SET NUMBER:1 (Software Engineering)

Q2]
2] Explain spiral model in detail
The Spiral Model is a software development process that combines iterative and incremental
development with a focus on risk assessment. It was introduced by Barry Boehm in 1986 and
is particularly useful for large, complex, and high-risk projects. Here’s a detailed explanation
of its components, phases, and advantages:
Key Components
1. Iterations: The Spiral Model is organized into a series of iterations, known as spirals.
Each spiral represents a phase of the project and allows for refining and improving
the product through multiple cycles.
2. Risk Assessment: One of the primary focuses of the Spiral Model is risk
management. Each iteration includes a risk analysis phase where potential risks are
identified, assessed, and mitigated.
3. Prototyping: Prototypes are developed and evaluated during the iterations. This
helps stakeholders visualize the product and provide feedback early in the
development process.
Phases of the Spiral Model
Each spiral typically consists of four major phases:
1. Planning:
o Identify objectives, alternatives, and constraints.
o Gather requirements and establish project goals.
o Define the scope of the current iteration.
2. Risk Analysis:
o Identify risks associated with the project, including technical, managerial, and
operational risks.
o Evaluate risks and determine mitigation strategies.
o Decision-making on whether to proceed with the project based on risk
assessment.
3. Engineering:
o Develop the product, including design, coding, and testing.
o Create prototypes to validate concepts and gather user feedback.
 o Incorporate changes based on the feedback received.
4. Evaluation:
o Review the project progress and product outcomes.
o Gather feedback from stakeholders and end-users.
o Decide whether to continue to the next spiral, modify the existing plan, or
terminate the project.
Advantages of the Spiral Model
1. Risk Management: By focusing on risk assessment and mitigation at each iteration,
the Spiral Model allows for early identification and resolution of potential issues.
2. Flexibility: It accommodates changes in requirements throughout the development
process, making it suitable for projects with evolving needs.
3. User Involvement: Regular prototyping and evaluations encourage user feedback,
ensuring that the final product meets user expectations.
4. Incremental Delivery: The model allows for partial product deliveries, which can be
beneficial for user testing and feedback.
5. Suitable for Complex Projects: Its structured approach is particularly effective for
large and complex projects where requirements may be unclear or subject to change.
Disadvantages of the Spiral Model
1. Complexity: The model can be more complex to manage than other models,
especially for smaller projects.
2. Time-Consuming: Each iteration involves planning, risk analysis, and evaluations,
which can lead to longer project timelines.
3. Cost: Due to its iterative nature and focus on risk assessment, the Spiral Model can
be more expensive than simpler models.
4. Requires Expertise: Effective risk management and prototyping require skilled
professionals, which may not be available in all teams.
3] Define software process and software product. Distinguish between them.
Software Process
A software process refers to a structured set of activities and tasks that are followed to
develop, maintain, and manage software systems. It encompasses the entire lifecycle of
software development, from initial requirements gathering through design, coding, testing,
deployment, and maintenance. The software process aims to ensure that the final product
meets specified requirements, is delivered on time, and stays within budget.
Key Aspects of Software Process:
 • Activities: The specific tasks involved (e.g., requirements analysis, design, coding).
• Phases: The stages of the development lifecycle (e.g., planning, development,
testing).
• Models: Different approaches to software development (e.g., Waterfall, Agile, Spiral).
• Documentation: Maintaining records of processes, decisions, and progress.
Software Product
A software product is the end result of the software development process. It is the actual
software application or system delivered to users or clients, which fulfills specific functional
and non-functional requirements. Software products can range from simple applications to
complex systems and can be commercially sold or internally used within an organization.
Key Aspects of Software Product:
• Functionality: The specific tasks the software performs.
• Quality Attributes: Characteristics like performance, usability, reliability, and security.
• User Interface: How users interact with the software.
• Documentation: User manuals and technical guides

Distinction Between Software Process and Software Product

Aspect Software Process Software Product

A structured sequence of activities

Definition The final software application/system
for software development

How software is developed and

Focus What the software actually does
managed

Activities, phases, models, Functionality, user interface, quality

Components
documentation attributes

Provides a framework for project The end deliverable that users interact
Outcome
execution with

