ABSTRACT:

Liquid propulsion in rocket engines is a cornerstone technology for space exploration

and military applications, providing the necessary thrust for various types of
spacecraft and missiles. This propulsion method involves the combustion of liquid
propellants typically a combination of fuel and oxidizer to produce high-pressure,
high-temperature gases that are expelled through a nozzle, generating thrust in
accordance with Newton’s Third Law.

The primary advantages of liquid propulsion include high efficiency, precise control
over thrust, and the ability to throttle, stop, and restart the engine during flight. These
capabilities make liquid propulsion systems ideal for missions requiring flexibility,
such as satellite launches, interplanetary travel, and space station docking.

Liquid propulsion engines are commonly categorized into monopropellant and

bipropellant engines. Monopropellants use a single substance that decomposes
chemically to produce thrust, while bipropellants use two separate substances fuel and
oxidizer that ignite in the combustion chamber. Bipropellant systems typically offer
higher specific impulse (Isp), making them more suitable for high-performance
applications. Despite their numerous advantages, liquid propulsion systems present
challenges such as the complexity of fuel handling, the need for robust plumbing and
pumping systems, and potential weight penalties. In recent years, the development of
greener, more sustainable propellants and the integration of reusable engine
technologies are expected to play a significant role in reducing the cost and
environmental impact of liquid propulsion systems. As the demands of space missions
grow, liquid propulsion will remain a fundamental technology for achieving efficient
and reliable access to space, enabling more ambitious ventures into the cosmos.
NOMENCLATURE:

F Thrust force

ṁ Mass flow rate

Ve Velocity

Pe Exit Pressure

Pa Ambient Pressure

Ae Exit Area

g Gravity
CONTENTS:
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1: What Is Rocket Propulsion...?

Rocket propulsion is the method by which a rocket generates thrust to move through
space or the atmosphere, relying on the principle of Newton’s Third Law of Motion:
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. In simple terms, rocket
propulsion works by expelling mass (usually gases) at high velocity in one direction,
and as a result, the rocket is pushed in the opposite direction, creating forward motion.

Rocket propulsion systems typically involve the following basic components:

1. Propellants: These are substances used to create the exhaust gases that
generate thrust. Propellants can be in the form of solids, liquids, or even gases,
but most modern rockets use solid, liquid, or hybrid propellants.

o Solid Propellants: The fuel and oxidizer are combined in a solid form,
often used for smaller rockets or as boosters on larger vehicles.

o Liquid Propellants: Liquid fuel and oxidizer are stored separately and
mixed in a combustion chamber. This system is highly efficient and
provides more control, making it ideal for large rockets and space
missions.

o Hybrid Propellants: These systems use a combination of solid fuel

and liquid oxidizer, offering advantages of both solid and liquid

propulsion.
 Fig: 1.1 Four Types of Chemical Rocket Motors

2. Combustion: In both solid and liquid rocket engines, the propellant undergoes
combustion (burning) inside a combustion chamber. For liquid rockets, the
fuel and oxidizer are injected into the chamber and ignited, producing hot
gases. For solid rockets, the fuel is already pre-mixed and burns when ignited.
The combustion of the propellant produces a high-pressure, high-temperature
gas.

3. Nozzle: The hot gases produced by combustion are expelled through a nozzle
at the back of the rocket. The nozzle helps convert the high pressure of the
gases into high-speed exhaust, directing the gases outwards to create thrust.
The design of the nozzle plays a significant role in determining the efficiency
of the propulsion system.

4. Thrust: The expelled gases create an equal and opposite force (thrust) that
pushes the rocket in the opposite direction of the exhaust. This is what causes
the rocket to move.

1.1.1: Types of Rocket Propulsion Systems:

1. Chemical Propulsion: This is the most common form of rocket propulsion,

where chemical reactions between the fuel and oxidizer release energy. It
includes both solid and liquid propellants. These engines are typically used
for launching payloads into space or for sending spacecraft to other planets.

2. Electric Propulsion: Instead of burning fuel to create thrust, electric

propulsion uses electricity (often from solar panels) to ionize propellant and
accelerate it using magnetic or electric fields. This type of propulsion is more
efficient than chemical propulsion but provides less thrust, making it ideal for
long-duration space missions, like deep-space probes (e.g., NASA's Dawn
spacecraft).

