont‘d)
The main constituents of basic communication system are:
i. Information source and input transducer
ii. Transmitter
iii. Channel or medium
iv. Noise
v. Receiver
vi. Output transducer
vii. final destination.
7
 Information Source and Input
•Transducer
A communication system transmits information from an
information source to a destination.
• Hence the first stage of a communication system is the
information source.
• A communication system transmits information in the form
of electrical signals.
• If the information produced by the source is not in an
electrical form, one will have to use a transducer to
convert the information into electrical form. 8
Information Source and Input
Transducer (continued)
• A transducer is a device that converts a non-electrical
energy into its corresponding electrical energy called
signal and vice versa.
• An example of a transducer is a microphone.
• Microphone converts sound signals into the corresponding electrical
signals.
• Similarly, a television (TV) picture tube converts electrical signals
into its corresponding pictures.
• Some other examples of transducers are movie cameras, Video
Cassette Recorder (VCR) heads, tape recorder heads, and
loudspeakers.
9
Information Source and Input
Transducer (continued)
• The information produced by the information source is applied
to the next stage, termed the information or input
transducer.
• This in turn, produces an electrical signal corresponding to the
information as output.
• This electrical signal is called the baseband signal.
• It is also called a message signal, an information signal, an intelligent signal,
or an envelope.

• In the communication theory, the baseband signal is usually

10
Information Source and Input
Transducer (continued)
• There are two types of signals:
a) Analog signal
b) Digital signal

11
 Information Source and Input
Transducer (continued)
a) Analog signal
• An analog signal is a function of time,
and has a continuous range of values.
• However, there is a definite function
value of the analog signal at each
point of time.
• Examples: a pure sine wave form, a
voice signal.
12
 Information Source and Input
Transducer (continued)
b) Digital signal
• A digital signal does not have
continuous function values on a time
scale.
• It is discrete in nature, i.e., it has some
values at discrete timings.
• In between two consecutive values, the
signal values is either zero, or different
value.
• Example: the sound signal produced by 13
Information Source and Input
Transducer (continued)
• Digital signals correspond to a binary digital signal, where
the discrete amplitude of the signal is coded into binary
digits represented by ‘0' and '1’.
• The analog signal is converted to digital using Analog-to-
Digital Converters (ADC).
• ADC involves Sampling and Quantization.
• Sampling – converts analog time to discrete time
• Quantization – converts analog amplitude to discrete amplitude

14
Transmitter
• The transmitter is a collection of electronic components
and circuits that converts the electrical signal into a signal
suitable for transmission over a given medium.
• Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned
circuits and filters, modulators, frequency mixers,
frequency synthesizers and other circuits.

15
Transmitter (continued)
• The base band signal, which is the output of an input transducer,
is input to the transmitter.
• The transmitter section processes the signal prior to transmission.
• The nature of processing depends on the type of
communication system.
• There are two options for processing signals prior to transmission:
• Carrier communication system
• The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is translated to
a higher frequency spectrum.
• Baseband communication system
• The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher
frequency spectrum.

16
Transmitter (continued)
• In baseband communication system, baseband signal is
transmitted without translating it to a higher frequency spectrum.
• However, some processing of the signal is required prior to its
transmission.
• e.g. a train of pulses that are to be transmitted can be replaced by a
series of two sine waves of different frequencies prior to transmission.
• One of these two frequencies represent a low and the other
represents a high value of the digital pulse.
• Therefore, the baseband signal is converted into a corresponding
series of sine waves of two different frequencies prior to transmission.
• Fig. 1.4 illustrates this processing.
17
Transmitter (continued)

18
Transmitter (continued)
• In carrier communication system, the baseband signal is carried by
a higher frequency signal, called the carrier signal.
• The carrier communication system is based on the principle of
translating a low frequency baseband signal to higher
frequency spectrum.
• This process is termed as modulation.
• Now, if the baseband signal is a digital signal, the carrier
communication system is called a digital communication
system.
• The digital modulation methods are employed for this.
• If the baseband signal is an analog signal, the carrier
communication system is called as an analog communication
system.
• The analog modulation techniques are used for processing this. 19
Transmitter (continued)

20
Transmitter (continued)
• Figure 1.5 shows the baseband signal, 𝑠(𝑡) applied to the modulated
stage.
• This stage translates the baseband signal from its low
frequency spectrum to high frequency spectrum.
• This stage also receives another input called the carrier signal, 𝑐(𝑡),
which is generated by a high frequency carrier oscillator.
• Modulation takes place at this stage with the baseband and the
carrier signals as two inputs after modulation, the baseband signal is
translated to a high frequency spectrum and the carrier signal is said
to be modulated by the baseband signal.
• The output of the modulated stage is called the modulated signal,
and is designated as 𝑥(𝑡).