Success measured by efficiency, Success measured by user satisfaction,

Measurement
adherence to timelines performance, and reliability

A web application, a mobile app, a

Example Agile methodology, Waterfall model
database system
4] Discuss different fact finding techniques
Fact-finding techniques are essential in the requirements-gathering phase of software
development, helping analysts gather the necessary information to understand user needs
and system requirements. Here are several common fact-finding techniques:
1. Interviews
• Description: One-on-one or group discussions with stakeholders to gather detailed
information about their needs, expectations, and experiences.
• Advantages: Direct communication allows for clarification of complex issues and
building rapport with stakeholders.
• Disadvantages: Time-consuming and may introduce bias if not conducted carefully.
2. Surveys and Questionnaires
• Description: Structured forms distributed to a larger audience to collect quantitative
and qualitative data.
• Advantages: Can reach a wide audience quickly and is useful for gathering specific
information.
• Disadvantages: Limited by the quality of questions and can lack depth in responses.
3. Observation
• Description: Observing users in their natural environment to understand how they
interact with existing systems and processes.
• Advantages: Provides real-world context and uncovers issues that users may not
articulate.
• Disadvantages: Can be intrusive and may not capture all relevant information.
4. Document Analysis
• Description: Reviewing existing documentation, such as manuals, reports, and
system specifications, to gather insights into current processes and requirements.
• Advantages: Provides a historical perspective and helps identify gaps in the current
system.
• Disadvantages: Documentation may be outdated or incomplete, leading to potential
misunderstandings.
5. Workshops and Focus Groups
• Description: Collaborative sessions where stakeholders discuss their needs and ideas
collectively.
• Advantages: Encourages diverse perspectives and can generate creative solutions.
 • Disadvantages: Dominant personalities may overshadow quieter participants,
leading to incomplete input.
6. Prototyping
• Description: Creating a preliminary version of the system (or specific features) to
gather user feedback and refine requirements.
• Advantages: Provides a tangible representation of concepts, making it easier for
users to express their needs.
• Disadvantages: Can lead to scope creep if users focus on the prototype rather than
the overall requirements.
7. Brainstorming
• Description: A group technique for generating ideas and solutions in a free-thinking
environment.
• Advantages: Encourages creativity and allows for the exploration of multiple ideas.
• Disadvantages: May lead to unfocused discussions if not properly facilitated.
8. Role-Playing
• Description: Stakeholders act out scenarios to explore user interactions with the
system.
• Advantages: Helps identify user requirements and system functionality in a dynamic
way.
• Disadvantages: Can be time-consuming and may not yield serious responses from
participants.
9. Use Cases and User Stories
• Description: Defining scenarios that describe how users will interact with the system
to achieve specific goals.
• Advantages: Focuses on user needs and helps clarify requirements in a structured
manner.
• Disadvantages: Requires a good understanding of user roles and goals, which may
not be clear initially.
5] Define software maintenance. Explain types of software maintenance.
Software maintenance refers to the activities involved in modifying a software system after
its initial deployment to correct faults, improve performance, or adapt it to a changed
environment. It's crucial for ensuring that software continues to function effectively and
meets user needs over time.
Types of Software Maintenance
 1. Corrective Maintenance:
o Description: Involves fixing bugs or defects identified after the software has
been released.
o Purpose: To resolve issues that hinder the software's functionality.
2. Adaptive Maintenance:
o Description: Modifications made to keep the software relevant in changing
environments, such as updates to operating systems or hardware.
o Purpose: To ensure compatibility and performance with new systems or
platforms.
3. Perfective Maintenance:
o Description: Enhancements made to improve performance or add new
features based on user feedback or changing requirements.
o Purpose: To enhance functionality and improve user satisfaction.
4. Preventive Maintenance:
o Description: Activities aimed at preventing future problems by identifying
potential issues and addressing them proactively.
o Purpose: To reduce the likelihood of future failures and extend the software's
lifespan.

1] Draw first level DFD for Hospital Management System.

Q3]
1] A ABC Foods Pvt. Ltd. Company is offering certain discount on the total amount of
purchase. If the purchasing amount is more than 5,000 and the customer is making the
payment within 5 days, then company 5% discount on invoice. If the purchase amout is
between 3,000 to 5,000 and the customer is making the payment within 5 days, then
company offers 3% discount. If the amount is less than 3,000 and customer is making the
payment within 5days, then no discount offered and customer has to pay full amount. If
customer is not able to pay within 5 days, then no discount is given. Draw decision table
Here's a decision table for the discount policy of ABC Foods Pvt. Ltd., based on the
purchasing amount and payment timeline:
Decision Table for Discounts

Condition Action

Purchase Amount > 5,000 Pay 95% of the total amount

Payment made within 5 days (5% discount applied)

Condition Action

--------------------------------------- -------------------------------

Purchase Amount between 3,000 and 5,000 Pay 97% of the total amount

Payment made within 5 days (3% discount applied)

--------------------------------------- -------------------------------

Purchase Amount < 3,000 Pay 100% of the total amount

Payment made within 5 days (No discount)

