Operating system

(Client OS)

An operating system or OS is software installed on a

computer's hard drive that enables the computer hardware to
communicate and operate with the computer software. Without a
computer operating system, a computer and software programs
would be useless. The picture shows Microsoft Windows XP in its
original packaging.
With earlier computers, the user interacted with them using a
command line interface, which required memorization of
commands. Today, almost every computer uses a GUI (Graphical
User Interface) operating system that's easy to use and operate. 1

Tip

Some people may refer to an OS as "operating software."

Although this is a valid term, it is more appropriate to refer to this
software as an "operating system."

What are the functions of an

operating system?
There are many different functions and tasks an operating system
performs on a computer; these include the following.

● Manage all of the computer hardware inside your computer

and all of the connected peripherals. In some situations, the
OS may need the assistance from additional device drivers.
● Manage all of the software and communication between
software programs installed on the computer.
● Handle all of the data generated by the software.

1 https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/o/os.htm
Examples of computer
operating systems
Below is a list of examples of different computer operating
systems over the evolution of computers.

Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows is the most common and used operating

system on computers today, with Microsoft Windows 10 being the
most recently released Windows version. The operating system is
used PC and IBM-compatible computers.

Here's a brief overview of some major versions of the Microsoft

Windows operating system:

Windows 1.0 (1985): The initial release of

the Windows operating system, featuring a
graphical user interface (GUI) for IBM-
compatible PCs.
Windows 3.0 / 3.1 (1990 / 1992): Significant
updates over Windows 1.0 with better
performance, improved UI, and support for
more applications.

Windows 95 (1995): A major milestone,

introducing the Start menu, taskbar, and
long file names. It was a significant shift
towards 32-bit computing.

Windows 98 (1998): Building upon

Windows 95, it improved stability and
added features like USB support and
Internet Explorer 4.0.

Windows ME (Millennium Edition)

(2000): Aimed at home users, it
included features like Windows Movie
Maker but was criticized for its
instability.
Windows 2000 (2000): Aimed at businesses, it brought
enhanced stability, security, and support for modern hardware.

Windows XP (2001): One of the

most popular versions, it merged
the consumer-oriented features of
Windows 9x with the stability of
Windows 2000.

Windows Vista (2007):

Introduced a new visual style
called Aero, improved
security features, and better
search capabilities.
Windows 7 (2009): Addressed many of the criticisms of
Windows Vista, with improved performance, reliability, and a
more polished interface.

Windows 8 / 8.1 (2012 /

2013): Introduced a new
interface optimized for
touchscreens and tablets,
alongside traditional desktop
usage, but received mixed
reviews.

Windows 10 (2015): A major

release with a focus on unifying the
Windows experience across
different devices. It introduced
features like Cortana, the Edge
browser, and the return of the Start
menu.

Windows 11 (2021): The

latest major release,
featuring a redesigned Start menu, centered taskbar, improved
gaming capabilities, and a new snap layout feature for
multitasking.

These are some of the major versions, and there have been
numerous updates, service packs, and iterations within each
version, each bringing improvements, new features, and security
enhancements.

Apple macOS
With Apple computers, macOS is the primary operating system
used with Apple desktop and laptop computers.

Apple's macOS is the operating system used on Macintosh

computers, developed by Apple Inc.

Here's an overview of its evolution:

1. Mac OS Classic (1984-2001): The original operating

system for Macintosh computers. It went through several
iterations, with Mac OS 9 being the final release of the
"classic" Mac OS.
2. Mac OS X (2001-2012): This marked a significant shift in
the macOS architecture. Mac OS X was built on a Unix-based
foundation called Darwin, with a new user interface called
Aqua. It went through several major updates:

● Mac OS X 10.0 (Cheetah): The initial release.

● Mac OS X 10.1 (Puma): Introduced significant
performance improvements and features.
● Mac OS X 10.2 (Jaguar): Introduced Quartz Extreme and
enhanced support for Windows networking.
 ● Mac OS X 10.3 (Panther): Introduced Exposé, FileVault,
and improved performance.
● Mac OS X 10.4 (Tiger): Introduced Spotlight search,
Dashboard, and improved support for 64-bit
applications.
● Mac OS X 10.5 (Leopard): Introduced Time Machine,
Boot Camp, and Spaces.
● Mac OS X 10.6 (Snow Leopard): Focused on
performance and efficiency improvements.
● Mac OS X 10.7 (Lion): Introduced Launchpad, Mission
Control, and support for the Mac App Store.

