EEE-2213

Digital Electronics I
EEE-2213 Lectures: 3 hours/week
Digital Electronics I Credits: 3
Analysis and Synthesis of Digital Logic Circuits: Number system,
codes, and conversion. Boolean algebra, De Morgan’s law, logic
gates and truth tables, combinational logic design, minimization
techniques, implementation of basic static logic gates in CMOS
and BiCMOS. Arithmetic and data handling logic circuits,
decoders and encoders, multiplexers and combinational circuit
design.
Programmable Logic Devices: Logic arrays, Field Programmable
Logic Arrays and Programmable Read Only Memory.
Sequential Circuits: Different types of latches, flip-flops and their
design using ASM approach, timing analysis, timing analysis and
power optimization of sequential circuits. Modular sequential
EEE-2212 Digital Electronics I (Sessional) Contact hour: 3/2
logic circuit
hours/week
design: Shift registers, counters and their
applications.
Sessional based on EEE-2214 Credits: 0.75
Ref. Book: 1. Digital Logic and Computer Design By Morris
Mano
2. Digital Logic Design By Tocci
 Outline of Chapter 1

1.1 Digital Systems

1.2 Binary Numbers
1.3 Number-base Conversions
1.4 Octal and Hexadecimal Numbers
1.5 Complements
1.6 Signed Binary Numbers
1.7 Binary Codes
1.8 Binary Storage and Registers
1.9 Binary Logic
 Digital Systems and Binary Numbers

Digital Systems
◆ Signals represented by discrete values
◆ Practically always binary
◆ Analog signals are approximated (A/D conversion)
◆ Almost everything is digital nowadays.
Digital computers
◆ General purposes
◆ Many scientific, industrial and commercial applications
Applications
◆ Telephone switching exchanges
◆ Digital camera
◆ Electronic calculators,
◆ Digital TV
 Analog and Digital Signal

Analog system
◆ The physical quantities or signals may vary continuously over
a specified range.
Digital system
◆ The physical quantities or signals can assume only discrete
values.
◆ Greater accuracy
X(t X(t
) )

t t
Analog Digital
 Binary Digital Signal
An information variable represented by physical
quantity.
For digital systems, the variable takes on discrete
values.
◆ Two level, or binary values are the most prevalent values.
Binary values are represented abstractly by:
V(t
◆ Digits 0 and 1
)
◆ Words (symbols) False (F) and True (T)
◆ Words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H) Logic
◆ And words On and Off 1
undefi
Binary values are represented by values ne
or ranges of values of physical quantities. Logic
Why Digital 0 t
◆ Digital circuits are inexpensive Binary digital
signal
◆ Easy to reduce noise
 Decimal Number System
Base (also called radix) = 10
◆ 10 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }
Digit Position
◆ Integer & fraction 2 1 0 -1 -2
Digit Weight 5 1 2 7 4
◆ Weight = (Base) Position
Magnitude 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
◆ Sum of “Digit x Weight”
Formal Notation
500 10 2 0.7 0.04

d2*B2+ d1*B1+ d0*B0+ d-1*B-1+ d-2*B-2

(512.74)10
 Octal Number System
Base = 8
◆ 8 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 }
Weights
◆ Weight = (Base) Position 64 8 1 1/8 1/64
Magnitude 5 1 2 7 4
◆ Sum of “Digit x Weight”
2 1 0 -1 -2
Formal Notation
5 *8 2+1 *8 1+2 *8 0+7 *8 -1+4 *8 -2
=(330.9375)10

(512.74)8
 Binary Number System
Base = 2
◆ 2 digits { 0, 1 }, called binary digits or “bits”
Weights
◆ Weight = (Base) Position 4 2 1 1/2 1/4

Magnitude 1 0 1 0 1
◆ Sum of “Bit x Weight”
2 1 0 -1 -2
Formal Notation
1 *2 2+0 *2 1+1 *2 0+0 *2 -1+1 *2 -2
Groups of bits 4 bits = Nibble
=(5.25)10
8 bits = Byte
(101.01)2
1011

11000101
 Hexadecimal Number System
Base = 16
◆ 16 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F }
Weights
◆ Weight = (Base) Position 256 16 1 1/16 1/256