--------------------------------------- -------------------------------

Payment made after 5 days Pay 100% of the total amount

(Regardless of the purchase amount) (No discount)

Summary of the Conditions and Actions:

1. Condition: Purchase Amount > 5,000 and Payment within 5 days
o Action: 5% discount → Customer pays 95% of the total amount.
2. Condition: Purchase Amount between 3,000 and 5,000 and Payment within 5 days
o Action: 3% discount → Customer pays 97% of the total amount.
3. Condition: Purchase Amount < 3,000 and Payment within 5 days
o Action: No discount → Customer pays 100% of the total amount.
4. Condition: Payment made after 5 days (for any purchase amount)
o Action: No discount → Customer pays 100% of the total amount.
This decision table clearly outlines the rules for determining the discount based on the
purchase amount and payment timing.
2] Define module. Explain types of modules.
In software engineering, a module is a self-contained component of a software system that
encapsulates a specific functionality or a set of related functions, data, and resources.
Modules promote modular design, making it easier to manage complexity, enhance code
reuse, and improve maintainability.
Types of Modules in Software Engineering
1. Functional Modules:
 o These modules are designed to perform specific functions or tasks. Each
functional module focuses on a particular piece of functionality, such as user
authentication, data processing, or report generation.
2. Library Modules:
o Collections of pre-written code that provide commonly used functions and
procedures. They allow developers to leverage existing code to avoid
redundancy. Examples include libraries for mathematical operations, data
manipulation, or network communications.
3. Service Modules:
o In service-oriented architecture (SOA) or microservices, these modules
provide specific services over a network. They communicate through well-
defined interfaces and are independently deployable.
4. Component Modules:
o These are reusable software components that encapsulate both data and
behavior. Component modules are often designed to interact with other
components, promoting a plug-and-play architecture.
5. Data Modules:
o Focused on data management, these modules handle data storage, retrieval,
and manipulation. They often encapsulate database interactions and data
validation logic.
6. Presentation Modules:
o These modules are responsible for the user interface and presentation layer
of an application. They handle the display of information and user
interactions, often separating the user interface from the underlying business
logic.
7. Configuration Modules:
o These modules manage configuration settings for an application. They allow
developers to change application behavior without modifying the core code,
promoting flexibility.
8. Test Modules:
o Dedicated to testing, these modules contain test cases and testing
frameworks. They help ensure that other modules function correctly and are
often automated.
Benefits of Using Modules
• Separation of Concerns: Each module focuses on a specific aspect of functionality,
making it easier to develop, test, and maintain.
 • Reusability: Modules can be reused across different projects, reducing development
time and effort.
• Encapsulation: By hiding the internal workings of a module, you reduce the
complexity exposed to other parts of the system.
• Interchangeability: Modules can often be replaced or upgraded independently,
allowing for easier updates and maintenance.
Using modules effectively is a key principle of software engineering, leading to more
organized, maintainable, and scalable software systems.
3] Draw ER-Diagram for "Food order system"

4] What is Decision Table? Need of Decision table.