21
Transmitter (continued)
• Radio signals are transmitted through electromagnetic (EM)
waves, also referred as radio waves, in a radio
communication system.
• The radio waves have a wide frequency range starting from a
few ten kilo Hertz (Hz) to several thousand Mega Hertz
(MHz).
• This wide range of frequencies is referred as the radio frequency
(RF) spectrum.
• The RF spectrum is classified according to the applications of
the spectrum in different service areas .
• Table 1.1 shows the classification of the RF spectrum along
with the associated applications in communication
systems. 22
Transmitter (continued)

Electromagnetic Spectrum

23
Transmitter (continued)

Radio Frequency Spectrum

24
Transmitter (continued)

25
Channel or Medium
• The transmission medium between the transmitter and the receiver
is called a channel.
• The channel is a very important part of a communication system.
• Its characteristics add many constraints to the design of
the communication system.
• The transmitted signal should have adequate power to withstand
the channel noise.
• The channel characteristics also impose constraints on the
bandwidth.
• The channel characteristics are also taken into consideration as a
design parameter while designing the transmitter and receiver. 26
Channel or Medium (continued)
• Depending on the physical implementations, channels are
classified into two groups:
• Hardwired channels
• Softwired channels

27
Channel or Medium (continued)
Hardwired Channels (Hardware channels)
• These are manmade structures which can be used as transmission medium.
• There is always a physical link between the transmitter and receiver in
hardware channels.
• A communication system that makes use of a hardware channel is called as
a line communication system.
• e.g. landline telephony and cable TV network.
• There are following three possible implementations of the
hardware channels:
• Transmission lines
• Waveguides
• Optical Fiber Cables (OFC)

28
Channel or Medium (continued)
• Transmission Lines
• e.g. Twisted-pair cables used in landline telephony and coaxial cables used for
cable
TV transmission.
• Waveguides
• They are hollow, circular, or rectangular metallic structures.
• The signals enter the waveguide, are reflected at the metallic walls, and propagate
towards the other end of the waveguide.
• Waveguides are employed as medium to transmit signals at UHF range
• Optical Fiber Cables (OFC)
• They are highly sophisticated transmission media, in the form of extremely thin
circular pipes.
• Signals are transmitted in the form of light energy in optical fiber cables. 29
Channel or Medium
(continued)
Softwired Channels (Software channels)
• There are certain natural resources which can be used as the
transmission medium for signals.
• Such transmission media are called software channels.
• e.g. air or open space and sea water.
• There is no physical link between the transmitter and the
receiver.
• The signals are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic (EM)
waves, also called radio waves.
30
Channel or Medium (continued)
• Radio waves travel through open space at a speed equal to that of
light (𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠−1).
• The transmitter section converts the electrical signal into EM waves or
radiation by using a transmitting antenna.
• These waves are radiated into the open space by the transmitting antenna.
• At the receiver side, the receiving antenna picks up these radio waves and
converts them into corresponding electrical signals.
• Systems that use radio waves to transmit signals through open space are called
radio communication systems.
• e.g. radio broad cast, television transmission, satellite communication, and cellular mobile
communication. 31
 Nois
•eNoise is defined as unwanted electrical energy of random and
unpredictable nature present in the system due to any cause.
• Noise is an electrical disturbance, which does not contain any
useful information.
• Thus, noise is a highly undesirable part of a communication
system, and have to be minimized.
• When noise is mixed with the transmitted signal, it rides over it and
deteriorates its waveform.
• This results in the alteration of the original information so that wrong
32
information is received.
 Noise
•(continued)
External noise or extraneous noise
• The noise introduced by the transmission medium
• Internal noise
• The thermal agitation of atoms and electrons of electronic components
used in the equipment