Magnitude 1 E 5 7 A
◆ Sum of “Digit x Weight”
2 1 0 -1 -2
Formal Notation
1 *16 2+14 *16 1+5 *16 0+7 *16 -1+10 *16 -2
=(485.4765625)10

(1E5.7A)16
 The Power of 2

n 2n n 2n
0 20=1 8 28=256
1 21=2 9 29=512
2 22=4 10 210=1024 Kil
o
3 23=8 11 211=2048
4 24=16 12 212=4096
5 25=32 20 220=1M Meg
a
6 26=64 30 230=1G Gig
a
7 27=128 40 240=1T Tera
 Addition

Decimal Addition

1 1 Carry
5 5
+ 5 5

1 1 0
= Ten ≥ Base
Subtract a
Base
 Binary Addition

Column Addition

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 = 61
+ 1 0 1 1 1 = 23

1 0 1 0 1 0 0 = 84

≥ (2)10
 Binary Subtraction

Borrow a “Base” when needed

1 2 = (10)2
0 2 2 0 0 2
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 = 77
− 1 0 1 1 1 = 23

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 = 54
 Binary Multiplication

Bit by bit

1 0 1 1 1
x 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1

1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Number Base Conversions
Evaluate
Magnitude
Octal
(Base 8)

Evaluate
Magnitude
Decimal Binary
(Base 10) (Base 2)

Hexadeci
mal
(Base 16)
Evaluate
Magnitude
Decimal (Integer) to Binary Conversion

Divide the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)

Take the remainder (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
Take the quotient and repeat the division

Example:
(13)10 Quotie Remaind Coefficie
nt er nt
1 /2= 1 a0 =
3 /62 = 0
1 a1 =
6 /32 = 1
0 a2 =
3 /12 = 1 a3 =
1 0
Answer: (13)10 =1(a 3 a 2 a 1 a 0)2 = (1101)2

MSB LSB
Decimal (Fraction) to Binary Conversion

Multiply the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)

Take the integer (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
Take the resultant fraction and repeat the division

Example:
(0.625)10 Integ Fractio Coefficie
er n nt
0.62 *2= 1 . a-1 =
0.2
5 *
252 = 0 . 5 1a-2 =
0.
5 *
02= 1 . 0 a-3 =
5 1
Answer: (0.625)10 = (0.a -1 a -2 a -3)2 = (0.101)2

MSB LSB
 Decimal to Octal Conversion
Example:
(175)10 Quotie Remaind Coefficie
nt er nt
17 /8= 7 a0 =
5 /218= 5
7 a1 =
21 /28 = 2
5 a2 =
2 0 2
Answer: (175)10 = (a 2 a 1 a 0)8 = (257)8

Example:
(0.3125)10 Integ Fractio Coefficie
er n nt
0.3125 * 8 = 2 . a-1 =
0. *5 8 = 4 . 0 2a-2 =
5 4
Answer: (0.3125)10 = (0.a -1 a -2 a -3)8 = (0.24)8
 Binary − Octal Conversion
Octal Binary
8 = 23
Each group of 3 bits represents 0 000
an octal digit 1 001
2 010
Assume Zeros
Exampl 3 011
e:
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 4 100

5 101

6 110
( 2 6 . 2 )8 7 111

Works both ways (Binary to Octal & Octal to

Binary)
 Binary − Hexadecimal Conversion
Hex Binary
4
16 = 2 0 0000
1 0001
Each group of 4 bits represents a 2 0010
hexadecimal digit 3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
Assume Zeros 6 0110
Exampl 7 0111
e: 8 1000
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
(1 6 . 4 )16 E 1110
F 1111

Works both ways (Binary to Hex & Hex to

Binary)
 Octal − Hexadecimal Conversion
Convert to Binary as an intermediate step
Exampl
e:
( 2 6 . 2 )8