In software engineering, a Decision Table is a systematic way to represent and evaluate
different combinations of conditions and corresponding actions within a system. It helps in
defining business rules and logic for various scenarios in software applications.
Components of a Decision Table
1. Conditions: Variables or criteria that influence decision-making (e.g., user inputs,
system states).
2. Actions: The outputs or responses triggered by specific combinations of conditions
(e.g., system responses, state changes).
3. Rules: Each row represents a unique combination of conditions and specifies the
corresponding action to take.
Need for Decision Tables in Software Engineering
1. Clarity in Logic: They provide a clear visual representation of complex decision logic,
making it easier for developers and stakeholders to understand how decisions are
made.
2. Comprehensive Coverage: Decision tables ensure that all possible combinations of
conditions are considered, helping to avoid missed scenarios that could lead to
software defects.
3. Simplification of Complex Rules: By organizing rules into a tabular format,
developers can simplify and break down complex decision-making processes, making
them more manageable.
4. Consistency: They help maintain consistency in decision-making across different
parts of the system, reducing the likelihood of errors in business logic.
5. Enhanced Testing: Decision tables can be used to derive test cases, ensuring that all
scenarios are tested. This helps in verifying that the software behaves as expected
under various conditions.
6. Documentation: They serve as documentation for business rules and logic, making it
easier for new team members to understand the decision-making processes and for
stakeholders to validate the system’s behavior.
7. Communication Tool: Decision tables facilitate better communication between
technical and non-technical stakeholders by providing a clear framework for
discussing how decisions are made within the software.
Overall, decision tables are a valuable tool in software engineering for modeling and
managing complex decision logic, ensuring robustness and clarity in software design and
implementation.
5] Explain elements of Data flow diagrams
Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs) are visual representations of how data flows through a system,
illustrating the interactions between processes, data stores, and external entities. Here are
the key elements of DFDs:
1. Processes
• Definition: Represent activities or functions that transform input data into output
data.
• Symbol: Usually depicted as a circle or oval.
• Example: "Process Order" or "Calculate Invoice."
2. Data Flows
• Definition: Indicate the movement of data between processes, data stores, and
external entities.
 • Symbol: Represented by arrows; the direction of the arrow shows the flow of data.
• Example: "Order Data" flowing from a customer to a processing system.
3. Data Stores
• Definition: Represent repositories where data is stored for later use.
• Symbol: Typically shown as an open rectangle or two parallel lines.
• Example: "Customer Database" or "Inventory Records."
4. External Entities
• Definition: Represent sources or destinations of data that interact with the system
but are outside its boundaries.
• Symbol: Depicted as squares or rectangles.
• Example: "Customer," "Supplier," or "Bank."
5. Boundaries
• Definition: Define the scope of the system being modeled, indicating what is inside
the system and what is external.
• Symbol: Often represented as a dashed rectangle surrounding the processes and
data stores.
• Example: A rectangle enclosing all the system components.
6. Levels of DFDs
• Context Diagram: A high-level view that shows the system as a single process with
inputs and outputs to external entities.
• Level 1 DFD: Breaks down the main process into subprocesses, providing more detail
about how data flows within the system.
Importance of DFD Elements
• Clarity: Helps stakeholders understand how data moves through the system.
• Documentation: Provides a clear representation of system requirements.
• Analysis: Aids in identifying inefficiencies or gaps in data handling processes.
By using these elements effectively, DFDs can illustrate the functional aspects of a system,
making them valuable tools for system analysis and design.
Q4]
2] Differentiate between forward and reverse engineering

3] What is Data Flow Diagram? Explain its Advantages & Disadvantages.

A Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation used to visualize the flow of data
within a system. It illustrates how data is processed, stored, and transmitted between
different components of the system, including processes, data stores, and external entities.
DFDs help in understanding the functional aspects of a system and provide a clear overview
of how information moves through it.
Key Components of DFDs
