Geometry

Geometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with the deduction of the properties, measurement,
and relationships of points, lines, angles, and figures in space from their defining conditions by means
of certain assumed properties of space. The word geometry derives from the Greek words “geo” (earth)
and “metron” (measure).

Undefined Terms
• Point, Line, Segment, Ray and Plane

Point
• Represented by a “dot”.
• Tells an exact location but has no dimension.
• Usually named using a number or a capital.

Line
• Extends indefinitely in two directions.
• Made up of an infinite number of points.
• Named using two different points
• Collinear points are points in the same line

...all points on the line,

Line AB or BA
including A and B

- Segment
• A part of the line with two endpoints.
• The endpoints name the segment.
• ‘line segment AB”, denoted as

Segment AB ...points A and B and all

or BA points between A and B

74 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

 - Ray
• A line with only one endpoint
• Also known as the initial point
• The initial point and one other point name the ray

...points A and all points

Ray AB from A through B
and so on
...point B and all points
Ray BA from B through A
and so on
Note:
If a point C between the line AB, then ray CA and ray CB are opposite rays

Plane
• A plane is a flat surface that extends forever in two dimensions, but has no thickness.

Euclidean Geometry Axioms

There is a set of the axioms – properties, that are considered in geometry as main ones and are adopt-
ed without a proof . Now, after introducing some initial notions and definitions we can consider the
following sufficient set of the axioms, usually used in plane geometry.

Axiom of belonging. Through any two points in a plane it is possible to draw a straight line, and be-
sides only one.

Axiom of ordering. Among any three points placed in a straight line, there is no more than one point
placed between the two others.

Axiom of congruence ( equality ) of segments and angles. If two segments (angles) are congruent
to the third one, then they are congruent to each other.

Axiom of parallel straight lines. Through any point placed outside of a straight line it is possible to
draw another straight line, parallel to the given line, and besides only one.

Axiom of continuity (Archimedean axiom). Let AB and CD be two some segments; then there is a
finite set of such points A1 , A2 , … , An , placed in the straight line AB, that segments AA1 , A1A2 , … ,
An - 1An are congruent to segment CD, and point B is placed between A and An .

Note that replacing one of these axioms by another, turns this axiom into a theorem, requiring a proof.
So, instead of the axiom of parallel straight lines we can use as an axiom the property of triangle angles
(“the sum of triangle angles is equal to 180 deg”). But then we should to prove the property of parallel
lines.

Geometry | 75
 Postulates and Theorems

Postulates are basic rules of geometry. We can assume that all postulates are true, much like a defi-
nition. Theorems are statements that can be proven true using postulates, definitions, and other theo-
rems that have already been proven.

The only difference between a theorem and postulate is that a postulate is assumed true because it
cannot be shown to be false, whereas a theorem must be proven true. Proving theorems is the topic of
another Concept.

• Postulate #1: Given any two distinct points, there is exactly one (straight) line containing those
two points.
• Postulate #2: Given any three non-collinear points, there is exactly one plane containing those
three points.
• Postulate #3: If a line and a plane share two points, then the entire line lies within the plane.
• Postulate #4: If two distinct lines intersect, the intersection will be one point.
• Postulate #5: If two distinct planes intersect, the intersection will be a line.

Thales' theorem. At intersecting sides of an angle by parallel lines, the angle sides are divided into
the proportional segments:

76 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

 Angles
Angles
• Two different rays that have the same initial point.
• The rays are the sides of the angle.
• The initial point is called the vertex of the angle.
• Angles that have the same angle if it is between points that line on each side
of the angle it is.
• Exterior to the angle if it is not on the angle or in its interior.
• An angle is named using point on each side and the vertex.

Example: The angle on the right can be named as angle TON (∠TON) or angle NOT (∠NOT).
We can also name it using one letter, that is, the name of the vertex angle O.

Two Angles are adjacent angles if they share a common vertex and side but share no interior points.

Angles and Their Measures

1. Degree – unit commonly used to measure the size of an angle. It is 1/360 of a full rotation of a plane
circle.

2.Radian – is the ratio of the length of an arc to its radius, also used for measuring the size of an angle.