3. OS X (2012-2016): Apple dropped the "Mac" prefix from

the operating system's name starting with OS X to align with
their other products like iOS. This era saw several releases:

● OS X 10.8 (Mountain Lion): Introduced iCloud

integration, iMessage, and Notification Center.
● OS X 10.9 (Mavericks): Introduced Finder Tabs, Tags,
and improvements to multiple displays.
● OS X 10.10 (Yosemite): Introduced a flat design
language, Continuity features, and Handoff.
● OS X 10.11 (El Capitan): Focused on performance
improvements and user experience refinements.

4. macOS (2016-present): Apple rebranded OS X to macOS

in 2016. Since then, there have been several releases:

● macOS 10.12 (Sierra): Introduced Siri integration, Auto

Unlock, and Universal Clipboard.
 ● macOS 10.13 (High Sierra): Focused on under-the-hood
improvements and support for new technologies like
APFS.
● macOS 10.14 (Mojave): Introduced Dark Mode, Stacks,
and redesigned Mac App Store.
● macOS 10.15 (Catalina): Introduced Sidecar, Screen
Time, and the breakup of iTunes into separate apps.
● macOS 11 (Big Sur): Introduced a major visual
overhaul, support for Apple Silicon (M1) Macs, and
enhancements to Messages and Maps.

Each version of macOS brings new features, performance

improvements, security enhancements, and compatibility updates
to the Mac platform.

Linux
Linux is a free and open source operating system used with PC
and IBM compatible computers. Because the operating system is
open source, it is used to create many variants of Linux, including
Ubuntu, Debian, Red Hat, and Slackware. See our Linux page for a
full listing of variants listed on our site with further information
about the operating system.

Linux is a Unix-like operating system kernel created by Linus

Torvalds in 1991. It is open-source and free to use, meaning
anyone can modify and distribute it under the terms of the GNU
General Public License (GPL). While Linux itself is just a kernel,
the term "Linux" is commonly used to refer to entire operating
systems built around the Linux kernel, often called Linux
distributions or distros.

Here are some key points about Linux:

1. Open Source: One of Linux's defining features is its open-

source nature. This means that the source code of the kernel
 and most software components is freely available to the
public, allowing users to modify, distribute, and improve it
according to their needs.
2. Variety of Distributions: There are hundreds of Linux
distributions, each with its own goals, target audience, and
package management system. Some popular distributions
include Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, CentOS, and Arch Linux.
3. Modularity and Customization: Linux offers a high degree
of modularity and customization. Users can choose different
desktop environments, window managers, and software
packages to tailor their Linux experience to their
preferences.
4. Stability and Reliability: Linux is known for its stability
and reliability, making it a popular choice for servers,
embedded systems, and mission-critical applications.
5. Security: Linux is inherently secure due to its Unix-like
architecture and the strong emphasis on security by the
open-source community. Additionally, Linux distributions
typically receive regular security updates to patch
vulnerabilities.
6. Command Line Interface (CLI): Linux provides a powerful
command-line interface (CLI) that allows users to perform a
wide range of tasks efficiently. This is favored by many
power users and system administrators for its flexibility and
automation capabilities.
7. Community Support: The Linux community is vast and
active, providing support through forums, mailing lists, IRC
channels, and online documentation. This strong community
support is one of Linux's greatest strengths.
8. Versatility: Linux can run on a wide range of hardware
architectures, from small embedded devices to
supercomputers. It is also used in various devices such as
smartphones (Android is based on the Linux kernel), routers,
smart TVs, and more.
Overall, Linux offers a powerful, flexible, and cost-effective
alternative to proprietary operating systems like Windows and
macOS. Its open-source nature and community-driven
development model have contributed to its widespread adoption
and success in various domains.

Chromium / Chrome OS

Chrome OS is an operating system used with Google

Chromebooks.