1. Processes: Activities that transform input data into output data.
2. Data Flows: Arrows that represent the movement of data between processes, data
stores, and external entities.
3. Data Stores: Repositories where data is held for future use.
4. External Entities: Sources or destinations of data that interact with the system.
Advantages of Data Flow Diagrams
1. Clarity: DFDs provide a clear visual representation of how data flows through a
system, making it easier for stakeholders to understand the system's functionality.
2. Simplicity: They simplify complex processes, breaking them down into manageable
components, which helps in communicating ideas effectively.
3. Effective Documentation: DFDs serve as useful documentation for system
requirements and processes, aiding in knowledge transfer and compliance.
4. Facilitates Analysis: They help identify inefficiencies, redundancies, or gaps in data
handling processes, allowing for better system design and optimization.
 5. Modularity: DFDs can be broken down into levels (e.g., context diagrams and
detailed DFDs), allowing for a structured approach to system analysis.
6. Stakeholder Communication: They provide a common language for technical and
non-technical stakeholders, facilitating discussions about system requirements and
functionalities.
Disadvantages of Data Flow Diagrams
1. Limited Detail: DFDs focus primarily on data flow and may not capture all aspects of
the system, such as control flow, decision-making, or timing considerations.
2. Complexity in Large Systems: For very large or complex systems, DFDs can become
cluttered and difficult to read, making it challenging to convey the necessary
information clearly.
3. Requires Understanding of DFD Notation: Stakeholders need to be familiar with DFD
symbols and notation to interpret the diagrams correctly, which may lead to
miscommunication if they are not well understood.
4. Static Representation: DFDs provide a snapshot of the system at a specific point in
time and do not reflect dynamic behaviors or changes in real-time.
5. May Oversimplify Processes: While simplification is beneficial, it can also lead to
oversimplification, where important details about the system's functioning are
omitted.
4] What is SDLC? Describe its phases?
SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle) is a structured process used for developing
software applications. It outlines the various stages involved in the planning, creation,
testing, and deployment of software, ensuring that it meets the needs of users and is
delivered on time and within budget. The SDLC provides a systematic approach to software
development, facilitating better project management and quality assurance.
Phases of SDLC
1. Planning
o Description: This initial phase involves defining the scope, purpose, and
feasibility of the project. Stakeholders identify requirements and create a
project plan.
o Key Activities:
▪ Requirement gathering
▪ Feasibility analysis
▪ Project scheduling and resource allocation
2. Analysis
 o Description: Detailed analysis of the requirements is conducted to
understand the functionalities needed in the software. This phase involves
gathering detailed specifications from stakeholders.
o Key Activities:
▪ Requirement analysis and documentation
▪ Creating use cases and user stories
▪ Defining system requirements
3. Design
o Description: In this phase, the overall architecture and design of the system
are created based on the requirements gathered. This includes both high-
level design (HLD) and low-level design (LLD).
o Key Activities:
▪ Designing system architecture
▪ Creating data models and user interfaces
▪ Defining system interfaces and integration points
4. Development
o Description: This phase involves actual coding and development of the
software. Developers write code based on the design specifications.
o Key Activities:
▪ Coding and implementation
▪ Conducting unit testing
▪ Documentation of the code
5. Testing
o Description: Once development is complete, the software is rigorously tested
to identify and fix any defects. Various testing methods (e.g., functional,
performance, security) are employed to ensure quality.
o Key Activities:
▪ Test planning and case development
▪ Executing tests (manual and automated)
▪ Bug reporting and resolution
6. Deployment
 o Description: After testing, the software is deployed to the production
environment. This phase may involve user training and support.
o Key Activities:
▪ Installation and configuration
▪ User training and documentation
▪ Monitoring and support after deployment
7. Maintenance
o Description: Post-deployment, the software enters the maintenance phase,
where it is updated and modified to fix issues or add new features. This phase
ensures the software remains functional and relevant.
o Key Activities:
▪ Bug fixes and updates
▪ Performance monitoring
▪ Implementing enhancements based on user feedback

