Physics for Engineers I
Lecture 6: Work and Energy
Gottlieb Uahengo Jr., Ph.D.
Work and Energy
• We have just studied translational motion in terms of Newton’s Laws
of Motion
• Where force plays a central role as the quantity, determining motion
• We shall now consider alternative analysis of translational motion in
terms of energy (chapter 6) and momentum (chapter 7).
• The significance of energy and momentum is that they are conserved
quantities.
• The existence of conserved quantities gives us another way to
approach and solve problems.
2
Work and Energy
• The laws of conservation of energy and momentum are particularly
useful when dealing with systems of many object (viz. many
particles), where a detailed considerations of all the forces is
intractable (difficult) or impossible.
• These laws also apply in the atomic and subatomic regimes, where
Newton’s laws are not sufficient (viz. breakdown).
3
Work Done by a Constant Force
• What is energy?
• Traditional description: “The ability to do work”
• In physics (work done):
“the product of the magnitude of the displacement, multiplied by the component
of the forces parallel to the displacement.”
4
Work Done by a Constant Force
• As an equation, we can express as follows:
𝑊 = 𝐹|| 𝑑
• Where;
⃗
𝐹|| is parallel component of force, 𝐹.
𝑑 is the displacement 𝑑⃗
5
Work Done by a Constant Force
• Alternatively,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
• Where;
𝐹 is the magnitude of the constant force
𝑑 is the magnitude of the displacement
𝜃 is angle between direction of force and displacement
6
Work Done by a Constant Force
• Work and energy are scalar quantities
• They have no direction, only magnitude, which can be positive or
negative
• The SI units for work is newton-meter (N*m)
• The name give to this unit is, the joule (J): 1 J = 1 N*m
• NB: A force can be exerted on an object and do absolutely no work at
all!
• Consider the example from dynamics, when the vertical component (𝐹" ) of an
applied force was less than the normal force (𝐹# ). The box’s displacement
remained zero. Refer to next slide…
7
Work Done by a Constant Force
• NB: A force can be exerted on an object and do no work at all!
• Consider the example from dynamics, when the vertical component (𝑭𝒚 ) of
an applied force was less than the normal force ( 𝑭𝑵 ). The box’s
displacement remained zero.
8
Thought Experiment
• A person is carrying a grocery bag and walks back to their car at a
constant velocity. Does this person do work on the grocery bag?
• The person exerts and upwards force (𝐹⃗& ) on the bag.
• 𝐹⃗& is perpendicular (𝜃 = 90°) to the displacement.
• Thus,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° = 0
NB: when a force is perpendicular to the displacement, no work is done by that force!
9
Work Done by a Constant Force
• As with forces, it is important to specify whether you are talking about
work done by the object or done on a specific object.
𝐹! = 𝑚𝑎 → 𝑊 = 𝐹! 𝑑
• It is also important to specify whether the work done is due to one
particular force (and which force) or the total (net) work done by the net
force on the object.
) 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 → 𝑊 = ) 𝐹 𝑑
10
Example 1
• A person pulls a 50-kg crate 40 m along a horizontal floor by a
constant force 𝐹" = 100 N, which acts at a 𝜃=37° angle as shown
below. The floor is rough and exerts a friction force, 𝐹#$ = 50 N.
• Determine the following;
(a) the work done by each force acting on the crate.
(b) the net work done on the crate.
11
Example 1: Solution
(a)
• Work done by gravitational and normal forces is zero! Why?
𝑊% = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° 𝑑 = 0
𝑊& = 𝐹& 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑 = 𝐹& cos 90° 𝑑 = 0
12
Example 1: Solution Cont.
(a)
• Work done by 𝐹' :
𝑊" = 𝐹' cos 𝜃 𝑥 = 100 𝑁 40 𝑚 cos 37° = 3200 J
• Work done by 𝐹#$ :
𝑊#$ = 𝐹#$ cos 𝜃 𝑥 = 50 𝑁 40 𝑚 cos 180° = −2000 J
13
Example 1: Solution Cont.
(b)
• (b) the net work done on the crate.
𝑊()* = 𝑊% + 𝑊" + 𝑊& + 𝑊#$
𝑊()* = 0 + 3200 J + 0 + (−2000 J)
𝑊()* = 1200 J
14
Example 1: Solution Cont.
(b)
• Alternatively, one can first calculate the net force:
𝑊()* = 𝐹⃗()* +
𝑥⃗ = 𝐹" cos 𝜃 − 𝐹#$ 𝑥
𝑊()* = 1200 J
15
Example 2
(a) Determine the work a hiker must do on a 15.0-kg backpack to carry
it up a hill of height h- 10.0m as shown in the figure.
