MODULE - 5

Analog and Digital Communication

Modern communication system scheme
Information source and input transducer
Transmitter
Channel or Medium – Hardwired and Softwired
Noise
Receiver
Multiplexing
Types of communication systems

Types of modulation
AM
FM
Concept of Radio wave propagation (Ground, space, sky)

Digital Modulation Schemes – ASK, FSK, PSK

Radio signal transmission
Multiple access techniques

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 Communication?

 Transfer of information from one point to

other (or) Exchange of Information between
two points.
 Electronic Communication: Sending data
or Information using electronic devices.
This allows rapid transfer of goods,
money and ideas

Need for Communication

 Speedy transmission: Requires only few seconds to communicate through electronic media due
the technology available for quick transmission
 Wide Coverage: The whole world has become a global village and communication around the
globe requires just a second
 Low Cost: Cost of an SMS is cheaper than sending a letter by post
 Exchange of feedback: Instant exchange of feedback
 24/7 accessibility: Can be accessed anytime

Message signal: The signal that consists information is called modulating signal. The modulating signal is
usually of low-frequency signal. (20 Hz – 20 KHz)
Carrier signal:
The signal which carries the information is called carrier signal. Carrier signal is a high frequency signal
which does not contains any information. The purpose of this signal is just to carry the message signal. The
range is in terms of Mega Hertz.

General form of a Basic Communication System

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 Elements of Communication System
 Information source and transducer
 Transmitter
 Channel or medium
 Noise
 Receiver
 Output transducer and final destination
A communication system transmits information from an information source (message) to a destination.
 Examples: Voice, Live scenes (video), music, written text, and e-mail.
A transducer is a device that converts a physical signal into its corresponding electrical signal and vice
versa.
Examples of input transducers: Sound - Microphone
Picture - Camera
Text - Keyboard
Temperature/Pressure - Sensor with transducer

(i) Information Source and Transducer

Message or information originates in the information source may be in the form of sound (human speech),
picture (image source), words (text). However, out of these messages, only the desired message is selected
and communicated.

Type of Signals

Signals are functions that carry information. We use signals to convey information from place to place. In
electronics, signals are mainly in the form of varying voltages. There are two types of signals.

Analog Digital Signals

Signals

Analog signal is continuous and time varying Digital signal have two or more states (binary
form)
Troubleshooting is difficult. Troubleshooting is easy.
Easily affected by the noise. These are stable and less prone to noise.
Analog signals use continuous values to represent the Digital signals use discrete values to represent the
data, usually in the form of sine wave. data, usually in the form of square wave.
Accuracy may be affected by noise. Accuracy is immune from the noise.
Analog signals may be corrupted during data Digital signals are not corrupted during data
transmission. transmission.
Analog signals use more power. Digital signals use less power.
Examples: Temperature, Pressure, Flow measurements, Examples: Motor Start, Trip, etc.
etc.
Components like resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, Diodes Components like transistors, logic gates, and
are used in analog circuits. micro-controllers are used in digital circuits.

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A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form. Generally, the input transducer
converts the non-electrical signal (Ex: sound signal or light signal) into an electrical signal.

For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a microphone converts the information or massage which is in the
form of sound waves into corresponding electrical signal.

(ii) Transmitter
The base band signal (electrical form), output from the input transducer is applied to the input of the
transmitter. The transmitter section processes the signal prior to transmission. The nature of processing
depends on the type of communication system.
There are two options for processing signals prior transmission
(i) The baseband signal, which lies in the low frequency spectrum, is translated to a higher frequency
spectrum --- carrier communication system
In this process, modulation is the main function of the transmitter. In modulation, the message signal is
superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal. As the original message signal cannot be transmitted
over a longer distance because of their low frequency and amplitude, they are superimposed with high
frequency carrier signal.
(ii) The baseband signal is transmitted without translating it to a higher frequency spectrum --- baseband
communication system.

If the signal is to be transmitted through the space, then the transmitter will convert the electrical signals into
radio waves. If the signal is to be transmitted through the fiber optic cable then the transmitter will convert the
electrical signal into light or optical signal.

Typical Analog transmitter

Let s(t) be the baseband signal applied to the modulated stage as shown in the fig1, to translate (modulate) it
from low to high frequency spectrum. That means, s(t) is superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal

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c(t), which is generated by a high frequency carrier oscillator. The output of the modulated stage is called the
modulated signal, and is designated as x(t). This signal is then applied to amplifier stage. The voltage of the
modulated signal is amplified to drive the power amplifier stage. The power amplifier that amplifies the
power of the modulated signal x(t) and thus it carries enough power to reach the receiver stage of the
communication system. Finally, the signal is passed to the transmission medium or channel.