33
Noise (continued)
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
• SNR is the ratio of the signal power to the noise power.
• It is the measure of the signal power delivered to the noise power at a
particular point in the circuit.
• If 𝑃𝑠 is the signal power and 𝑃𝑛 is the noise power, then SNR is given as

𝑆 𝑃
= 𝑠
𝑁 𝑃𝑛

34
Noise (continued)
• If 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑉2/𝑅 and 𝑃 = 𝑉2/𝑅, then
𝑠 𝑛 𝑛

𝑆 𝑉2𝑅
𝑠
𝑁 = 𝑉𝑛2𝑅

𝑆 2
𝑉𝑠
𝑁 = 𝑛2
𝑉
where 𝑉𝑠 is signal voltage and 𝑉𝑛 is noise
voltage
35
Noise (continued)
• SNR can be expressed in terms of decibels (dB) as
𝑆 𝑠2
= 10 log10 𝑉
𝑁 𝑑𝐵 𝑛2
𝑉 2
𝑆 𝑉𝑠
= 10 log10
𝑁 𝑑𝐵 𝑉 𝑛
𝑆 𝑉
= 20 log10
𝑁 𝑑𝐵
𝑉
𝑠
𝑛

36
Noise (continued)
Example:
If, at a particular point in a circuit, the signal and noise voltages are
given as 3.5 mV and 0.75 mV respectively, calculate SNR in dB.
Solution:
• Given, 𝑉𝑠 = 3.5 𝑚𝑉 and 𝑉𝑛 = 0.75 𝑚𝑉
SNR in dB is given by
𝑉
𝑆 = 20 log10
𝑁 𝑑𝐵
𝑉
𝑠
𝑛
37
Noise (continued)
𝑆 𝑉
= 20 log10 𝑉𝑛
𝑁 𝑠
𝑑𝐵
𝑆 3.5
= 20 log10
𝑁 𝑑𝐵
0.75
𝑆
= 20 log10 4.67
𝑁 𝑑𝐵
That is
𝑆𝑁𝑅 = 13.38 𝑑𝐵

38
Noise
(continued)
Noise Figure (F)
• The noise figure is defined as ratio of the signal-to-noise power at the input of
the circuit and the signal-to-noise power at the output of the circuit.
• The noise figure (F) is the measure of the noise introduced by the circuit and
can be expressed as

𝑆
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
𝑁
𝐹= 𝑆
𝑁 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
• We can see that if F is unity, the noise power introduced by the circuit is
zero, as both the input and output S/N powers are the same.
39
Receiver
• A receiver is a collection of electronic components and
circuits that accepts the transmitted message from the channel
and converts it back into its original form.
• The task of the receiver is to provide the original information
to the user.
• This information is altered due to the processing at the
transmitter side.
• The receiver system receives the transmitted signal
and performs some processing on it to recover the
original baseband signal.
40
Receiver (continued)
• The signal received by the receiver is r(t), which contains
both the transmitted signal x(t), and the noise n(t), added
to it during transmission.
• The function of the receiver section is to separate the noise
from the received signal, and then recover the original
baseband signal by performing some processing on it.
• The detailed block diagram of a typical receiver section is
shown in Fig. 1.7.
41
Receiver (continued)

42
Receiver (continued)
• The received signal, r(t), is first amplified by the front-end voltage
amplifier.
• This is done to strengthen the received signal, which is weak and to facilitate easy
processing.
• Next, this signal is given to the demodulator, which in turn, demodulates
the received signal to recover the original baseband signal.
• Demodulation is the process which brings the baseband signal from the higher
frequency spectrum to its original low-frequency spectrum.
• The type of demodulation is based on the type of modulation employed at the
transmitter.