3. Nuclear Propulsion: This type uses nuclear reactions (either nuclear fission or
fusion) to produce thrust. It promises to offer much higher efficiencies than
chemical propulsion, especially for deep-space missions. Though not yet in
 operational use, nuclear propulsion is being researched for future missions to
Mars and beyond.

4. Hybrid Propulsion: Combines elements of both liquid and solid propulsion.

These systems typically use a solid fuel combined with a liquid oxidizer.
Hybrid rockets offer a balance of efficiency and controllability and have been
used in certain commercial space vehicles.

Fig: 1.2 Chemical Propulsion Systems

1.2: Introduction To Liquid Propulsion in Rocket Engines

Liquid Propulsion in Rocket Engines involves the use of liquid propellants to

generate thrust for launching and guiding rockets into space. Unlike solid propulsion,
where the fuel and oxidizer are pre-mixed in a solid form, liquid propulsion systems
store the fuel and oxidizer in separate tanks and combine them in a combustion
chamber. The resulting chemical reaction produces hot gases that are expelled through
a nozzle, generating thrust in accordance with Newton's third law of motion.

Liquid propulsion in rocket engines is a system that uses liquid propellants to

generate thrust by expelling high-speed gases through a nozzle. The basic principle
involves two main components: the fuel and the oxidizer, which are stored separately
in tanks.

These propellants are pumped into a combustion chamber, where they mix and ignite,
creating a controlled chemical reaction that produces high-pressure, high-temperature
gases. These gases are then directed through a nozzle, where their pressure is
converted into kinetic energy, propelling the rocket forward. Liquid propulsion
systems offer a high specific impulse (Isp), which means they provide more thrust per
unit of fuel compared to solid propulsion systems. This makes them highly efficient
for long-duration space missions, satellite launches, and interplanetary travel. The
ability to throttle, shut down, and restart liquid engines during flight gives them
superior control over the rocket’s trajectory. This flexibility is crucial for tasks such as
orbital insertion, docking, and precise landing manoeuvres.

It is used in both monopropellant and bipropellant systems. Monopropellant engines

rely on a single propellant, often with a chemical catalyst to initiate the reaction (e.g.,
hydrazine), while bipropellant engines use two separate propellants, typically a liquid
fuel (like RP-1 or liquid hydrogen) and a liquid oxidizer (like liquid oxygen or
nitrogen tetroxide). Bipropellant engines are more powerful and efficient but are more
complex due to the need for precise mixing and handling of the propellants. Liquid
propulsion systems are also favoured for their ability to be easily controlled in terms
of thrust and duration, allowing for more sophisticated mission designs. However,
these systems require intricate plumbing, pumps, and cooling systems to handle the
high pressures and temperatures involved, adding to the complexity and weight of the
rocket.

Despite these challenges, liquid propulsion remains the foundation of most modern
space vehicles, from the SpaceX Falcon rockets to NASA’s Space Shuttle engines,
because of its reliability, efficiency, and adaptability for various mission profiles.
Liquid propulsion continues to evolve with advancements in materials, technologies,
and fuel options, paving the way for future deep space exploration and beyond.

1.3: Liquid Propelled Rocket Engines by Brahmos Aerospace

BrahMos Aerospace is primarily known for developing the BrahMos supersonic

cruise missile, which uses liquid propulsion for its engines. The company's focus
has been on defence applications, specifically developing advanced missile systems,
rather than traditional space launch vehicles. As of now, BrahMos Aerospace has not
developed a wide variety of liquid-propelled rocket engines used for space missions
or commercial launches, but its liquid propulsion technology has been applied to
various missile variants.
Here are the launched liquid-propelled rocket engines by BrahMos Aerospace:

1. BrahMos Supersonic Cruise Missile (Liquid Propulsion in Ramjet

Engine)
 Launch Date: The first successful test of the BrahMos missile
occurred in 2001. Since then, several tests and operational launches
have taken place, making it one of the most successful supersonic
cruise missiles in service today.

 Propulsion System: The missile is powered by a liquid-fuelled ramjet

engine, which uses a combination of liquid kerosene (fuel) and an oxidizer
to generate high-speed exhaust gases. These gases are expelled through a
nozzle to produce thrust, enabling the missile to travel at speeds of Mach 2.5–
3.0.