Assume Zeros Assume Zeros

( 0 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 )2

(1 6 . 4 )16

Works both ways (Octal to Hex & Hex to

Octal)
Decimal, Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal
Decimal Binary Octal Hex
00 0000 00 0
01 0001 01 1
02 0010 02 2
03 0011 03 3
04 0100 04 4
05 0101 05 5
06 0110 06 6
07 0111 07 7
08 1000 10 8
09 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
 1.5 Complements
There are two types of complements for each base-r system: the radix
complement and diminished radix complement.
Diminished Radix Complement - (r-1)’s Complement
◆ Given a number N in base r having n digits, the (r–1)’s
complement of N is defined as:
(rn –1) – N
Example for 6-digit decimal numbers:
◆ 9’s complement is (rn – 1)–N = (106–1)–N = 999999–N
◆ 9’s complement of 546700 is 999999–546700 = 453299
Example for 7-digit binary numbers:
◆ 1’s complement is (rn – 1) – N = (27–1)–N = 1111111–N
◆ 1’s complement of 1011000 is 1111111–1011000 = 0100111
Observation:
◆ Subtraction from (rn – 1) will never require a borrow
◆ Diminished radix complement can be computed digit-by-digit
◆ For binary: 1 – 0 = 1 and 1 – 1 = 0
 Complements
1’s Complement (Diminished Radix Complement)
◆ All ‘0’s become ‘1’s
◆ All ‘1’s become ‘0’s
Example (10110000)2
⇨ (01001111)2
If you add a number and its 1’s complement …

10110000
+ 01001111
11111111
 Complements

Radix Complement

The r's complement of an n-digit number N in base r is

defined as
rn – N for N ≠ 0 and as 0 for N = 0. Comparing with the (r −
1) 's complement, we note that the r's complement is
obtained by adding 1 to the (r − 1) 's complement, since rn
Example: Base-10
– N = [(rn − 1) – N] + 1.
The 10's complement of 012398 is
987602
The 10's complement of 246700 is
753300
Example: Base-2
The 2's complement of 1101100 is
0010100
The 2's complement of 0110111 is
1001001
 Complements
2’s Complement (Radix Complement)
◆ Take 1’s complement then add 1
◆ Toggle all bits to the left of the first ‘1’ from the right
OR
Example:
Number:
1’s Comp.:
10110000 10110000
01001111
+ 1

01010000 01 010000
 Complements

Subtraction with Complements

◆ The subtraction of two n-digit unsigned numbers M – N in base r can be done as
follows:
 Complements

Example 1.5
◆ Using 10's complement, subtract 72532 – 3250.

Example 1.6
◆ Using 10's complement, subtract 3250 – 72532.

There is no end
carry.

Therefore, the answer is – (10's complement of 30718) =

− 69282.
 Complements

Example 1.7
◆ Given the two binary numbers X = 1010100 and Y = 1000011, perform the subtraction
(a) X – Y ; and (b) Y − X, by using 2's complement.

There is no end carry.

Therefore, the answer
is Y – X = − (2's
complement of
1101111) = − 0010001.
 Complements

Subtraction of unsigned numbers can also be done by means of

the (r − 1)'s complement. Remember that the (r − 1) 's complement
is one less then the r's complement.
Example 1.8
◆ Repeat Example 1.7, but this time using 1's complement.

There is no end carry,

Therefore, the answer is
Y – X = − (1's
complement of 1101110)
= − 0010001.
 1.6 Signed Binary Numbers

To represent negative integers, we need a notation for negative values.

It is customary to represent the sign with a bit placed in the leftmost
position of the number since binary digits.
The convention is to make the sign bit 0 for positive and 1 for negative.
Example:

Table 1.3 lists all possible four-bit signed binary numbers in the three
representations.
Signed Binary Numbers
 Signed Binary Numbers
Arithmetic addition
◆ The addition of two numbers in the signed-magnitude system follows the rules of ordinary
arithmetic. If the signs are the same, we add the two magnitudes and give the sum the
common sign. If the signs are different, we subtract the smaller magnitude from the larger
and give the difference the sign if the larger magnitude.
◆ The addition of two signed binary numbers with negative numbers represented in signed-2's-
complement form is obtained from the addition of the two numbers, including their sign bits.
◆ A carry out of the sign-bit position is discarded.
Example:
 Signed Binary Numbers

Arithmetic Subtraction
◆ In 2’s-complement form:
1. Take the 2’s complement of the subtrahend (including
the sign bit) and add it to the minuend (including sign
bit).
2. A carry out of sign-bit position is discarded.