(b) Determine the work done by gravity on the backpack.
(c) Determine the net work done on the backpack.
For simplicity, assume the motion is smooth and at constant velocity (i.e., acceleration is zero).
16
Example 2: Solution
(a)
• Apply Newton’s second law along the vertical.
C 𝐹, = 𝑚𝑎,
𝐹- − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝐹- = 𝑚𝑔 = 15.0 kg 9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 . = 147 𝑁
17
Example 2: Solution Cont.
(a)
• The work done by the hiker:
𝑊" = 𝐹" 𝑑 cos 𝜃
• The height can be represented as follows:
ℎ = 𝑑 cos 𝜃
• Thus,
𝑊" = 𝐹" 𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 𝐹" ℎ = 147 𝑁 ℎ = 10.0 m = 1470 J
18
Example 2: Solution Cont.
(b)
• The work done by gravity on the backpack:
𝑊# = 𝑚𝑔 𝑑 cos 180° − 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔(−𝑑 cos 𝜃)
cos(180 ° − 𝜃) = −cos 𝜃
𝑊# = 𝑚𝑔(−𝑑 cos 𝜃)
𝑊# = −𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑊# = − 15.0 kg 9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 $ 10.0 m
𝑊# = −1470 J
19
Example 2: Solution Cont.
(c)
• The net work done on the backpack is zero:
𝑊()* = 𝑊% + 𝑊-
𝑊()* = (−1470 J) + 1470 J
𝑊()* = 0
While the net force done by all the forces on the backpack is zero, the hiker does 1470 J. This is why he gets tired!
20
Kinetic Energy & the Work-Energy
Principle
• Energy is a central concept is science. Yet, a simple and general, and
concise description of the concept eludes us. Nonetheless, we can
describe each specific type of energy.
• Nonetheless, the most crucial aspect of energy is that the sum of all
types, the total energy, is conserved. That is to say, the total energy
before a process is the same after the process.
ENERGY IS CONSERVED!!!
21
Kinetic Energy
• The energy of motion is called kinetic energy.
• A moving object has the ability to do work, and thus, it has energy.
• This of the following:
• A traveling bullet striking you; does work on you!
• A flying cannonball hitting a brick wall; does work on the bricks!
• A moving hammer striking a nail; does work on the nail!
22
Kinetic Energy
Consider a car moving in a straight line with some initial speed 𝑣/ . To
uniformly accelerate the car to a speed 𝑣. , a constant net force 𝐹012 is
exerted on it parallel to its motion, over some displacement distance, 𝑑.
23
Kinetic Energy
• The net work done on the car is therefore;
𝑊!"# = 𝐹!"# 𝑑
• We can apply Newton’s 2nd law and the kinematic equations to re-express the work as follows:
𝐹!"# = 𝑚𝑎
𝑣 $ = 𝑣%$ + 2𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥% → 𝑣$$ = 𝑣&$ + 2𝑎𝑑
$ $
𝑣$ − 𝑣&
𝑣$$ = 𝑣&$ + 2𝑎𝑑 → 𝑎 =
2𝑑
• Where, 𝑣& = initial speed, 𝑣$ = final speed.
24
Kinetic Energy
𝑊%&' = 𝐹%&' 𝑑
𝑣$$ − 𝑣($
𝑊%&' =𝑚 𝑑
2𝑑
𝑣$$ − 𝑣($
𝑊%&' =𝑚
2
1 $
1
𝑊%&' = 𝑚𝑣$ − 𝑚𝑣($
2 2
Net work is equal equal to the difference between the energy of motion! 25
Kinetic Energy
• Thus, we can now quantitatively define “translational” kinetic energy
(KE) as follows:
• We name it “translational” kinetic energy to distinguish it from
“rotational” kinetic energy, which we’ll convert in the following
chapter.
• It is valid even for varying forces!
26
Work-Energy Principle
• We can re-write:
1 1
𝑊012 = 𝑚𝑣. − 𝑚𝑣/.
.
2 2
• As follows:
𝑊()* = 𝐾𝐸. − 𝐾𝐸/
OR
1 1
𝑊()* = Δ𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣. − 𝑚𝑣/.
.
2 2
27
Work-Energy Principle
• This known as the work-energy principle. Which states:
“The net work done on an object is equal to the change in the object’s
kinetic energy.”
This statement is valid only if the work done (W), is the net work done
on the object – by all the forces acting on the object!
28
Work-Energy Principle
• The work-energy principle is a useful reformulation of Newton’s laws.