Note: Angles measured in a counter clockwise direction is positive, negative if in a clockwise direction.
1 whole rotation is 360°.
Note: 180° = π radians

Conversion:

a. Degrees to radians

b. Radians to degrees

Geometry | 77
 Types of Angles

Type of Angle Description Example

Acute Angle An angle that is less than 90o

Right Angle An angle that is exactly 90o

An angle that is greater than 90o

Obtuse Angle
and less than 180o

Straight Angle An angle that is exactly 180o

An angle that is greater than

Reflex Angle
180o and less than 360o

Full Angle An angle that is exactly 360o

78 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

 Midpoint and Bisector

1. Midpoint of a segment – is the point that divides or bisects a segment into

two congruent segments.

2. Segment Bisector – a segment, ray, line or plane that intersects a segment at its midpoint.

3. Angle Bisector – a ray that divides an angle into two adjacent angles that are congruent

Line Relationship

1. Intersecting Lines
• Lines that share a common point
• The common point is called the point of intersection.
• Example: line AB and line XY intersect at point I
Note: Intersection is a point that figures or line have in common

Geometry | 79
2. Parallel Lines
• Two lines in the same plane which will never intersect
• If line 1 is parallel to line 2. We write this as line 1 || line 2
Note: When two - line segments HJ and KL lie on parallel lines, we write this as

3. Skew Lines
• Two lines in the same plane which will never intersect.

Planes and Spaces

Plane
- Can be thought of as a flat surface with no thickness that extends in all directions infinitely.
Note: Determine a plane:

• 3 noncollinear points

80 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

 • 2 intersecting line

• 2 parallel lines

Space

• A three – dimensional expanse that has length, width, and height. Four noncoplanar points are nec-
essary to specify a space.

Remember:
• Points that lie along the same line are said to be Collinear.
• Points that lie along the same plane are said to be Coplanar.
• Collinear points are also Coplanar.

Geometry | 81
 Angle Pairs

1. Vertical Angles
- Two angles formed by intersecting lines which are located opposite to each other.
- Two angles are vertical angles if their sides form two pairs of opposite rays.

Note: Vertical angles are congruent

Example: In the figure on the right, ∠DAB and ∠CAE are vertical angles.
∠DAC and ∠BAE are also vertical angles.

2. Linear Pair
- Two adjacent angles are linear pair if their noncommon sides are opposite rays.
- Two supplementary angles can be joined together to form a straight line, hence
they are also called linear pairs.

3. Complementary Angles
• Two angles are complementary angles if the sum of their measures is 90 degrees.
• Each angle is the complement of the other.
Note: Two complementary angles are joined together to form a right angle.

82 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

4. Supplementary Angles
• Two angles are supplementary angles if the
• Sum of their measures is 180 degrees
• Each angle is said to be the supplement of the other

Lines and Angles

Transversal: a line that intersects two or more coplanar lines at different points.

Example: When two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, 2 groups of 4 angles whose measures are
equal are formed.
4 small (acute) angles
4 large (obtuse) angles

Example: If the transversal is perpendicular to the parallel lines, all eight angles are right angles.

Geometry | 83
1. Corresponding Angles
• Angles that occupy corresponding position in which one is
located in the interior and the other
at the exterior.
• If the lines are parallel and cut by a transversal,
corresponding angles are congruent.

2. Alternate Interior Angles

• Angles that lie between the two lines on opposite
of the transversal
• If the lines are parallel and cut by a transversal,
alternate interior angles are congruent

3. Alternate Exterior Angles

• Angles that lie outside the two lines on the opposite sides
of the transversal
• If the lines are parallel and cut by a transversal, alternate
exterior angles are congruent

84 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

4. Consecutive Interior Angles
• Angles that lie between the two lines on the same side
of the transversal
• If the lines are parallel and cut by a transversal,
the consecutive interior angles are supplementary
∴∠A+∠B=180°.

5. Same – Side Exterior Angles

• Angles that lie outside the two lines on the same side of
the transversal
• If the lines are parallel and cut by a transversal, same side
exterior angles are supplementary ∴∠A+∠B=180°

Geometry | 85
 Polygons

Regular Polygon Irregular Polygon

Triangle

Quadrilateral

Pentagon

Hexagon

Octagon

Polygon
• A closed plane figure formed by three or more segments called sides.
• No two sides with a common endpoint are collinear.
Each endpoint of a side is a vertex of the polygon.

Convex and Concave Polygon

• If a polygon doesn’t have a line that contains a side of the polygon containing a point in the interior
of the polygon, it is a convex polygon.

Diagonal of a Polygons
• A segment that joins two nonconsecutive vertices.

Regular Polygon
• A polygon which is both equilateral all sides are equal and equiangular all interior angles are
equal like square and equilateral triangle.