 Key Features: The liquid propulsion system allows the missile to achieve
supersonic speeds and provides long-range capability, making it effective for
various strategic roles (land, sea, and air targets).

 Platform: The missile has been launched from different platforms, including:

o Land-based launchers (mobile trucks).

o Naval vessels (surface ships).

o Aircraft (e.g., Su-30MKI fighter jets).

2. BrahMos-A (Air-Launched BrahMos) (Liquid Propulsion in Ramjet Engine)

 Launch Date: The air-launched version of the BrahMos missile, known as

BrahMos-A, was successfully tested in 2008 and entered service with the
Indian Air Force.

 Propulsion System: It uses the same liquid-fuelled ramjet engine as the

ground and sea-launched variants. The liquid propulsion system provides the
missile with the necessary thrust to achieve supersonic speeds after being
launched from an aircraft (e.g., Su-30MKI).

 Platform: The missile is launched from fighter aircraft, giving the Indian Air
Force a powerful air-to-ground or air-to-sea strike capability.
3. BrahMos-ER (Extended Range) – Liquid Propulsion Variant

 Launch Date: The extended-range BrahMos (BrahMos-ER) was

successfully test-fired for the first time in 2017.

 Propulsion System: This version retains the liquid propulsion system

(ramjet engine) from the original missile but has enhanced fuel and design
optimizations for increased range (up to 800 km).

 Key Features: BrahMos-ER is designed for longer-range strikes, providing

strategic advantages for missile platforms (land, sea, or air-launched) to target
distant locations while maintaining supersonic speed.

4. BrahMos-NG (Next Generation) (In Development – Liquid Propulsion

Expected)

 Launch Date: The BrahMos-NG is under development, with a goal of being

ready for testing in the near future (expected in the mid-2020s).

 Liquid Propulsion: The BrahMos-NG is expected to use a liquid-propelled

ramjet engine, similar to the original BrahMos missile but in a smaller, more
compact design. The goal is to reduce weight and size while maintaining
supersonic speeds.

 Key Features: This version is aimed at providing a smaller and more versatile
missile, suitable for launching from lighter platforms like fighter aircraft (e.g.,
Tejas or Mig-29).
 Fig: 1.3 Classification of Brahmos Missiles

The future of liquid propulsion in rocket engines is full of exciting possibilities,

driven by advancements in technology, materials, and the growing demand for more
efficient, reliable, and cost-effective space exploration. As humanity looks toward
more ambitious missions, including lunar bases, Mars exploration, and deep space
travel, liquid propulsion systems are likely to play a pivotal role.

Here are some key areas where liquid propulsion is expected to evolve in the coming
years Increased Efficiency, Green Propellants, Larger and More Powerful Engines,
Reusable Engines, Hybrid Systems, Advanced Manufacturing, Autonomous and AI-
Driven Systems.

1.3.1: SIGNIFICANCE OF RAMJET ENGINES FOR BRAHMOS

AEROSPACE

The significance of ramjet engines for BrahMos Aerospace lies primarily in their
ability to propel the BrahMos missile to supersonic speeds, enhancing both its
performance and strategic impact. Ramjets are air-breathing engines that operate
efficiently at speeds above Mach 2, making them ideal for supersonic missiles like the
BrahMos, which can reach speeds over Mach 3. Unlike traditional jet engines, ramjets
do not require compressors or turbines to function; instead, they rely on the high-
speed forward motion of the missile to compress incoming air, making them a simpler
and more efficient option for achieving the extreme velocities needed in modern
warfare.

Fig: 1.4 Ramjet Engine

In addition to speed, the ramjet engine's design contributes to the extended range of
the BrahMos missile. Its efficient propulsion allows the missile to cover vast distances
in a short period, further enhancing its lethality. With its ramjet engine, BrahMos can
travel hundreds of kilometres at supersonic speeds, giving it an edge in both offensive
and defensive operations. This long-range capability is especially valuable in naval
and land-based platforms, as it allows for quick strikes at enemy assets while
minimizing the time available for retaliation or countermeasures.