Chrome OS is a Linux-based operating system developed by

Google, designed primarily for devices such as Chromebooks,
Chromeboxes, and Chromebases. Here are some key features and
aspects of Chrome OS:

● Cloud-Centric Approach: Chrome OS is heavily centered

around cloud computing. It encourages users to store their
data and applications in the cloud, primarily through
Google's suite of web applications like Google Drive, Docs,
Sheets, and Gmail.
● Chrome Browser Integration: The Chrome web browser
serves as the primary interface for Chrome OS. Users
primarily interact with web-based applications and services,
which are accessed through the browser.
● Security: Chrome OS is known for its robust security
features. It utilizes a sandboxed architecture that isolates
web applications from the underlying operating system,
reducing the risk of malware infections and unauthorized
access. Additionally, Chrome OS receives regular automatic
updates, ensuring that devices are always running the latest
security patches.
● Fast Boot Times: Chrome OS boasts fast boot times,
allowing devices to boot up quickly and be ready for use
within seconds. This is achieved through optimizations in the
operating system's design.
● Simple Interface: The user interface of Chrome OS is
minimalist and straightforward. It features a taskbar-like
shelf at the bottom of the screen for accessing applications,
a system tray for notifications and settings, and a launcher
for searching and launching applications.
● Chrome Web Store: Chrome OS users can access the
Chrome Web Store to discover and install web applications,
extensions, and themes that enhance their browsing
experience and productivity.
● Support for Android Apps: In recent years, Google has
integrated support for running Android applications on
Chrome OS devices. This significantly expands the range of
available applications, allowing users to access popular
mobile apps directly on their Chromebooks.
● Enterprise and Education Deployment: Chrome OS has
gained popularity in the education and enterprise sectors
due to its ease of management, security features, and cost-
effectiveness. Google provides management tools like
Google Admin Console for centrally managing fleets of
Chrome OS devices.
● Offline Functionality: While Chrome OS is heavily cloud-
centric, it also offers some offline capabilities for certain
applications, such as Google Docs, allowing users to work
without an internet connection. However, the full
functionality of Chrome OS is best experienced with an
internet connection.
Overall, Chrome OS provides a lightweight, secure, and user-
friendly computing experience tailored primarily for users who
spend most of their time on the web and cloud-based
applications.

Mobile operating systems

Alternatively known as a handheld operating system, a
mobile operating system is used with mobile devices like
smartphones and tablets.

Mobile operating system is the software platform which a mobile

device can run and allows the user to perform various tasks.
Operating system allows applications to run on mobile devices
and is responsible for its functionality. It performs varied tasks
such as email, texting, browsing etc. It also checks whether an
application is supported by device or not and provides a
consistent interface to the user.

A mobile operating system operates on a smartphone, tablet, PDA

or other type of mobile devices. There are many mobile operating
systems available in the market – commonly used operating
systems found on smart phones include Symbian OS, iPhone OS,
RIM’s BlackBerry, Windows Mobile, Palm WebOS, Android, and
Maemo.

Android OS
Android is an operating system used with smartphones and
tablets. Today, Android is the most popular operating system
worldwide because of how many smartphones use a variant of the
Android operating system.

It is developed by Google and is one of the most popular

operating systems today. It is a mobile OS based on the Linux
kernel and open-source software. The very first Android device
was launched in 2008. It is built in Java programming language. It
uses Linux for its device drivers, memory management, process
management, and networking. It supports a wide variety of
connectivity such as GSM, Wi-Fi, 3G, 4G etc.

Apple iOS/iPhone OS/iOS

The Apple iOS operating system used is the operating system

used with the Apple iPhone and iPads.
It was developed by Apple Inc. and originally released in 2007
for iPhone and iPod touch. It is based on the Mach kernel. Mac OS
X has a primitive multitasking environment. It supports real time
behavior and a very secure operating system.

Other mobile operating systems

Other embedded and mobile operating systems include the
BlackBerry OS, Embedded Linux, Palm OS, Symbian OS, Windows
Embedded, and Windows Phone.

Symbian OS

It was developed by Symbian Ltd in June 1998 and in June

2008 it was acquired by Nokia. It runs on ARM processors
exclusively. It is a 32-bit OS. The native language of Symbian OS
is C++. It is a multitasking operating system and very less
dependency on peripherals. It supports audio, video recording,
playback and streaming and image conversion features.

Bada (Samsung Electronics)

It was launched in 2010 and it’s developed by Samsung. The first

mobile which used Bada was Samsung wave and it offers many
mobile features such as 3-D graphics, application installation, and
multipoint-touch.

Blackberry OS

It is a proprietary operating system and it is developed by

Research in Motion (RIM) for their Blackberry handhelds. It
supports multitasking. Its operating system is designed for use
with input devices like track wheel, track ball and track pad. It is
programmed in C++ language. It has strong security controls. It is
useful especially for corporate users as it can sync with Microsoft
Exchange, Novell Groupwise mail, Lotus Dominos and other
business software when integrated with the Blackberry enterprise
server.