Example:

(− 6) − (− (11111010 −
13) 11110011)
(11111010 +
00001101)
00000111 (+
7)
 1.7 Binary Codes

BCD Code
◆ A number with k decimal digits
will require 4k bits in BCD.
◆ Decimal 396 is represented in
BCD with 12bits as 0011 1001
0110, with each group of 4 bits
representing one decimal digit.
◆ A decimal number in BCD is
the same as its equivalent
binary number only when the
number is between 0 and 9.
◆ The binary combinations 1010
through 1111 are not used and
have no meaning in BCD.
 Binary Code

Example:
◆ Consider decimal 185 and its corresponding value in BCD and binary:

BCD addition
 Binary Code

Example:
◆ Consider the addition of 184 + 576 = 760 in BCD:

Decimal Arithmetic: (+375) + (-240) = +135

Hint 6: using 10’s of BCD

 Binary Codes

Other Decimal Codes

 Binary Codes)

Gray Code
◆ The advantage is that only bit
in the code group changes in
going from one number to
the next.
» Error detection.
» Representation of analog
data.
00 00
» Low
0 power design. 1

01 01
0 10 1 10
0 1

11 11
0 1
1-1 and onto!!
 Binary Codes
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) Character Code
 Binary Codes

ASCII Character Code

 ASCII Character Codes

American Standard Code for Information Interchange (Refer to Table 1.7)

A popular code used to represent information sent as character-based
data.
It uses 7-bits to represent:
◆ 94 Graphic printing characters.
◆ 34 Non-printing characters.
Some non-printing characters are used for text format (e.g. BS = Backspace,
CR = carriage return).
Other non-printing characters are used for record marking and flow
control (e.g. STX and ETX start and end text areas).
 ASCII Properties

ASCII has some interesting properties:

◆ Digits 0 to 9 span Hexadecimal values 3016 to 3916
◆ Upper case A-Z span 4116 to 5A16
◆ Lower case a-z span 6116 to 7A16
» Lower to upper case translation (and vice versa) occurs by flipping bit 6.
 Binary Codes

Error-Detecting Code
◆ To detect errors in data communication and processing, an eighth bit is sometimes
added to the ASCII character to indicate its parity.
◆ A parity bit is an extra bit included with a message to make the total number of 1's
either even or odd.
Example:
◆ Consider the following two characters and their even and odd parity:
 1.8 Binary Storage and Registers
Registers
◆ A binary cell is a device that possesses two stable states and is capable of storing one of the two
states.
◆ A register is a group of binary cells. A register with n cells can store any discrete quantity of
information that contains n bits.

n cells 2n possible states

A binary cell
◆ Two stable state
◆ Store one bit of information
◆ Examples: flip-flop circuits, capacitor
A register
◆ A group of binary cells
◆ AX in x86 CPU
Register Transfer
◆ A transfer of the information stored in one register to another.
◆ One of the major operations in digital system.
◆ An example in next slides.
 A Digital Computer Example

Memory

Control
CPU unit Registers

Inputs: Outputs: CRT,

Keyboard, LCD, modem,
mouse, modem, Input/Output speakers
microphone
 Transfer of information

Figure 1.1 Transfer of information among

 Transfer of information

The other major

component of a digital
system
◆ Circuit elements to
manipulate individual
bits of information
◆ Load-store machine
LD R1;
LD R2;
ADD R2, R1;
SD R3;

Figure 1.2 Example of binary information

 1.9 Binary Logic
Definition of Binary Logic
◆ Binary logic consists of binary variables and a set of logical operations.
◆ The variables are designated by letters of the alphabet, such as A, B, C, x, y, z, etc, with each
variable having two and only two distinct possible values: 1 and 0,
◆ Three basic logical operations: AND, OR, and NOT.
 Binary Logic
Truth Tables, Boolean Expressions, and Logic Gates

AND OR NOT
x y z x y z x z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

z=x•y=xy z=x+y z = x = x’
 Switching Circuits

AND OR
 Binary Logic

Logic gates
◆ Example of binary signals

3
Logic 1
2
Un-define
1
Logic 0
0

Figure 1.3 Example of binary

 Binary Logic

Logic gates
◆ Graphic Symbols and Input-Output Signals for Logic gates:

Fig. 1.4 Symbols for digital logic

circuits

Fig. 1.5 Input-Output signals for

 Binary Logic

Logic gates
◆ Graphic Symbols and Input-Output Signals for Logic gates:

Fig. 1.6 Gates with multiple

inputs