SET NUMBER:2 (Software Engineering)

Q2]
1] Explain various types of system.
Systems can be categorized in various ways based on their characteristics, functionality, and
context. Here’s an overview of different types of systems:
1. Open vs. Closed Systems
• Open Systems: Interact with their environment, exchanging both matter and energy
(e.g., ecosystems, human organizations).
• Closed Systems: Do not interact with their environment in terms of matter, but may
exchange energy (e.g., a sealed thermos).
2. Physical vs. Abstract Systems
• Physical Systems: Tangible entities made of physical components (e.g., mechanical
systems, electrical circuits).
• Abstract Systems: Conceptual frameworks or models (e.g., mathematical systems,
software architectures).
3. Deterministic vs. Stochastic Systems
 • Deterministic Systems: Produce predictable outcomes based on initial conditions
(e.g., classical physics).
• Stochastic Systems: Involve randomness, making outcomes uncertain (e.g., stock
markets, weather patterns).
4. Dynamic vs. Static Systems
• Dynamic Systems: Change over time and respond to various inputs (e.g., population
models, economies).
• Static Systems: Remain constant and do not change over time (e.g., structures under
fixed loads).
5. Complex vs. Simple Systems
• Complex Systems: Composed of many interconnected parts, exhibiting emergent
behavior (e.g., ecosystems, traffic systems).
• Simple Systems: Have few components with straightforward interactions (e.g., basic
machines).
6. Linear vs. Nonlinear Systems
• Linear Systems: Follow the principle of superposition; outputs are directly
proportional to inputs (e.g., linear electrical circuits).
• Nonlinear Systems: Outputs are not proportional to inputs, often leading to complex
behaviors (e.g., chaotic systems).
7. Hard vs. Soft Systems
• Hard Systems: Well-defined and structured, often governed by precise rules (e.g.,
engineering systems).
• Soft Systems: Involve human behavior and social dynamics, often more subjective
(e.g., organizational systems).
8. Biological vs. Technological Systems
• Biological Systems: Comprise living organisms and their interactions (e.g., the human
body, ecosystems).
• Technological Systems: Engineered systems designed for specific functions (e.g.,
computer systems, transportation networks).
9. Control Systems
• Open-loop Control Systems: No feedback mechanism; outputs are not adjusted
based on performance (e.g., basic timers).
• Closed-loop Control Systems: Use feedback to adjust outputs for better performance
(e.g., thermostats).
10. Information Systems
• Systems designed to collect, store, manage, and distribute information (e.g.,
databases, content management systems).
11. Social Systems
• Composed of individuals and organizations, focusing on social interactions and
structures (e.g., communities, governments).

2] Explain different McCall’s quality factors.