Fig.1 Block diagram of analog transmitter section

For example, in radio broadcasting the sound signal (message signal) is converted into the electrical signal
(baseband signal), by the input transducer. Then, it is modulated with the Radio Frequency (RF) range carrier
signals to produce radio signals. These radio signals are transmitted through electromagnetic waves (open
space), referred to as radio waves.
RF bands spread in the range between 30 kHz and 300 GHz. Transmission systems are operated in the RF
spectrum range including analog radio, aircraft navigation, marine radio, amateur radio, TV broadcasting,
mobile networks and satellite systems.
Table 1: Frequency ranges and its application in communication systems

Frequency Name Frequency Range Application

Super high frequencies 3GHz-30GHz RADAR
Ultra high frequencies 300MHz-3GHz Satellite communication, cellular phones
Very high frequencies 30MHz-300MHz TV and FM
High frequencies 3MHz-30MHz Commercial short wave broadcast
Medium frequencies 300kHz-3MHz AM broadcast
Low frequencies 30kHz-300kHz Navigation, submarine communication
Very low frequencies 3kHz-30kHz Navigation, submarine communication

Voice frequencies 300Hz-3kHz Navigation ,submarine, audio

Extremely low frequencies 30Hz-300Hz Power transmission

(iii) Channel or medium

The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the transmitter to the
receiver. The transmitted signal should have adequate power to withstand the channel noise. The channel
characteristics also impose constraints on the bandwidth.
Depending on the physical implementations, one can classify the channels in the following two groups:

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 a) Hardwired channels (Manmade structure)
Transmission lines: It is a conductive medium consisting of two or more conductors through which
electrical signal are transmitted from transmitting point to receiver point.
Example: i) Twisted pair cables used in telephony, in which two conductors are twisted together for the
purposes of improving electromagnetic compatibility.
ii) Coaxial cable used in TV transmission, to carry high-frequency electrical signals with low losses.
Waveguide: consisting of a hollow, metal tube of uniform cross-section used for transmitting electro-
magnetic waves. When signals entered the waveguides are reflected at the metallic walls and propagate at
the other end. The energy is in the form of electric field and magnetic field which are perpendicular to
each other.
Optical Fibre: consist of very thin hollow glass fibre through which signal is transmitted in the form of light
energy.
b) Soft-wired channels (no physical link between transmitter and receiver)
Natural resources which can be used as the transmission medium for signals.
Example: Air or Open space and Sea water.
The signals are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic (EM) waves also called radio waves. Radio waves
travel through open space at a speed equal to that of light (c = 3 x 108 m/s)
(iv) Noise
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signal which do not have any useful information. Noise is a highly
undesirable part of a communication system, and has to be minimized. When noise is mixed with the
transmitted signal, it rides over it and deteriorates its waveform.
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) and Noise figure (F)
SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power (S) to the noise power (N), often expressed in decibels (dB).

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(v) Receiver
The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the original message signal. This reproduction of the original
signal is accomplished by a process known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse
process of modulation carried out in transmitter.
The signal received by the receiver is r(t). Due to attenuation this received signal r(t) is a weak signal. A
voltage amplifier amplifies to make strong enough for further processing.

Fig.2 Block diagram of analog receiver section

Next, this signal is applied to the demodulator. In demodulation, the baseband signal is separated from the
high-frequency carrier signal. After recovering the original baseband signal s’(t), its voltage and power is
amplified before send to the final destination block.

(vi) Destination

Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its original form. For
example in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a transducer that converts the
electrical signal to original sound signal.

Multiplexing

Multiplexing is a process which allows more than one signal to be transmitted through a single channel.

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In multiplexing, each baseband signals are modulated with different carrier frequencies. At the transmitter
they can be mixes and transmitted. At the receiver end, all different transmitted signals can be easily separated
by the known carrier frequencies.

Due to multiplexing it is possible to increase the number of communication channels so that more information
can be transmitted where it makes the communication system economical. The typical applications of
multiplexing are telephone, satellite communication etc.

Types of Communication Systems

 Communication Systems based on Physical Infrastructure

Based on physical infrastructure there are two types of communication systems:
Line communication systems: Uses power lines to transfer data from one point to another point. There is a
physical link, called a hardwire channel between the transmitter and the receiver inline communication
systems. Ex: Land line telephony, Cable TV
 Communication systems based on Signal specifications

A. Based on Nature of baseband or information signal

i) Analog communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through analog
signals.
Ex: Audio, video and pictures between two points using the analog signals.
ii) Digital communication systems: Exchange of information between two points through digital signals.
Ex: Audio, HDTV

B. Based on Nature of the transmitted signal

i) Baseband communication system: Baseband signals are transmitted without translating (or
amplified) to higher frequencies. Ex: Land line, fax, etc
ii) Carrier communication system: The baseband signal (low frequency) is mixed with high frequency
carrier signal. Ex: Radio, voice messages and calls.