Windows Phone OS

WP is a series of proprietary and closed source mobile operating

system developed by Microsoft. It is designed for mobile devices
and based on Windows 32-bit. It runs on pocket PCs, Smartphones
and portable media centres. It provides ultimate interoperability.

Harmony OS

It is the latest mobile operating system which is developed by

Huawei for use of its devices. It is primarily designed for IoT
devices.

Palm OS

It is developed by Palm ltd for use on personal digital assistants

(PDAs) it was introduced in 1966 and also known as Garner OS.

WebOS (Palm/HP)

The WebOS is developed by Palm. It is based on the Linux kernel

and HP uses this operating system in its mobile and touch pad
devices.

Operating Systems
(Server OS)
In this era, computers are used for many fields and each of them
has different requirements. As we are now dealing with a massive
amount of data, it creates the need for supercomputing. This
leads to the creation of a server operating system. Here is the
basic information one should know about the Server Operating
System.

What is a Server Operating System?

Server Operating System also known as Server OS is a special
type of Operating system designed to work on server computers.
They are created or coded based on the functions of the server.
To understand further you should know what a server is.
What is a Server?
In simple terms, a Server is a large or supercomputer that serves
other computers. They are supercomputers with large resources
like storage, processors, etc…

Key features of Server Operating System

Here is the main features server operating system

● It has a large number of resources that can run or execute

all OS commands and processes.
● It manages and monitors client’s computers and operating
systems.
● Act as a central interface for many computers and different
operations
● Ability to access server both GUI and command-level
interface.
● Higher security on resources and data and large storage
management.
● Advanced backup capability and other innovations.
● Applications of modern machine learning and Artificial
Intelligence.

Server Operating System vs Desktop

Operating System
Desktop OS
It is prime software of a computer that manages the computer
hardware resources and runs the programs and data stored in the
computer. No program can run in the system without the Desktop
OS unless it’s self boosting.

● The resources are limited and it can handle only small

functions.
● Numbers of users are limited due to insufficient resources.
● It is obtained service from the server
● It is a very simple operating system
● Less stable and efficient

Server OS

It is a large computer with many advanced features and

hardware. The resources are unlimited as a new server plant
(hardware set) can be added if needed. The server OS is the
prime software that manages the whole server resources. And
allocate them as per the request from the Clients (Desktop OS).

● It can be managed by different users and has better security.

● More stable, efficient, and processing power
● It is a complex Operating system
● It can serve multiple clients at the same time.
Types of Server Operating Systems
There are different types of server operating systems based on
the kind and functions of the server. Here are the common types
of server operating systems.

UNIX Operating System

 It was originally a time-
sharing operating
system for personal and
small computers but
eventually, it became
one of the best server
operating systems for
client-server business. It
is focused on the multi-
user environment and
currently, more than 90 % of the service sites use the UNIX
Operating system.

UNIX is not a single operating system but rather a family of

operating systems that share similar characteristics and are
based on the original UNIX operating system developed at Bell
Labs in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Here are some notable
UNIX-based server operating systems:

Unix-like Systems:

● BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution): A Unix-like

operating system derived from the original Unix developed
at the University of California, Berkeley. Variants of BSD
include FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD. These operating
systems are known for their stability, security, and advanced
networking capabilities.
● Solaris: Developed by Sun Microsystems (acquired by
Oracle Corporation in 2010), Solaris is a Unix-based
operating system known for its scalability, reliability, and
performance. It is widely used in enterprise environments,
particularly for mission-critical applications and high-
performance computing.
 ● IBM AIX (Advanced Interactive eXecutive): A Unix-
based operating system developed by IBM for its POWER
processor-based systems. AIX is known for its robustness,
scalability, and support for virtualization technologies like
PowerVM.
● HP-UX (Hewlett Packard Unix): Developed by Hewlett
Packard Enterprise (formerly HP), HP-UX is a Unix-based
operating system designed for HP's PA-RISC and Itanium-
based servers. It is used primarily in enterprise
environments for database, ERP, and other business-critical
applications.
● macOS Server: While not strictly a server-only operating
system, macOS Server (formerly Mac OS X Server) is a Unix-
based operating system developed by Apple Inc. It provides
various server services such as file sharing, email, web
hosting, and directory services.
● GNU/Linux: Although not strictly Unix, Linux is a Unix-like
operating system that has gained significant popularity and
is widely used as a server operating system. Linux
distributions such as Ubuntu Server, CentOS, Debian, and
Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) are used in a wide range of
server deployments, from web servers to enterprise data
centers.