McCall's quality factors, developed by Jim McCall in the 1970s, provide a framework for
evaluating the quality of software. These factors help assess various aspects of software
quality and can be classified into three main categories: product operation, product
revision, and product transition. Each factor encompasses several criteria that reflect
essential qualities of software. Here’s an overview:
1. Product Operation Factors
These factors focus on how the software performs during operation and its effectiveness in
meeting user needs.
• Correctness: The degree to which the software accurately performs its intended
functions and produces the right results.
• Reliability: The ability of the software to perform consistently over time and under
varying conditions, including the likelihood of failure.
• Efficiency: How well the software utilizes system resources (e.g., CPU, memory) to
perform its tasks, including response time and throughput.
• Integrity: The security and protection of the software from unauthorized access or
malicious attacks.
• Usability: The ease with which users can learn and use the software, including user
interfaces and documentation.
2. Product Revision Factors
These factors assess the software’s ability to be modified and adapted to changing
requirements or environments.
• Maintainability: The ease with which the software can be modified to correct
defects, improve performance, or adapt to changes.
• Flexibility: The capacity of the software to accommodate changes in requirements
without requiring significant rework.
• Testability: The ease with which the software can be tested to ensure it functions
correctly, including the availability of test cases and frameworks.
3. Product Transition Factors
These factors relate to the software’s ability to be transferred and adapted in different
environments.
• Portability: The ease with which the software can be transferred from one
environment to another (e.g., different hardware or operating systems).
• Reusability: The degree to which software components can be reused in different
applications or contexts, promoting efficiency and reducing development time.
• Interoperability: The ability of the software to interact and work with other software
or systems, ensuring smooth data exchange and functionality.
3] Explain spiral model in detail.
The Spiral Model is a software development methodology that combines iterative
development (prototyping) with the systematic aspects of the waterfall model. It was
introduced by Barry Boehm in 1986 and is particularly useful for large, complex, and high-
risk projects. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the Spiral Model:
Key Features
1. Iterative Process: The Spiral Model emphasizes the iterative nature of software
development, allowing for gradual refinement of the product through repeated
cycles (or "spirals").
2. Risk Management: Each iteration includes risk assessment and management,
enabling teams to identify, analyze, and mitigate potential risks early in the process.
3. Customer Involvement: Frequent customer feedback is integrated into the
development process, ensuring that the evolving product aligns with user needs and
expectations.
4. Phases: Each spiral consists of four key phases:
o Planning: Define objectives, constraints, and deliverables for the iteration.
Identify potential risks.
o Risk Analysis: Analyze identified risks and explore options to mitigate them,
including prototyping if necessary.
o Engineering: Develop and implement the system components, incorporating
any necessary changes based on feedback and risk assessment.
o Evaluation and Review: Review the completed work with stakeholders,
gathering feedback for the next iteration.
Spiral Model Phases in Detail
1. Planning Phase:
o Determine objectives for the iteration.
 o Define project scope and constraints.
o Gather requirements and document them.
2. Risk Analysis Phase:
o Identify risks (technical, managerial, operational).
o Assess risks to determine their impact and likelihood.
o Develop strategies to mitigate high-priority risks (e.g., developing prototypes
to test technical feasibility).
3. Engineering Phase:
o Develop the product incrementally based on requirements.
o Conduct testing and validation throughout this phase.
o Produce deliverables that meet the objectives outlined in the planning phase.
4. Evaluation Phase:
o Review the work done with stakeholders.
o Gather feedback and evaluate whether the project meets its goals.
o Decide whether to proceed to the next iteration, pivot, or terminate the
project.
Advantages
• Risk Mitigation: Early identification and management of risks can lead to better
project outcomes.
• Flexibility: Allows for changes based on customer feedback and evolving
requirements.
• Enhanced Communication: Regular stakeholder engagement ensures better
alignment and satisfaction.
• Incremental Delivery: The iterative approach allows for partial product releases,
providing value sooner.
Disadvantages
• Complexity: The model can become complicated, particularly in larger projects,
requiring meticulous documentation and management.
• Costly: The focus on risk analysis and prototyping can lead to increased costs and
time.
• Requires Expertise: Effective risk management and project planning necessitate
experienced personnel, which may not always be available.
Applications
The Spiral Model is particularly suited for:
• Large, complex projects where risks need careful management.
• Projects with unclear requirements or those likely to change during development.
• Environments where customer feedback is critical for success.
4] Discuss different fact finding techniques
Fact-finding techniques are essential in the requirements-gathering process for software
development and project management. They help teams understand user needs, gather
accurate information, and clarify project objectives. Here are some common fact-finding
techniques:
1. Interviews
• Description: One-on-one or group discussions with stakeholders to gather detailed
information.
• Advantages: Allows for in-depth exploration of user needs; fosters open dialogue.
• Disadvantages: Time-consuming; potential for bias if the interviewer leads the
conversation.
2. Surveys and Questionnaires
• Description: Structured forms with predefined questions distributed to a larger
audience.
• Advantages: Can gather data from many respondents quickly; easy to analyze
quantitatively.
• Disadvantages: Limited depth; potential for misunderstandings if questions are
unclear.
3. Workshops
• Description: Collaborative sessions with stakeholders to brainstorm and discuss
requirements.
• Advantages: Encourages diverse input and collaborative problem-solving; immediate
feedback.
• Disadvantages: Can be dominated by vocal participants; requires skilled facilitation.
4. Observation
• Description: Watching users interact with existing systems or processes to identify
needs and issues.
 • Advantages: Provides real-world context; uncovers implicit needs users may not
articulate.
• Disadvantages: May disrupt users; limited to what can be observed during the study.
5. Document Review
• Description: Analyzing existing documentation (e.g., reports, user manuals, previous
project artifacts).
• Advantages: Can provide a historical context; identifies previously established
requirements.
• Disadvantages: May be outdated; may not reflect current user needs.
6. Prototyping
• Description: Creating a preliminary version of a system to gather user feedback on
design and functionality.
• Advantages: Visual representation of concepts; allows for iterative feedback and
refinement.
• Disadvantages: Can lead to scope creep if users request too many changes; requires
time and resources.
7. Focus Groups
• Description: Guided discussions with a group of stakeholders to gather diverse
opinions on specific topics.
• Advantages: Encourages interaction and exploration of different viewpoints; fosters
creativity.
• Disadvantages: Group dynamics can skew results; may be difficult to manage.
8. Use Cases and User Stories
• Description: Describing interactions between users and the system to capture
functional requirements.
• Advantages: Helps visualize user interactions; focuses on user needs and goals.
• Disadvantages: Can be overly simplistic if not detailed enough; requires careful
crafting to be effective.
9. Brainstorming
• Description: A free-form approach to generate ideas and solutions in a group setting.
• Advantages: Encourages creativity and out-of-the-box thinking; fosters team
collaboration.
 • Disadvantages: Can lead to unstructured discussions; ideas may be impractical
without later refinement.
10. Joint Application Development (JAD)
• Description: A structured process involving users, stakeholders, and developers in a
series of workshops.
• Advantages: Facilitates consensus; enhances communication among stakeholders
and developers.
• Disadvantages: Requires significant time commitment; may be challenging to
schedule.
5] Differentiate between White - Box and Black-Box Testing.
Q3]
3] Draw decision tree for the following case: A company gives discount on the purchase of
goods depending on the sale and duration of payment: i) 5% discount if order amount >
50,000. ii) 3% discount if order amount between 25,000 and 50,000 iii) No discount if order
amount < 10,000 or payment is not done within 8 days