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 Types of Modulation
Modulation is the process in which any one of the parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase) of the high
frequency carrier signal is varied according to the instantaneous values of the low frequency message signal,
keeping other parameters constant.

Analog modulation is typically used for AM, FM radio, and short-wave broadcasting. Digital modulation
involves transmission of binary signals (0 and 1).

Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the process in which the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied according to
the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the frequency and phase are kept constant. It is as
shown in the fig.2.

The first figure is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no information. Denoted as
c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct)
The next one is the modulating wave, which is the message signal; (low frequency signal) contains
information. Denoted as m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt)

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The last one is the resultant amplitude modulated wave. Mathematically, AM is denoted as

VAM = Vc sin ωc t + cos (ωc - ωm) t - cos (ωc + ωm) t

In AM, most of the transmitted power is wasted in carrier, but used for longer distance communication.
Frequency Modulation is defined as a process in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the message signal, where as the amplitude and phase are kept constant.

Δ f (frequency deviation)
Mathematically, FM wave is denoted as S (t) = A sin [2πfct + mf )]

Modulation index (depth of modulation) mf =

Carrier Swing = f(max) - f(min) = 2f
In FM, all the transmitted power is useful, but used for short distance communication.

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 Radio Wave Propagation

Radio waves exhibit the properties of light with the velocity 3x108 m/s. These are electromagnetic (EM)
waves that consist of electric and magnetic field components. It is traversed in nature. Radio signals can travel
from one end to another over vast distances. Since these are EM waves, they exhibit properties (like light waves)
such as reflection, refraction, diffraction, absorption, polarization and scattering.

Radio propagation is the way of transmitting radio signals in different ways:

i) Ground or surface wave
Ground waves can be used for radio communication. Ground wave transmission is very reliable
irrespective of the atmospheric conditions.

Frequency range: 30 kHz to 3 MHz

Transmission distance: 100 to 1000 km
Example: AM radio broadcast in the medium frequency band cover local areas.

ii) Space or tropo-spheric wave

In space wave (or line of sight propagation), radio waves move in the earth’s troposphere within about
12 KM over the surface of the earth. Frequency range: 3MHz to 30 MHz. Example, TV Transmission.
The space wave is made up of two components:
(a) a direct or line-of- sight wave from the transmitting to the receiving antenna and
(b) an indirect or ground-reflected wave traversing form the transmitting antenna to ground and
reflected to the receiving antenna.

iii) Sky wave

Radio waves transmitted from the transmitting antenna reach the receiving antenna after reflection
from the ionosphere (the earth’s upper atmosphere).
Sky wave is responsible for short wave transmission around the globe via successive reflections at the
ionosphere and the earth’s surface.
Ionosphere - The ionized region extending about 80 KM above the earth’s surface. In ionosphere
radiation from the sun ionizes atoms and molecules that liberate electrons and ions from molecules.
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 The propagation of radio wave through the ionosphere is affected by the electrons and ions. The effect
of the electrons on the propagation is much greater than that of the ions since the electronic mass is
much less than the ionic mass.

Fig.4 Radio wave propagation

Advantages of sky wave propagation

1. It supports large distance propagation.
2. The frequency range of operation is considerably high.
3. Attenuation due to atmospheric conditions is less.
Disadvantages of sky wave propagation
1. Long-distance propagation requires large-sized antennas.
2. Due to the presence of the ionosphere near and far during night and day respectively there exist
variation in signal transmission in day and night.
Applications
Sky wave propagation is widely used in mobile and satellite communications.

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 Digital Modulation Schemes

Advantages of Digital Communication

As the signals are digitized, there are many advantages of digital communication over analog
communication, such as −
 The effect of distortion, noise, and interference is much less in digital signals as they are less
affected.
 Digital circuits are more reliable.
 Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper than analog circuits.
 The hardware implementation in digital circuits is more flexible than analog.
 The occurrence of cross-talk is very rare in digital communication.
 The signal is un-altered as the pulse needs a high disturbance to alter its properties, which is very
difficult.
 Signal processing functions such as encryption and compression are employed in digital circuits
to maintain the secrecy of the information.
 The probability of error occurrence is reduced by employing error detecting and error correcting
codes.
 Spread spectrum technique is used to avoid signal jamming.
 Combining digital signals using Time Division Multiplexing TDM is easier than combining
analog signals using Frequency Division Multiplexing FDM
 The configuring process of digital signals is easier than analog signals.
 Digital signals can be saved and retrieved more conveniently than analog signals.
 Many of the digital circuits have almost common encoding techniques and hence similar devices
can be used for a number of purposes. The capacity of the channel is effectively utilized by digital
signals.

