0.Networking Notes!!!

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OSI MODEL

A-Application Layer
P-Presentation
S-Session Layer
T-Transport Layer
N-Network Layer
D-Data Link Layer
P-Physical Layer

Networking Devices & Terms

 Routers (work as a bridge): Routers connect multiple networks
(like your home network to the internet) and direct data packets
based on their destination address.

 Cache: a software or hardware used to temporarily store

information, often data, in a computer system.

 Bridge: Connects two LANs (Local Area Networks) or two

segments of the same LAN. Filters traffic by looking at MAC
addresses and decides whether to forward or block data. Reduces
traffic on each segment by preventing unnecessary data from
crossing over.

 Switches: connect devices within a single network (like computers

in an office) and allow them to communicate directly.
 Hubs: basic devices that connect multiple devices on a network, broadcasting
data to all connected devices.
 Modem: Converts digital data from your device into an analog
signal to send it over the internet line.

 Access Points

 Repeaters: Amplify and regenerate network signals to extend the range of a

network.
 Network Interface Cards (NICs): Hardware components that enable devices
to connect to a network -has an ethernet port
 Gateways: Connect networks using different protocols, acting as an entry and
exit point for data.
 Load Balancers: Distribute network traffic across multiple servers to improve
performance and availability.
 Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) & Intrusion Prevention System
(IPS): Monitor and Prevent network traffic for suspicious activity and alert
administrators to potential security threats respectively
 Firewalls: Security devices that monitor and control network traffic to protect

against unauthorized access and malicious attacks.

Common Firewall Rules

 Allow  Allow traffic from 192.168.1.0/24

 Deny  Block port 23 (Telnet – insecure

 You visit a suspicious website  You visit a suspicious website

 Server: A server is a computer or system that provides resources, data,

services, or programs to other computers, known as clients, over a
network. In theory, whenever computers share resources with client machines
they are considered servers. There are many types of servers, including web
servers, mail servers, and virtual servers.
 Imagine one powerful computer (the host) is split into multiple smaller
computers (virtual servers) — each acting like it's a full machine, with its
own: VM

 Operating system

 Applications

 Network configuration

 Storage

 Ports: A port is like a door or a channel on a computer or device that helps

different programs or services communicate over a network (like the internet).

Example: Visiting https://example.com (using ports)

1. Your computer’s IP address: 192.168.1.10

2. Website’s server IP address: 93.184.216.34

3. Your browser wants to connect to the server’s port 443 (HTTPS service) —
this is the destination port.

4. Your computer picks a random source port, e.g., 51543, to identify this
specific connection.

5. Your computer sends a request packet with:

o Source IP: 192.168.1.10

o Source port: 51543

o Destination IP: 93.184.216.34

o Destination port: 443

6. The server receives the request on port 443 and sends a response back with:

o Source IP: 93.184.216.34

o Source port: 443

o Destination IP: 192.168.1.10

o Destination port: 51543

7. Your computer receives the response on port 51543 and delivers it to your
browser.

8. This system of source and destination ports ensures your computer can
handle many connections simultaneously without mixing up the data.

 CDN (Content Delivery Network): CDNs store copies of website content

(like images, videos, and scripts) on multiple servers located in different
geographic locations. When a user requests content, the CDN directs the
request to the server closest to them, minimizing the distance data needs to
travel. E.g. requesting data in US hosted website with the CDN, the content
will be served from a node in JHB or CPT not from the U.S making it much
faster.

 QoS: It refers to a set of technologies and techniques used in networking

to manage traffic, ensure performance, and prioritize certain types of data.

 Time to live (TTL): It is a value in network packets that determines how long
the packet should "live" or how many hops (routers) it can pass through
before being discarded. Each IP packet has a TTL value set by the sender
(e.g., 64, 128, 255). Every time the packet passes through a router, the TTL
value is decreased by 1. If TTL reaches 0, the packet is discarded, and an
ICMP "Time Exceeded" message is sent back.

 In DNS Server TTL it's the amount of time (in seconds) that your computer or
a DNS server should remember a website’s IP address. After that, it will
ask again if you revisit the site.
Network Protocols
Layer 7

 HTTP / HTTPS Web browsing (secure version uses SSL/TLS)

 FTP / SFTP File transfer (SFTP is secure via SSH)
 SMTP Sending emails
 POP3 / IMAP Retrieving emails
 DNS Resolves domain names to IP addresses
 DHCP Assigns IP addresses dynamically
 FTP File Transfer Protocol File transfer
 SFTP SSH File Transfer Protocol Secure file transfer
 TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol Lightweight file transfer
 SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Sending emails
 IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol Accessing emails
 POP3 Post Office Protocol version 3 Downloading emails
 DNS Domain Name System Resolving domain names to Ips
 DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Assigning IP
addresses
 SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol Network
management/monitoring

Layer 4

 TCP Transmission Control Protocol Reliable communication

 UDP User Datagram ProtocolFast, connectionless communication
 SCTP Stream Control Transmission Protocol Message-based
communication.