Start
|
-----------------------
| |
Order Amount Payment Done?
| |
----------- ---------------
| | | |
> 50,000 25,000-50,000 Yes No
| | | |
5% Disc. 3% Disc. -------- No Discount
| | | |
End End Order Amount < 10,000
|
No Discount
Explanation:
1. Start: The decision process begins with the order amount.
2. Order Amount:
o If the order amount is greater than 50,000, a 5% discount is applied.
o If the order amount is between 25,000 and 50,000, a 3% discount is applied.
o If the order amount is less than 10,000, it leads to No Discount.
3. Payment Done: If the payment is not done within 8 days, it leads to No Discount
regardless of the order amount.
4] Design an screen layout for employees salary slip.
5] Draw ER-Diagram for “College Admission System

Q4]
1] ) Draw first level DFD for Hospital Management system in which the hospital has Inpatient
Department (IPD), outpatient Department (OPD) the system maintains patient records and
bills of the patient.
2] Identify all entities of online shopping system
In an online shopping system, various entities play crucial roles in the functioning of the
platform. Here’s a comprehensive list of common entities:
1. User/Customer
• Attributes: User ID, Name, Email, Password, Phone Number, Address, Payment
Information, Order History.
2. Product
• Attributes: Product ID, Name, Description, Price, Category, Stock Quantity, SKU,
Images, Ratings.
3. Category
• Attributes: Category ID, Name, Description, Parent Category.
4. Cart
• Attributes: Cart ID, User ID, List of Products, Total Price, Date Created, Date Modified.
5. Order
• Attributes: Order ID, User ID, List of Products, Total Amount, Order Status, Payment
Status, Shipping Address, Order Date, Delivery Date.
6. Payment
• Attributes: Payment ID, Order ID, Payment Method, Amount, Payment Status,
Transaction ID, Date.
7. Shipping
• Attributes: Shipping ID, Order ID, Shipping Method, Tracking Number, Shipping
Status, Shipping Address.
8. Review/Rating
• Attributes: Review ID, Product ID, User ID, Rating, Comment, Review Date.
9. Discount/Coupon
• Attributes: Coupon ID, Code, Description, Discount Amount/Percentage, Expiry Date,
Usage Limit.
10. Admin
• Attributes: Admin ID, Name, Email, Role, Permissions.
11. Wishlist
• Attributes: Wishlist ID, User ID, List of Products, Date Created.
12. Inventory
• Attributes: Product ID, Stock Level, Reorder Level, Supplier Information.
13. Supplier/Vendor
• Attributes: Supplier ID, Name, Contact Information, Address, Product List.
14. Session
• Attributes: Session ID, User ID, Cart ID, Session Start Time, Session End Time.
15. Address
• Attributes: Address ID, User ID, Street, City, State, Zip Code, Country.
16. Notification
• Attributes: Notification ID, User ID, Message, Date, Status.
17. Transaction History
• Attributes: Transaction ID, User ID, Order ID, Amount, Transaction Date.

3] Draw context level diagrams for online shopping system.

A context-level diagram (also known as a Level 0 DFD) provides a high-level overview of an
online shopping system, illustrating the system as a single process along with its interactions
with external entities. Here’s a description of how to represent it, along with the elements
involved:
Context Level Diagram for Online Shopping System
1. Diagram Components:
• Central Process: Represent the online shopping system as a single process.
• External Entities: Identify entities interacting with the system, such as customers,
admins, suppliers, and payment gateways.
• Data Flows: Show the flow of information between the system and the external
entities.
Diagram Representation:
+------------------+
| Customer |
+------------------+
|
Places Order/Views Products
|
v
+------------------+
| |
| Online Shopping |
| System |
| |
+------------------+
|
| Processes Order/Updates Inventory
v
+------------------+
| Admin |
+------------------+
|
 Manages Products/Reviews
|
v
+------------------+
| Supplier |
+------------------+
|
Supplies Products/Updates Inventory
|
v
+------------------+
| Payment Gateway |
+------------------+
|
Processes Payments
Explanation:
1. Customer:
o Interacts with the system by placing orders, viewing products, and adding
items to the cart.
2. Admin:
o Manages the products, categories, and reviews within the online shopping
system.
3. Supplier:
o Supplies products and updates inventory levels based on stock availability.
4. Payment Gateway:
o Handles payment processing for customer transactions, ensuring secure
payment methods.
5. Online Shopping System:
o The central process that integrates all interactions, processes orders, manages
inventory, and handles user requests.
4] Draw first level DFD for customer Order system.

5] Explain elements of Data flow diagrams?

Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs) are graphical representations of data processes, illustrating how
data moves within a system. They help visualize the flow of information, the processes that
transform data, and the storage locations of data. Here are the key elements of DFDs:
1. Processes
• Definition: Represented by circles or ovals, processes depict operations that
transform input data into output data.
• Purpose: They indicate what the system does with the data.
• Labeling: Each process is usually numbered and given a descriptive name (e.g.,
"Process Order").
2. Data Flows
• Definition: Arrows that show the direction of data movement between processes,
data stores, and external entities.
• Purpose: They indicate how data is transferred within the system.
• Labeling: Data flows are labeled with the name of the data (e.g., "Order Details").
3. Data Stores
• Definition: Represented by open-ended rectangles, data stores indicate where data is
stored within the system (e.g., databases, files).
 • Purpose: They show how and where data is retained for later use.
• Labeling: Each data store is named based on the type of data it holds (e.g.,
"Customer Database").
4. External Entities
• Definition: Represented by squares or rectangles, external entities are sources or
destinations of data outside the system.
• Purpose: They indicate who interacts with the system, such as users, customers, or
other systems.
• Labeling: Each external entity is given a name that reflects its role (e.g., "Customer",
"Payment Gateway").
5. Boundaries
• Definition: The boundary of the system is often depicted to distinguish between
what is included in the system and what is external.
• Purpose: It clarifies the scope of the DFD, showing which processes, data flows, and
stores are part of the system.
6. Levels of DFDs
• Context-Level DFD: The highest level, showing the entire system as a single process
with external entities.
• First-Level DFD: Breaks down the main process into subprocesses, showing
interactions and data flows in more detail.
• Lower-Level DFDs: Further detail specific subprocesses into even more granular
components.