“The work-energy principle is a very useful reformulation of Newton’s
laws. It tells us that if (positive) net work W is done on an object, the
object’s kinetic energy increases by an amount W. The principle also
holds true for the reverse situation: if the net work W done on an object
is negative, the object’s kinetic energy decreases by an amount W.”
29
Work-Energy Principle
• The translational kinetic energy is directly proportional to the mass of the
object, and it is also proportional to the square of the speed.
1
Δ𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 $
2
𝑣 = 2$
∴ 𝑣$ = 2 $ = 4
• Thus, if the mass is doubled, the kinetic energy is doubled.
• However, if the speed is doubled, the object has four times as much kinetic
energy and is therefore capable of doing four times as much work.
30
Hammer-Nail Example?
31
Potential Energy
• We have discussed how an object is said to have energy by virtue of
its motion, which we called “kinetic energy (KE).”
• An object can also have “potential energy (PE)”, which is the energy
associated with forces that depend on the position or configuration of
an object (or objects) relative to the surroundings.
• There are various types of potential energy, and each is associated
with a particular force.
32
Gravitational Potential Energy
• The most common example of potential energy is “gravitational
potential energy.”
• A brick held high above the ground has potential energy because of
its position relative to the Earth.
• The raised brick “has the ability to do work,” because if it is released,
it will fall to the ground due to the gravitational force. It can do work!
33
Gravitational Potential Energy
• To lift an object of mass 𝒎 vertically, you must exert an upwards force
that is at least equal to the weight (𝑚𝑔) of the object.
• If it is raised a vertical height, from 𝑦/ to 𝑦. , as shown int the figure,
then the work done is as follows:
𝑊)+* = 𝐹)+* 𝑑 cos 0°
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑊)+* = 𝑚𝑔(𝑦. − 𝑦/ )
34
Gravitational Potential Energy
• Gravity also does work on the object as it move from 𝑦/ to 𝑦.
𝑊% = 𝐹% 𝑑 cos 0°
𝑊% = 𝑚𝑔ℎ cos 180°
cos 180° = −1
𝑊% = −𝑚𝑔(𝑦. − 𝑦/ )
35
Gravitational Potential Energy
• If we now let the object fall, from rest (𝑣) = 0) at 𝑦$ , and fall freely under
the action of gravity, it acquires a velocity as follows:
𝑣 $ = 𝑣)$ − 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥) )
𝑣 $ = 𝑣)$ − 2𝑔 𝑦$ − 𝑦(
0
𝑣 $ = 𝑣)$ − 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣 $ = 𝑣)$ − 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣 $ = 2𝑔ℎ
36
Gravitational Potential Energy
• After falling a height of 𝒉 the object now has a kinetic energy of:
1 $
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚 2𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2 2
• The kinetic energy after it falls a height of 𝒉 = (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) is equal to the
work done to raise the object.
Thus, to raise an object of mass m to a height h requires an amount of work equal
to 𝒎𝒈𝒉. And once at height h, the object has the ability to do an amount of work
equal to 𝒎𝒈𝒉.
We can say that the work done in lifting the object has been stored as
gravitational potential energy. 37
Gravitational Potential Energy
• The gravitational potential of an object due to gravity on Earth is the
product of the object’s weight (𝑚𝑔), and its height (𝑦) above some
reference level (such as the ground):
• The higher an object is above the ground, the more gravitational
potential energy it possesses.
38
Gravitational Potential Energy
• The change in gravitational potential when an object is moved from
𝑦/ to 𝑦. is equal to the work done to by the net external force that
accomplishes this w/o acceleration.
𝑊)+* = 𝑚𝑔 𝑦. − 𝑦/
𝑊)+* = 𝑃𝐸. − 𝑃𝐸/ ⇒ Δ𝑃𝐸%
𝑊)+* = Δ𝑃𝐸%
39
Gravitational Potential Energy
• Equivalently, we can define the change in gravitational potential
energy, Δ𝑃𝐸% , in terms of the work done by gravity itself.
𝑊% = −𝑚𝑔(𝑦. − 𝑦/ )
𝑊% = − 𝑃𝐸. − 𝑃𝐸/ = −Δ𝑃𝐸%
−𝑊% = Δ𝑃𝐸%
40
Gravitational Potential Energy
• Gravitational potential energy depends on the vertical height of the
object from some reference level.
• In certain situation, you may wonder from what reference to
measure. Consider a book held high above a table;
• Do we measure from the table?
• Or do we measure from the floor?
• Or do we measure from some other reference level?
41
Gravitational Potential Energy
• What is physically important in any situation is the change in potential energy, Δ𝑃𝐸! ,
because that is what is related to the work done; and it is that can be measured.