Layer 3

 IP Internet Protocol Routing packets

 IPv4 Internet Protocol version 4 Most common IP version
 IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6 Newer IP version
 ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol Error reporting and
diagnostics
 IGMP Internet Group Management Protocol Multicast group
management
 ARP Address Resolution Protocol Resolves IP to MAC address
 RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol Resolves MAC to IP
address
 IPSec IP Security Secure IP communication
 GRE Generic Routing Encapsulation Tunneling protocol
  OSPF Open Shortest Path First Interior routing protocol
 BGP Border Gateway Protocol Internet-wide routing
 RIP Routing Information Protocol Distance-vector routing protocol

Layer 2 & 1

 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) LAN data transmission

 Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity (IEEE 802.11) Wireless LAN
 PPP Point-to-Point Protocol Direct connections (e.g., dial-up)
 HDLC High-Level Data Link Control WAN protocols
 Frame Relay — WAN communication
 ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode High-speed networking
 MAC Media Access Control Addressing at Data Link Layer
 VLAN Virtual LAN (IEEE 802.1Q) Logical network segmentation

Cloud Computing
In networking, "cloud" refers to a remote system of servers and
services that deliver resources, storage, applications, and
computing power over the internet. Instead of running services or
storing data locally (like on your PC or on-premises server), you use
remote servers hosted in data canters.

What is the Cloud in Networking?

The cloud in networking means using the internet to access shared

computing resources. These resources could be:

 Storage (e.g., Google Drive, Dropbox)

 Applications (e.g., Office 365, Gmail)

 Servers and Databases

 Networking services like VPNs, firewalls, or content delivery

networks (CDNs)

Simple Analogy

Think of the cloud like renting a house instead of building your own:

 You don’t need to buy land (hardware)

 Maintenance is someone else’s job (cloud provider)

 You can move in quickly and upgrade easily (scalability)

Wireless Networking
Frequency is the number of times a signal repeat (or cycles) in one
second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz).

🔍 In Simple Terms:

Think of frequency like how fast a signal vibrates.

1 Hz = 1 cycle per second.

In wireless networking, we deal with MHz (million cycles/second) and GHz

(billion cycles/second).

Satellite Networking
Satellite internet works by using a small dish on the ground (at your home
or business) to send and receive data. This dish communicates with a
satellite that is very high up in the sky—about 22,300 miles above the
Earth, staying in one spot over the equator.

The satellite connects to a special place on the ground called the

Network Operations Center (NOC) (people say “knock”). This NOC is
connected to the internet.

So, whenever you use the internet:

1. Your dish sends your request (like opening a website) to the

satellite.

2. The satellite sends it down to the NOC.

3. The NOC connects to the internet and gets the information (like the
website).

4. Then, it sends the data back to the satellite.

5. The satellite sends it back down to your dish.

What is a Transceiver?

A transceiver (short for transmitter + receiver) is a device in

networking that both sends and receives data signals over a
communication medium—such as fiber optic cables, copper cables, or
wireless.

 Transmitter: Converts electrical signals to optical (for fiber) or

electrical (for copper) signals and sends them out.
 Receiver: Receives incoming signals and converts them back into
electrical signals for the device (e.g., switch, router).
 Network switches and routers (especially in modular ports like SFP/SFP+ slots)
 Media converters (e.g., from Ethernet to fiber).

Scenario

A switch with an SFP port doesn't transmit data on its own. You plug in
an SFP transceiver and then connect a fiber optic cable to the other
end of the SFP. That transceiver handles converting the switch's
electrical signals into light signals for transmission across the fiber
cable.

SFP (Small Form Factor Pluggable)

SFPs act as a go-between, converting electrical signals from the device

to optical signals for fiber optic cables or to electrical signals for copper
cables.

SFP vs. SFP+:

Typ Spee Mediu Notes

e d m
SFP 1 Fiber/Copper Small Form-
Gbps factor Pluggable
SFP+ 10 Fiber For high-speed
links
 Gbps

PoE-Power over Ethernet

Power over Ethernet (PoE) is a technology that allows network devices to
receive both data and power over a single Ethernet cable. This eliminates
the need for separate power cords and outlets for devices like IP cameras,
VoIP phones, and wireless access points, simplifying installation and
increasing flexibility.