• After recovering the original baseband signal, its voltage and power is
amplified prior to sending it to final destination block.
43
Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is a technique which allows more than one signal to be
transmitted through a single channel.
• Multiplexing facilitates the simultaneous transmission of multiple
messages over a single transmission channel.
• Multiplexing allows the maximum possible utilization of the available
bandwidth of the system.
• The use of multiplexing also makes the communication system
economical because more than one signal can be transmitted through a
single channel.
• Multiplexing is possible in communication system only through
modulation.
44
Multiplexing (continued)

45
Multiplexing (continued)
• Each signal is translated to a different frequency spectrum, such
that every signal differs in its transmitted frequency.
• This is done through modulation.
• At the transmitter they can be mixed and transmitted.
• At the receiver, the different signals can be easily separated
because they are at different frequencies, and these can be
delivered to the next stages of the receiver for further
processing.

46
Types of Communication Systems
• Communication systems can be categorised based on their physical
infrastructure and the specifications of the signals they transmit.

• The physical infrastructure pertains to the type of the channel used

and the hardware design of the transmitting and receiving equipment.
• The signal specifications signify the nature and type of the
transmitted signal.

47
Types of Communication
Systems (continued)
Communication Systems based on Physical Infrastructure
• There are two types of communication systems based on the
physical infrastructure:
i. Line Communication System
• There is a physical link, called the hardware channel, between the
transmitter and the receiver.
• e.g. landline telephony
ii. Radio communication system
• There is no physical link between the transmitter and the receiver and
natural resources, such as space and water are used as softwire channels.
• e.g. radio broadcast
48
Types of Communication Systems
(continued)
• There are two types of communication systems based on one-way
or two-way transmission feature:
i. Simplex Communication System
• The signal can be transmitted only in one direction (one-way transmission).
• e.g. TV transmission
ii. Duplex communication system
• Signals can be sent and received from a point. (two-way transmission)
• Half-duplex – two-way transmission is carried out, but not simultaneously
• Full-duplex – two-way transmission is carried out simultaneously
• e.g. telephony

49
Types of Communication Systems
(continued)

50
Types of Communication
Systems (continued)
Communication Systems based on Signal Specifications
• There are two types of communication systems based on the
nature of baseband signal:
i. Analog Communication System
• e.g. TV transmission
ii. Digital communication system
• e.g. HDTV, Internet

51
Types of Communication Systems
(continued)
• There are two types of communication systems based on the
nature of transmitted signal:
i. Baseband Communication System
• e.g. landline telephony, fax
ii. Carrier communication system
• e.g. TV transmission, radio broadcast, cable TV

52
Modulatio
n
53
What is Modulation?
• Modulation is a process in which some characteristic or property of a
high frequency signal called carrier signal is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
• The carrier signal is a sinusoidal signal that can be represented as
𝒗𝒄 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒄 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒄𝒕 + 𝜽)
• The characteristic of the carrier wave that is modified may be amplitude
𝑉𝑐, frequency 𝑓𝑐 or phase angle 𝜃.
• Accordingly, we have three types of modulation:
• Amplitude Modulation
• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation
54
Need for Modulation
• Improves Quality of reception
• Reduces Height of antenna
• Allows Multiplexing
• Extends the Bandwidth
• Increases Range of Communication
• Reduces noise and interference

55
Amplitude Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a modulation technique in which
the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the analog
modulating signal to be transmitted.
• The modulating signal is an analog baseband signal which is
random and has a low frequency, while the carrier signal is always
a sinusoidal wave with high frequency.
• The variations in amplitude of carrier signal represent
the information carried.

56
Amplitude Modulation (continued)
• The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating signal while
the frequency and phase of the carrier signal remains unchanged.
• The modulating signal seems to be superimposed on the carrier signal.
• The amplitude variations in the peak values of the carrier signal exactly replicate the
modulating signal at different points of time which is known as an envelope.
• Modulation Index is given by 𝜇 = 𝐴𝑚/𝐴𝑐

57
Amplitude Modulation (continued)

58
Frequency Modulation
• Frequency Modulation (FM) is a modulation technique in which the
frequency of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the analog modulating signal to be
transmitted.
• Only the frequency of the carrier signal is varied while the
amplitude and phase of the carrier are kept constant.
• The original frequency of the carrier signal is called the centre or
resting frequency and denoted as 𝑓𝑐.
• The amount by which the frequency of the carrier wave changes or
shifts above or below the resting frequency is called frequency
deviation ∆f. This means ∆𝑓 ∝ 𝑚(𝑡).
59
 Frequency Modulation (continued)
• The total variation of
frequency of FM wave from the
lowest to highest is termed as
carrier swing (CS),
𝐶𝑆 = 2 ∆𝑓
• Modulation Index
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∆f
μ𝑓 = =
𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑚

60
 Digital Modulation
•Schemes
In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary
data or M-ary version of it.
• When it is required to transmit digital signals, the amplitude,
frequency or phase of the sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance
with the incoming digital data.
• Since, the digital data is in discrete steps, the modulation of the
bandpass sinusoidal carrier is also done in discrete steps.
• Due to this reason, this type of modulation is known as digital
modulation.
62
 Digital Modulation Schemes
•(continued)
Digital modulation schemes are classified as
• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

63
 Amplitude Shift
•Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) represents digital data as variations in
the amplitude of a carrier wave.
• ASK signal may be generated by simply applying the incoming
binary data and the sinusoidal carrier to the two inputs of a product
modulator.
• The binary signal when ASK modulated, gives a zero value for Low
input while it gives the carrier output for High input.

64
Amplitude Shift Keying (continued)

66
 Frequency Shift
•Keying
In Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), the digital information is
transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier signal.
• The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK).
• BFSK uses a pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary
information (0s and 1s).

67
Frequency Shift Keying (continued)

69
 Phase Shift
•Keying
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) conveys data by changing (modulating)
the phase of constant frequency carrier.
• Each symbol (pattern of bits) is represented by a particular phase.
• The simplest form of PSK is Binary PSK (BPSK).
• It uses phases 0° and 180°.
• It is widely used for wireless LANs, RFID and Bluetooth
Communication.

70
Phase Shift Keying (continued)

72
Advantages of digital communication
over analog communication
• Reduced noise
• Improved signal quality
• Greater efficiency
• More reliable
• Ease of storage and manipulation
• Improved security
• Lower cost
• Greater flexibility
73
Radio Wave Propagation
• Based on the nature of the communication channel, the
communication can be broadly classified the into following
three categories:
a) Line communication,
b) Optical communication and
c) Space communication
• In space communication, electromagnetic waves of different
frequencies are used to carry information through the physical
space acting as the transmission medium.
• Electromagnetic waves with frequencies extending from about 10
kHz to 300 GHz are classified as radio waves.
74
Radio Wave Propagation (continued)
• Depending on the frequency, a radio wave travels from the
transmitting to the receiving antenna in several ways.
• On the basis of the mode of propagation, radio waves can
be broadly classified as:
i. ground or surface wave
ii. space or tropospheric wave
iii. sky wave
• Accordingly, we have three types of propagation.
75
Radio Wave Propagation (continued)

76
Ground Wave Propagation
• Radio waves are guided by the earth and move along its
curved surface from the transmitter to the receiver.
• They are strongly influenced by the electrical properties of the ground.
• This is useful only at low frequencies as high frequency waves
are strongly absorbed by ground.
• Below 500 kHz, ground waves can be used for communication
within distances of about 1500 km from the transmitter.
• AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local
areas and take place primarily by the ground wave.
• Ground wave transmission is very reliable whatever the
atmospheric conditions be. 77
 Space or Tropospheric Wave
•Propagation
Radio wave transmitted from an antenna, travels in a straight line
and directly reaches the receiving antenna.
• In space wave or line of sight propagation, radio waves move in the
earth’s troposphere within about 15 km over the surface of the
earth.
• The space wave is made up of two components:
a) a direct or line-of- sight wave from the transmitting to the receiving
antenna
b) the ground-reflected wave traversing form the transmitting antenna
to ground and reflected to the receiving antenna
• Television frequencies in the range 100-220 MHz are
transmitted through this mode. 78
Sky Wave Propagation
• Radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving
antenna after reflection from the ionosphere, i.e. the ionized layers lying in the
earth’s upper atmosphere.
• Short wave transmission around the globe is possible through sky wave via successive
reflections at the ionosphere and the earth’s surface.
• Ionosphere - The ionized region of the earth’s upper atmosphere extending from
about 40 km to the height of a few earth radii above the earth.
• The ionosphere is made up of electrons, and positive and negative ions in the
background of neutral particles of the atmosphere.
• The propagation of radio wave through the ionosphere is affected by the
electrons and ions in the ionosphere.
• The effect of the electrons on the propagation is much greater than that of the ions
since the electronic mass is much less than the ionic mass.
79
Radio Signal
Transmission
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 80
Radio Signal Transmission
• Figure 6A.1 shows the most important components of a
wireless transmission system.