Netware Operating System

It is a multi-user server-based
network operating system. It
requires a dedicated server in
the network; it is mostly used in
the early computer networks.

NetWare was a network

operating system (NOS)
developed by Novell, Inc. It was one of the most popular NOS
platforms in the 1980s and 1990s, particularly for local area
networks (LANs).

Here are some versions of NetWare server operating

systems:

● NetWare 2.x: Released in the mid-1980s, NetWare 2.x was

one of the earliest versions of the NetWare operating
system. It introduced basic file and print services for local
area networks.
● NetWare 3.x: Released in the late 1980s, NetWare 3.x was
a significant upgrade over earlier versions, introducing
support for more advanced networking features such as
TCP/IP, NetWare Core Protocol (NCP), and Novell Directory
Services (NDS).
● NetWare 4.x: Released in the early 1990s, NetWare 4.x
introduced several new features, including support for
symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), which allowed NetWare
servers to take advantage of multiple processors for
improved performance.
● NetWare 5.x: Released in the late 1990s, NetWare 5.x
introduced significant enhancements, including support for
Novell's eDirectory, which replaced NDS as the primary
directory service, and support for native IP networking.
● NetWare 6.x: Released in the early 2000s, NetWare 6.x was
the final major release of the NetWare operating system. It
introduced features such as iFolder (for file synchronization),
iPrint (for print services), and enhanced support for web-
based applications.

These are some of the major versions of the NetWare server

operating system. Over time, as the popularity of NetWare
declined in favor of other platforms such as Microsoft Windows
Server and Linux, Novell shifted its focus away from NetWare
towards other products and services. However, NetWare played a
significant role in the development of networking technologies
and standards, and its legacy continues to influence modern
network operating systems.

Windows Operating System

Windows has released different

series of operating systems. They
update them regularly. It is the
best choice if you are looking for
a managed or hassle-free server
operating system. There is no
large room for customization.

Windows Server is a line of server operating systems developed

by Microsoft. Here are some of the major versions:

● Windows NT 3.1 Server (1993): This was the first version

of Windows NT Server, which introduced features like
support for preemptive multitasking and a 32-bit
architecture.
● Windows NT 4.0 Server (1996): This version introduced
the Windows Desktop Update and Active Directory (in the
Server edition). It was widely used in enterprise
environments.
● Windows 2000 Server (2000): This version introduced
significant improvements, including Active Directory
Services, the Microsoft Management Console, and support
for Kerberos authentication.
● Windows Server 2003 (2003): This version introduced
improvements in security, performance, and reliability. It
 included features like the Volume Shadow Copy service and
enhancements to Active Directory.
● Windows Server 2008 (2008): This version introduced
improvements in virtualization, security, and scalability. It
included features like Server Core installation options,
BitLocker Drive Encryption, and improvements to Terminal
Services.
● Windows Server 2008 R2 (2009): This was an updated
version of Windows Server 2008 with enhancements in
virtualization, networking, and management. It introduced
features like RemoteFX and support for up to 256 logical
processors.
● Windows Server 2012 (2012): This version introduced a
redesigned user interface, improvements in virtualization
(Hyper-V), storage spaces, and scalability. It included
features like the ReFS file system and Dynamic Access
Control.
● Windows Server 2012 R2 (2013): This was an updated
version of Windows Server 2012 with improvements in
virtualization, networking, storage, and management. It
introduced features like Storage Tiering and Automatic
Virtual Machine Activation.
● Windows Server 2016 (2016): This version introduced
enhancements in security, virtualization (Hyper-V), and cloud
integration. It included features like Nano Server, Shielded
Virtual Machines, and Storage Spaces Direct.
● Windows Server 2019 (2018): This version introduced
improvements in hybrid cloud integration, security, and
application platform. It included features like Windows
Admin Center, Kubernetes support, and enhancements to
Windows Defender.
Where is the operating system
stored on a computer?
With most computers, the operating system is stored on the
primary hard drive inside the computer. Computers operating
systems can also be installed and loaded from an external hard
drive, disc drive, or flash drive.

When installing the operating system, the install files are stored
on a CD, DVD, or USB flash drive. Early computer operating
systems used multiple floppy diskettes to install an operating
system.