How it works:
 PoE uses the existing Ethernet cable infrastructure to transmit low-
voltage DC power along with data signals.
 A PoE switch or injector provides the power, while the connected
device (e.g., IP camera) receives both data and power.
 Ethernet connect from the switch to the injector (box which is
connected to power) and the injector extends with a 2 nd ethernet
cable to the AP or Camera.
 Ethernet cables (Cat5 or higher) can be used for PoE.

PoE, PoE+, and PoE++ (also called PoE Type 1, 2, and 3/4):

Power over Ethernet (PoE) standards enable network cables to deliver

both data and electrical power to devices. The original PoE (IEEE
802.3af) provides up to 15.4W of power at the source and delivers
12.95W to devices, suitable for low-power equipment like VoIP phones and
basic access points. PoE+ (802.3at) increases this to 30W at the source
and 25.5W to the device, supporting more demanding devices like PTZ
cameras and dual-band Wi-Fi access points. PoE++ (802.3bt), also
known as Type 3 and Type 4, provides even more power—up to 60W or
100W at the port and up to 71.3W to devices—making it ideal for high-
power devices such as laptops, large displays, and advanced wireless APs.
While PoE and PoE+ use two wire pairs, PoE++ uses all four pairs in the
Ethernet cable for maximum power delivery.

Network Architecture
A 3-tier network architecture divides a network into three distinct
layers: access, distribution, and core, each with specific functions to
optimize performance and scalability.

The core layer is the top tier of the 3-tier network architecture. It acts as
the network backbone, ensuring fast, reliable, and efficient data transport
across the entire network. Web servers, applications and databases .

The distribution layer is the middle tier in the 3-tier network

architecture. It plays a critical role in connecting the access layer to the
core layer, while also enforcing policies and managing traffic flow.

Access layer includes acces switches which are connected to the end
devices (Computers, and Printers etc). Access layer switches ensures that
packets are delivered to the end devices.

IP Addressing & subnetting

Private IP address ranges

Systems and sites on the public internet consume most of the roughly 4.3
billion available IPv4 addresses. However, private networks can reserve
some ranges for internal use. Networks in home offices and businesses
likely use one of these ranges.

The following table defines private IPv4 address ranges.

What is a Subnet?

A subnet (short for subnetwork) is a smaller network inside a larger

network. It divides a large IP network into smaller, more manageable
pieces. Subnetting improves network performance, security, and
organization.

Example: You have a network 192.168.1.0/24, and you split it into two
subnets:

 192.168.1.0/25 (addresses from 192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.127)

 192.168.1.128/25 (addresses from 192.168.1.128 to 192.168.1.255)

What is a Gateway?

A gateway is a network device (usually a router) that acts as an access

point or exit point for devices in a local network to communicate with
other networks, such as the internet. A gateway connects your local
network to the outside world.

Example:

Device IP: 192.168.1.10

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Gateway: 192.168.1.1
When your device wants to access a website like google.com, it sends the
data to the gateway IP (192.168.1.1), which forwards it to the internet.

Server Hosting

Server hosting is an IT service, typically offered by a cloud

service provider that provides remote access to off-premises
virtual or physical servers and associated resources for a
monthly subscription or usage-based price.

Types of server hosting

Shared Hosting

 Multiple websites share the same physical server.

 ✅ Cost-effective
 ❌ Limited performance and control

VPS Hosting (Virtual Private Server)

 One physical server is divided into several virtual servers.

 ✅ More control and resources than shared hosting
 ❌ Still shares physical hardware

Dedicated Hosting

 You get an entire physical server for your use.

 ✅ Full control, high performance
 ❌ Expensive

GPON
GPON is a fiber-optic network standard that allows a single fiber line
from the ISP to serve multiple users using passive (non-powered)
splitters.

OLT (Optical Line Terminal)

✅ What is it?
The OLT is the ISP-side device that sends and receives data to/from
multiple customers. It starts the GPON network. Converts between
electrical (ISP core) and optical signals (fiber).

Splitter (Passive Optical Splitter)

✅ What is it?

A splitter takes one fiber line from the OLT and divides it into many
fibers (e.g., 1:8, 1:16, 1:32, or 1:64), each going to a different customer.

ONU / ONT (Optical Network Unit / Terminal)

✅ What is it?

The ONU or ONT is the customer-side device that receives the optical
signal and converts it into electrical signal (Ethernet) for use by your
router or computer.

 ONT is often used for home users

 ONU is often used in business or multi-user environments

ISP OLT FIBER SPLITTER ONT/ONU ROUTER

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NETWORK FLOW

Link (fiber)  CPE  Firewall  Core Switch  Access Switch

Devices/Servers