In digital communications, the modulating signal consists of binary data. When it is required to transmit
digital signals, the amplitude, frequency or phase of the sinusoidal carrier is varied in accordance with
the incoming digital data.
Digital modulation schemes are classified as
i) Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
ii) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
iii) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)

ASK represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. ASK signal can generated
when the incoming binary data and the sinusoidal carrier are applied a product modulator as inputs.

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FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
In this technique digital signal is transmitted by switching between low frequency and high
frequency in order to represent 0’s and 1’s. The simplest FSK is Binary FSK (BFSK). It uses a
pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information.

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

The simplest form of PSK is binary phase shift keying (BPSK). In this case, the carrier phase is
shifted between two different phases (typically 0° and 180°) depending on whether 0-bit or 1-bit
is being transmitted.

For example:
0- bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t)
1- bit: the symbol transmitted is Vc cos (2πfc t +180°) = − Vc cos(2πfc t)

Radio signal Transmission

From the fig.5 the wireless transmitter accepts four different binary streams of bits (00, 10, 11
and 01) from the application software. Further, these bits encoded on to a radio wave, known as
a carrier by adjusting its amplitude or phase. Transmitter operates in two stages. In the first
stage, quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) modulator accepts the incoming binary bits and
convert it to symbols that represents the amplitude and the phase. Then, the symbols are passed
over the analog transmitter, which generates the radio wave.

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 Fig.5 Wireless communication transmitter
QPSK modulator takes two bits at a time and transmits them using a radio wave. Four
different binary states have phases of 45o, 135o, 225o, and 315o as shown in the fig.6.

Fig.6 (a) QPSK representation (b) QPSK constellation diagram

The distance of each state from the origin represents the amplitude of the transmitted
wave, while angle measured anti-clockwise from x-axis represents the phase.
Each symbol is conveniently represented by two components: in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q).
I = a cos Φ (real part)
and Q = a sin Φ (imaginary part)

Note: Radio works by transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves. Radio signal uses specific radio
frequency AM is expressed in kilo Hertz, while FM radio is expressed in mega Hertz.

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 Multiple Access Techniques

Multiple access is a techniques to provide communication service to multiple users over a single channel. It
allows multiple mobile users share the allotted spectrum in the most effective manner.
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
Available frequency band is split into smaller frequency channels, and different channels are assigned to
different users. The carriers are separated by guard bands, which avoid the interference between the users.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
Various users can transmit at the same frequency band at different times. Every user is permitted to transmit only
in specific time slots using a common frequency band.
GSM uses a combination of both TDMA and FDMA techniques.LTE uses orthogonal FDMA techniques.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Mobiles receive signals on the same carrier frequency and at the same time. But the signals are labeled by the
use of codes, which allows a mobile to separate its own signal from the others.
CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built.

FDD and TDD Modes

Duplexing: Allows users to send information simultaneously to the base station, while receiving information
from the base station. The wireless telephony applies duplexing technique where talking and listening is
enabled at a time.
Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)- Base station and mobile will transmit and receive at the same time, but
using different carrier frequencies. FDD uses two separate frequency bands for every user. A sufficient guard
band needs to separate the transmitting and receiving channels, so they do not interfere with one another. FDD
is suitable for radio communication systems. It uses frequency for uplink and down link.

Down link: Base Station to mobile Uplink: Mobile to Base Station

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Time Division Duplexing (TDD)- Base station and mobile will transmit and receive on the same carrier
frequency but at different times. Time slots could be dynamically allocated separated by a guard band. A
guard period ensures that UL and DL transmissions do not collide. TDD is more suitable for fixed wireless
systems. It uses time for uplink and down link.

Review Questions

1. Describe the blocks of the basic communication system.

2. Define the following terms: i) Carrier communication system ii) Baseband communication system
with neat and suitable waveforms.
3. Define and explain SNR, Noise Figure, channel types.
4. What is modulation? Explain types of analog modulation with the help of waveforms.
5. With suitable waveforms explain digital modulation schemes.
6. Present the architecture of a wireless communication transmitter and its modulation scheme QPSK
with waveforms and constellation diagrams.
7. Discuss the transmission modes used in mobile communication system.
8. Discuss the various Multiple Access Techniques used in cellular network.
9. Briefly explain the concept of radio propagation methods.
10. Describe the classification of RF (Radio Frequency) spectrum with applications in communications
systems.
11. Explain different types of radio wave propagation with a neat diagram.
12. Explain the advantages of digital communication over analog communication
13. Explain the working of Transmitter section with a neat block diagram.
14. What is modulation? Write a note on different types of modulations and briefly describe each in detail
15. Explain the following with the help of waveforms
a) ASK b) FSK c) PSK
16. Consider the following binary data and sketch the ASK, FSK & PSK modulated waveforms.

17. Describe about Radio signal transmission and Multiple access techniques.

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Module – 5: Analog and Digital Communication BESCK204C