86 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

General Polygons

Sum of Interior An-

Polygon Number of Sides
gles
Triangle 3 180°
Quadrilateral 4 360°
Pentagon 5 540°
Hexagon 6 720°
Heptagon 7 900°
Octagon 8 1080°
Nonagon 9 1260°
Decagon 10 1440°

Polygon of n-sides Formulas

• Given a polygon of n sides:

1) Sum of interior angles of any polygon.

2) Measure of the interior angle (for regular polygon).

3) Sum of the measures of exterior angles for any convex polygon.

4) Measure of exterior angle.

5) Number of diagonals.

Note: Two polygons are congruent if they are identical in size and shape.
This means they are congruent if their corresponding parts and angles are congruent.

Geometry | 87
 Triangles

A triangle is a figure formed by three segments that were join together by three non collinear points.
The three angles inside a triangle are the interior angles when the sides of a triangle are extended,
the angles that are adjacent to the interior angles are exterior angles.

Triangle Classification and Naming

Usually, a triangle is named in according to its angles and according to its sides.

Triangle Name According to Angles

1. An Acute Triangle has three acute angles (measures of the side follow a relationship c2< a2+ b2 .
2. A Right Triangle has one right angle (measures of the side follow a relationship c2< a2 + b2 .
The longest side is known as the hypotenuse and the other two are known as legs.

Pythagorean Theorem
States that in the right triangle, the sum of the squares of the lengths of the legs is equal to the square
of the length of the hypotenuse.

For the right triangle below, side c pertain to the longest side and a and b are the two smaller sides.

b
a

a2 + b2 = c2

The Pythagorean Theorem gives us the following equation:

a2 + b2 = c2

Example:
In the right triangle below, the hypothenuse has length 5, and we see that 32+ 42= 52.

• Remember the well-known Pythagorean triples:

• 3-4-5, 5-12-13, 8-15-17, 17-24-25, 9-40-41
• Watch out for multiples too. Such as 6-8-10 or 15-20-25

3. An Obtuse Triangle has one obtuse angle

(measures of the sides follow a relationship (c2 > a2 + b2)

4. An Equiangular Triangles has three angles measuring 60 degrees.

88 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

Triangle Name According to Sides
1. An Equilateral Triangle has three congruent sides.
2. An Isosceles Triangle has at least two congruent sides
If an isosceles triangle has exactly to congruent sides, the two congruent angles adjacent to the non
– congruent side (base) are called base angles, and the other angle is called vertex angle.
3. A Scalene Triangle has no congruent sides

Sum Theorems
a. 180 degrees is the sum of the measures of a triangles interior angle.
b. The measure of an exterior angle is equal to the sum of the measures of the two non-adjacent
interior angles.

Exterior and Remote Interior Angles of a △

An angle △ forms a linear pair its exterior angle. If a triangle has angles ∠A, ∠B, and ∠C,
and if we focus attention on an exterior angle at ∠C, then ∠A and are called
the remote interior angles with respect to ∠C.

Congruence Postulates
These are postulates which proves that the two triangles are congruent
“Corresponding parts of Congruent Triangles are Congruent”

a. Side-Side-Side Congruence Postulates (SSS)

If three sides of one triangle are congruent to three sides of a second triangle,
then two triangles are congruent.

b. Side-Angle-Side Congruence Postulates (SAS)

If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent to two sides and the
included angle of a second triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

c. Angle-Side-Angle Congruence Postulates (ASA)

If two angles and the included side of one triangle are congruent to two angles and the
included side of a second triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

d. Angle-Angle-Side Congruence Postulates (AAS)

If two angles and a non – included side of one triangle are congruent to two angles and the
other non – included side of a second triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

e. Hypotenuse-Leg Congruence Theorem (HL)

If the hypotenuse and a leg of a right triangle are congruent to the hypotenuse and a leg of a
second right triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

Geometry | 89
Main properties of triangles. In any triangle:

• An angle, lying opposite the greatest side, is also the greatest angle, and inversely.

• Angles, lying opposite the equal sides, are also equal, and inversely. In particular, all angles in an
equilateral triangle are also equal.

• A sum of triangle angles is equal to 180 deg.

• From the two last properties it follows, that each angle in an equilateral triangle is equal to 60 deg.

• Continuing one of the triangle sides (AC), we receive an exterior angle ∠BCD. An exterior angle of a
triangle is equal to a sum of interior angles, not supplementary with it: ∠BCD = ∠A + ∠B.