−𝑊! = Δ𝑃𝐸!
OR
𝑊"#$ = Δ𝑃𝐸!
• Thus, you can choose to measure from any reference level that is convenient, but once
choose you must be consistent throughout.
• Changes in gravitational potential energy depend only on the change in vertical direction,
and not on the path taken (review class example 6-2).
42
Gravitational Potential Energy
• The potential energy belongs to the system, not to a single object
alone.
• To see this, realize that potential energy is associated with a force,
and a force on an object is always exerted by some other object
• Thus, it is a property of the system as a whole, and not the object.
• In the preceding example, of the object raised a height 𝒉 above, the
system is the object and the Earth.
43
Example 3
• A 1000-kg roller-coaster car move from Point 1-to-Point 2, and then
to Point 3.
44
Example 3
• A 1000-kg roller-coaster car move from Point 1-to-Point 2, and then
to Point 3.
a) What is the gravitational potential energy at point 2 and 3 relative
to point 1? This means, take 𝑦 = 0 at point 1.
b) What is the change in potential energy when the car goes from
point 2 to point 3?
c) Repeat parts (a) and (b), but this time take the reference point (𝑦 =
0) as point 3.
45
Example 3: Solution
(a)
• @ Point 2 (ℎ = 𝑦. = 10 𝑚):
𝑃𝐸. = 𝑚𝑔𝑦. = 1000 kg 9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 . 10 𝑚 = 9.8 ×103 J
• @ Point 3 (ℎ = 𝑦4 = −15 𝑚):
𝑃𝐸4 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦4 = 1000 kg 9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 . −15 𝑚 = −1.5 × 105 J
46
Example 3: Solution Cont.
(b)
• Thus, going from Point 2 to Point 3, the change in potential energy is:
𝑃𝐸4 − 𝑃𝐸. = (−1.5 × 105 J) − 9.8 ×103 J
Δ𝑃𝐸.4 = −2.5 × 105 J
The gravitational potential energy decreases by −2.5 × 105 𝐽
47
Example 3: Solution Cont.
(c)
• We simply set 𝑦3 = 0 @ Point 3.
• @ Point 1 (ℎ = 𝑦4 = 15 𝑚):
𝑃𝐸4 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦4 = 1000 kg 9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 5 15 𝑚 = 1.5 ×106 J
• @ Point 2 (ℎ = 𝑦5 = 25 𝑚):
𝑃𝐸5 = 𝑚𝑔𝑦5 = 1000 kg 9.8 𝑚⁄𝑠 5 25 𝑚 = 2.5 × 106 J
• @ Point 3 (ℎ = 𝑦3 = 0 𝑚): 𝑷𝑬𝟑 ⇒ 𝟎
48
Example 3: Solution Cont.
• The change in potential energy going from Point 2 to Point 3 is:
𝑃𝐸4 − 𝑃𝐸. = (0 J) − 2.5 ×105 J
Δ𝑃𝐸.4 = −2.5 × 105 J
The gravitational potential energy decreases by −2.5 × 105 𝐽
This is the same as in part (b)
49
Potential Energy
• There are other forms of potential energy besides gravitational.
• Elastic potential energy
• Chemical potential energy
• Electric potential energy
• Each from of potential energy is related to a force and can be defined
in a manner analogous to the gravitational potential energy.
50
Potential Energy
• In general;
The change in potential energy associated with a particular force is equal to the negative
of the work done by that force when the object is moved from one point to a second
point.
−𝑊% = Δ𝑃𝐸%
• Alternatively;
The work required of an external force to move the object without acceleration between
two points.
𝑊)+* = Δ𝑃𝐸% 51
Elastic Potential Energy
• Let’s consider elastic potential energy, which is the potential energy
associated with elastic materials.
• Consider a simple coil spring as shown below:
• The spring has potential energy when compressed (or stretched)
• When released, it can do work on a ball (as shown)
52
Elastic Potential Energy
• To compress (or stretch) a spring an amount 𝑥 from its natural
position, requires the hand to exert an external force (𝐹)+* ) on the
spring that is directly proportional to 𝑥.
𝐹)+* = 𝑘𝑥
Where; 𝑘 is a constant name the “spring stiffness constant” (or spring
constant).
53
Elastic Potential Energy
• A compressed (or stretched) spring exerts a force 𝐹6 in the opposite
direction on the hand as shown.
𝐹6 = −𝑘𝑥
54
Elastic Potential Energy
• A compressed (or stretched) spring exerts a force 𝐹6 in the opposite
direction on the hand as shown.