φ = 45°, 135°, 225° and 315°

81
Radio Signal Transmission (continued)
• The transmitter accepts a stream of bits from the
application software.
• It then encodes these bits onto a radio wave, known as a
carrier, by adjusting parameters of the wave such as its
amplitude or phase.
• The transmitter usually processes the information in two
stages.
• Modulator – accepts the incoming bits, and computes symbols
that represent the amplitude and phase of the outgoing wave.
• Analogue transmitter – generates the radio wave
82
Radio Signal Transmission (continued)
• The modulation scheme used in Fig. 6A.1 is known as Quadrature
Phase Shift Keying (QPSK).
• A QPSK modulator takes the incoming bits two at a time and
transmits them using a radio wave that can have four
different states.
• These have phases of 45°, 135°, 225° and 315°, which correspond
to bit combinations of 00, 10, 11 and 01 respectively.
• We can represent the four states of QPSK using the
constellation diagram shown in Fig. 6A.2b.
83
Radio Signal Transmission (continued)

84
Radio Signal Transmission (continued)
• In constellation diagram, the distance of each state from the origin
represents the amplitude of the transmitted wave, while the angle
(measured anti-clockwise from the x-axis) represents its phase.
• Usually, each symbol is represented using two other numbers, which are
known as the in-phase (𝐼) and quadrature (𝑄) components:
𝐼 = 𝑎 cos 𝜙
𝑄 = 𝑎 sin 𝜙
where 𝑎 is the amplitude of the transmitted wave and 𝜙 is its phase.
• The in-phase and quadrature components are the real and imaginary
parts of a complex number respectively.
85
Radio Signal Transmission (continued)
• LTE (Long Term Evolution) uses four modulation schemes altogether.
• Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) – sends bits one at a time, using two
states that can be interpreted as starting phases of 0° and 180°, or as signal
amplitudes of +1 and −1.
• Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) – sends bits two at a time, using
four states that can be interpreted as phases of 45°, 135°, 225° and 315°
which correspond to bit combinations of 00, 10, 11 and 01 respectively.
• 16-Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (16-QAM) – sends bits four at a time,
using 16 states that have different amplitudes and phases.
• 64-Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (64-QAM) – sends bits six at a time
using 64 different states, so it has a data rate six times greater than that of
BPSK. 86
Radio Signal Transmission (continued)

87
Multiple Access
Techniques
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 88
Multiple Access Techniques
• In a cellular network, a base station has to transmit to many
different mobiles at once.
• This is done by sharing the resources of the air interface using a
technique known as multiple access.
• Mobile communication systems use different multiple access
techniques:
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

89
Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
• Each mobile receives signal on its own carrier frequency, which it
distinguishes from the others using analogue filters.

• Here, each signal is assigned a different frequency band.

• The carriers are separated by unused guard bands to minimize the
interference between them.
• Example: Radio channel.

90
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
• Mobiles receive signals on the same carrier frequency, but at
different times.
• It is a time based access.
• A certain time frame is given to each station and within that
frame, the channel is allowed to access the entire spectrum
bandwidth.
• The slots that are unused remain in idle stage.

92
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• Mobiles receive signals on the same carrier frequency and at the
same time, but the signals are labelled by the use of codes, which
allow a mobile to separate its own signal from those of the
others.

• Here, a unique code will be assigned to each station to distinguish

from each other.

• Example: Cellular system

• Encoded signal = Original data × Chipping sequence
94
FDMA, TDMA &
CDMA

96
Multiple Access Techniques (continued)
• FDMA was used by the first generation analogue systems.
• GSM uses a mix of FDMA and TDMA, in which every cell has
several carrier frequencies that are each shared amongst eight
different mobiles.
• LTE uses another mixed technique known as Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiple Access (OFDMA).
• CDMA is used by the third generation communication systems.
• LTE uses a few of the concepts from CDMA for some of its
control signals, but does not implement the technique
otherwise. 97
Thank you