• Any side of a triangle is less than a sum of two other sides and more than their difference
( a < b + c, a > b – c; b < a + c, b > a – c; c < a + b, c > a – b ).

Theorems about congruence of triangles.

Two triangles are congruent, if they have accordingly equal:
• two sides and an angle between them;
• two angles and a side, adjacent to them;
• three sides.

Theorems about congruence of right-angled triangles.

Two right-angled triangles are congruent, if one of the following conditions is valid:
• their legs are equal;
• a leg and a hypotenuse of one of triangles are equal to a leg and a hypotenuse of another;
• a hypotenuse and an acute angle of one of triangles are equal to a hypotenuse
and an acute angle of another;
• a leg and an adjacent acute angle of one of triangles are equal to a leg
and an adjacent acute angle of another;
• a leg and an opposite acute angle of one of triangles are equal to a leg
and an opposite acute angle of another.

90 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

 Parts of a Triangles

1. Perpendicular Bisector of a triangle is a line that is

perpendicular to the midpoint of a triangle’s side.
The intersection of the three perpendicular bisector is called
circumcenter. The circumcenter is equidistant from the
vertices of the triangle.

2. Angle Bisector of a triangle is a line that bisects an angle.

The Intersection of the three-angle bisector is called incenter.
The incenter is equidistant from the sides of the triangle.

a) Median of a triangle is a segment whose endpoints

are a vertex of the triangle and the midpoint of the
opposite side. The intersection of the three medians of
a triangle is called th centroid. Centroid is at a location
that is two third of the distance from each vertex to the
midpoint of the opposite side.

4. Altitude or Height of the triangle is the perpendicular

segment from a vertex to the opposite side or to the line that
contains the opposite side. The point of concurrency of the 3
altitudes is called the orthocenter.

Geometry | 91
5. Midsegment or Midline of a triangle is a segment
that connects the midpoints of two sides of a triangle.
Midsegment is parallel to the base and half as long.

Geometric Mean in Right Triangles and Special Triangles

Geometric Mean
Given a right triangle and the altitude to the hypotenuse.
1. The altitude of the hypotenuse is the geometric mean of the segments in which this altitude divides.
2. Each leg is the geometric mean of the hypotenuse and the segment adjacent to the leg.

In triangle ABC, altitude BD divides the hypotenuse AC into segments AD and CD.
BD2= AD ⋅ CD
AB2= AD ⋅ AC
BC2= CD ⋅ AC

Special Triangles

Quadrilaterals

92 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

Kinds of Quadrilaterals
1. Parallelogram
• Quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides is parallel
• The opposite sides opposite angles are congruent and consecutive angles are congruent
• Diagonals bisect each other

Properties of a parallelogram

• Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal (AB = CD, AD = BC ).

• Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal ( ∠A = ∠C, ∠B = ∠D).
• Diagonals of a parallelogram are divided in their intersection point into two
( AO = OC, BO = OD ).
• A sum of squares of diagonals is equal to a sum of squares of four sides:
AC² + BD² = AB² + BC² + CD² + AD².

Signs of a Parallelogram

A quadrilateral is a parallelogram, if one of the following conditions takes place:

• Opposite sides are equal two-by-two ( AB = CD, AD = BC ).
• Opposite angles are equal two-by-two ( ∠A = ∠C, ∠B = ∠D ).
• Two opposite sides are equal and parallel ( AB = CD, AB || CD ).
• Diagonals are divided in their intersection point into two
( AO = OC, BO = OD ).

2. Rhombus
• A parallelogram with four congruent sides

3. Rectangle
• A parallelogram with four right angles

4. Square
• A parallelogram with four congruent sides and four right angles

Geometry | 93
5. Trapezoid
• A quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides called bases of the trapezoid.
• For each of the bases of a trapezoid, there is a pair base angle
• The nonparallel sides of a trapezoid are the legs of the trapezoid
• If the legs are congruent, the trapezoid is called an isosceles trapezoid, and each pair of base angles
is congruent, the diagonals are also congruent.
• The midsegment of a trapezoid is the segment that connects the midpoints of the legs and is parallel
to the bases and its length is one half the sum of the lengths of its bases.

6. Kite
• A quadrilateral that has two pairs of consecutive congruent sides, but opposite sides
are not congruent.
• The diagonals of a kite are perpendicular
• Exactly one pair of opposite angles is congruent.