𝐹6 = −𝑘𝑥
• This force is called the “restoring force,” because it acts to restore the
spring to its natural length (viz. unstretched or compressed).
• This is Hooke’s law (or the spring equation)!
55
Elastic Potential Energy
• To obtain the work required to stretch the spring, we use the average
of the external force, 𝐹)+* .
1 1
𝐹W = 0 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥
2 2
Thus,
1 1 .
𝑊)+* W = 𝑘𝑥
= 𝐹𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥
2 2
56
Elastic Potential Energy
• Hence, the elastic potential energy (𝐏𝐄𝐞𝐥 ) , is proportional to the
square of the amount stretched.
57
Elastic Potential Energy
• Thus, if a spring is compressed by 𝑥 from its natural (“equilibrium”)
/
W
length, the average force has magnitude 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥, and its potential
.
energy is given by 𝑃𝐸)9 .
• 𝑥 could be the amount compressed or the amount stretched.
• The choose the “reference level” for zero PE as being the spring’s
natural position.
58
Stored Potential Energy
• From the preceding examples – like the brick held at a height of 𝑦 to
the stretched (or compressed) spring – you should have noted that an
object has the capacity or potential to do work, even though it is not
actually doing work.
• This should reveal that energy can be store – as potential energy – for
later use.
59
IMPORTANT!
• While there is a universal formula for translational kinetic energy
/
(𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 . ), there is no such equivalent for potential energy.
.
• Instead, the mathematical form (formula) of the potential energy
depends on the force involved.
60
Conservative & Non-conservative Forces
• The work done against gravity to move the backpack from one point to
another doesn’t depend on the path taken.
• It takes the same amount of work to lift the backpack vertically by a height
of h, as it takes to carry it up an inclined plane (of same height).
• Forces for which the work done is independent of the path taken are called
conservative forces.
• An object that starts at point A and return to point A under the action of a
conservative force, has no net work done on it, because the potential
energy is the same at point A
61
Conservative & Non-conservative Forces
62
Conservative & Non-conservative Forces
63
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
• In the absence of nonconservative forces, the work-energy principle
Δ𝐾𝐸 + Δ𝑃𝐸 = 0
(𝐾𝐸. − 𝐾𝐸/ ) + (PE. − PE/ ) = 0
• We can define the total mechanical energy (𝑬) of the system as the
sum of the kinetic and potential energy at any moment.
𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
64
Conservation of Mechanical Energy
• Thus,
Δ𝐾𝐸 + Δ𝑃𝐸 = 0
(𝐾𝐸. − 𝐾𝐸/ ) + (PE. − PE/ ) = 0
𝐸. + 𝐸/ = 0
Thus,
𝐸. = 𝐸/ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
65
66
67
68
Power
• Power is defined as the rate at which work is done.
• Thus, average power is equals the work done divided by the time to do it.
• Power can also be defined as the rate at which energy is transformed!
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝑃( average power = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
• Therefore, the power rate of an engine refers to how much energy (chemical or
electrical) can be transformed into mechanical energy per unit time.
• The SI units of power are
69
Power
• Power is measured in joules per second (J/s)
• The watt (W) is the special unit for power in the SI systems
1 W = 1J/s
• We are most familiar with the wattage of electrical devices, such as the
rate at which a lightbulb or heater converts electrical energy into light
energy (light) or thermal energy (heat)
• However, watts is used for other types of energy transformations as well.
Most notably, cars!
70
Power
• An engine’s power is usually specified in horsepower (hp) or kW
1 horsepower = 550 ft * lb⁄s = 746 W
• To distinguish between energy and power, consider the following:
A person is limited in the work s/he can do, not only by the total
energy required, but also by how fast this energy is transformed: this
is, by power.
71
Power
• You can climb my flights of stairs before having to stopping for a rest.
However, try running up the stairs. You’ll be exhausted by the 2nd or
3rd flight of stairs.
[TODO: image of a runner going up stairs]
• When running you are limited by power – the rate a which your body
can transform/convert chemical energy into mechanical energy.
72
Example [X-X]
• A 60-kg jogger runs up a long flight of stairs in 4.0 s. The vertical
height of the stairs is 4.5 m.
(a) Estimate the jogger’s power output in watts and horsepower.
(b) How much energy did this require?
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Example [X-X]
• A 60-kg jogger runs up a long flight of stairs in 4.0 s. The vertical
height of the stairs is 4.5 m.
(a) Estimate the jogger’s power output in watts and horsepower.
(b) How much energy did this require?
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• Work in progress…
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The End.
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JEDS Campus
School of Engineering and The Built Environment
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