Note: A square is a special rectangle and rhombus is a special parallelogram

Circles

A circle is the of all points in a plane that are equidistant from a given point, called the center. The
center names the circle. The distance from the center to a point on the circle is the radius. Two circles
are congruent if they have the same radius. The distance across the circle, through the center, is the
diameter of the circle.

Parts of a Circle
1. Radius – a line segment joining the center to any
point in the circle

2. Chord – a line segment whose endpoints lie

in the circle

3. Diameter – a chord that passes through the center

of the circles. Its length is twice the radius.

4. Arc – a sector or portion of the circle.

It usually expressed in degree measure.

5. Major Arc – measure is more than 180°

Example: arc ABD, arc DCA, arc CAD

6. Minor Arc – arcs whose measure is less than 180°

Example: arc DC, arc AB

94 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

7. Intercepted Arc – the arc that is “intercepted” or cut by an angle inside the circle
Example: arc DC, arc AB

8. Interior – the region covered by all the points inside the circle whose distance from center is less
than the radius

9. Exterior – the region covered by all the points outside the circle whose distance from center is
greater than the radius

10. Central Angle – an angle whose vertex is the center

Example: ∠DOC

11. Subtended Angle – the angle formed by two chords

Example: ∠ACB

12. Tangent – a line/segment that intersects the circle at exactly 1 point

13. Secant – a line/segment that intersects the circle at two points

Example: line n

Note:
- A figure is said to be inscribed in a circle if the vertices of the figure are point in the circle. The figure
inscribed in a circle can also be described as the figure circumscribed by a circle.
- A figure circumscribes a circle if all the sides of the figure are tangent to the circle.

Properties of Circles and Lines

1. An inscribed angle is equal in degrees to half its intercepted arc.

Geometry | 95
2. An angle formed by two chords intersecting in a circle is equal in degrees to half the sum of its in-
tercepted arcs.

3. An angle formed outside a circle by two secants, a secant and a tangent, or two tangents is equal in
degrees to half the difference of its intercepted arc.

4. Two tangent segments drawn to a circle from the same external point are congruent.

96 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

 Exploring Arcs, Chords, Secants and Tangents

Space Figures
Three-dimensional (3-D) figures which have length, width, ang height or depth.
1. Prisms
• Has two parallel congruent bases
• Named by the shape of its base

2. Cubes - A prism with 6 congruent square faces

3. Pyramids
• The faces are triangles with a common vertex
• The base is a polygon

4. Cylinder - Has 2 parallel circular faces which are congruent

5. Cone - Has one circular face and one vertex
6. Sphere - Has no flat surface

Note:
• Euler’s Theorem: the number of faces (F), vertices (V), and edges (E) of a polyhedron are related by
the formula F + V = E + 2

Geometry | 97
 Calculations
Perimeter
• The sum of all the lengths of the sides of a polygon
P = 4 + 7 + 10 = 21

Circumference
• The distance around the
circle
• This is analogous to the
perimeter of polygons

Note: The distance covered by a wheel in one revolution is equal to the circumference of the wheel

In one revolution, this wheel covers

Area and Perimeter

98 | LevelUp Online Tutorials

Volume and Surface Area

Similar figures
• Figures that have the same shape. They may be of different sizes or different orientations.

Congruent figures
• Figure that has the same shape and size.

Note:
• If two figures are congruent, they must be similar.

Geometry | 99
Rotation: When a figure is turn, we call it a rotation of the figure, we can measure this rotation in terms
of degrees; a 360-degree turn rotates a figure around once back to its original positions.

Reflection: If we flip (or mirror) along some line, we say the figure is a reflection along that line.

Folding: When we talk about folding a plane figure, we mean folding it as if it were a piece of paper in
that shape. We might fold this into a solid figure such as a box, or fold the figure flat along itself.

Symmetric figure: A figure that can be folded flat along a line so that the two halves match perfectly
is a symmetric figure; such a line is called a line of symmetry.

Similarities
Some important properties of similar 2D and 3D figures:
1. Corresponding angles of similar figures like triangles and quadrilaterals are equal.

2. Corresponding sides are proportional.

3. Corresponding faces of 3D objects possess the two properties mentioned above.

4. Ratio property:

Ratios
Given two similar regular 3D object A and B whose ratio of one side of object A to the
corresponding side of object B is then the ratio of the perimeter of A to B is also:

100 | LevelUp Online Tutorials