The simplicity and lightweight nature of ramjet engines are another critical advantage
for BrahMos. Unlike turbojets or turbofans, ramjets have fewer moving parts, which
reduces the overall weight and mechanical complexity of the missile. This simplicity
translates to higher reliability and fewer potential points of failure, which is crucial for
a weapon system that must perform flawlessly in high-stakes scenarios. Furthermore,
the reduced weight improves the missile's manoeuvrability and speed, making it even
harder for enemy defences to intercept.

Ramjet-powered BrahMos also brings about an increase in accuracy and evasion

capability. The missile's high speed, combined with its advanced guidance systems,
ensures it can effectively evade interception by modern defence systems, including
surface-to-air missiles. This makes the missile more unpredictable and harder to
counter, significantly enhancing its chances of a successful strike. The missile's
combination of speed and agility, coupled with its ability to change course mid-flight,
ensures that it remains a formidable weapon for any adversary.
Moreover, BrahMos Aerospace's use of ramjet engines plays a pivotal role in giving
the missile a strategic and tactical advantage. The BrahMos missile can be launched
from various platforms, including ships, submarines, and aircraft, and it is capable of
targeting both land and maritime assets. Its supersonic speed and precision make it a
highly versatile and potent weapon in a range of combat scenarios. Additionally,
BrahMos has evolved to include hypersonic capabilities in its developmental pipeline,
where ramjet technology will likely serve as a foundation for missiles that can exceed
Mach 5 speeds, further solidifying the BrahMos as a game-changer in missile
technology.

Finally, the cost-efficiency of ramjet engines, compared to more complex propulsion

systems such as scramjets or turbofans, makes them an attractive option for BrahMos
Aerospace. The reduced complexity in the engine's design allows for the production
of a highly advanced missile system at a relatively lower cost, ensuring that it remains
within the budgetary constraints of defence budgets while maintaining superior
performance. This makes BrahMos an affordable yet powerful tool in modern defence
arsenals, both for India and potential international customers.

In conclusion, the ramjet engine is a critical component of the BrahMos missile,

providing it with high speed, long range, manoeuvrability, and reliability—all
essential characteristics of a modern, effective weapon. Its integration into the
BrahMos system enhances its strategic value, ensuring that it remains a cutting-edge
tool for both offensive strikes and deterrence in an increasingly complex global
security environment.
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

Biliyar N. Bhat 2019 [1] Aerospace Materials and Applications

The chapter offers a thorough explanation of how material properties affect aerospace
design and performance. Bhat begins with an overview of essential structural
properties such as elastic modulus, tensile and yield strength, ductility, fracture
toughness, and fatigue resistance. He connects these characteristics to material
selection decisions in various aerospace components, especially where weight
reduction and reliability are critical.

It delves into:

Microstructure-property relationships: Showing how processing techniques like

forging, extrusion, and heat treatment impact mechanical behavior.

Metallic alloys: Particularly aluminum and titanium alloys, with details on their
strengthening mechanisms, corrosion behavior, and heat treatment practices.
Composite materials: Including fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) and thermoset
resins, with discussions on anisotropy, lay-up design, and damage mechanisms like
delamination.

Environmental effects: Such as oxidation, corrosion, and hydrogen embrittlement

especially important in fuel systems using liquid hydrogen and oxygen.

Manufacturing considerations: Focused on design for manufacturability, weldability,

and cost-performance trade-offs.

It also introduces ceramics and high-temperature materials used in propulsion and

thermal protection systems, emphasizing their thermal stability and brittleness.

Aluminum Alloys:

Widely used in aerospace due to high strength-to-weight ratio. Focuses on 2xxx (Al-
Cu) and 7xxx (Al-Zn-Mg-Cu) series, commonly used in aircraft structures. Discusses
precipitation strengthening, grain refinement, and heat treatments (like T6) that
enhance mechanical properties.

Addressed corrosion resistance, formability, and fatigue behavior key concerns in

fuselage and wing applications.

Composite Materials:

Covers fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) mainly carbon fiber and glass fiber
composites. Emphasizes anisotropy, lay-up orientation, and matrix-fiber bonding.

Explains processing methods like autoclave curing, resin transfer molding, and their
effect on void content and strength. Discusses damage tolerance, including
delamination and impact resistance, especially relevant in helicopter blades and
control surfaces.

Aerospace Materials and Applications addresses materials selection and use in

aircraft, spacecraft, launch vehicles, and propulsion systems and power systems.
Advances in aerospace systems are strongly dependent on advances in materials and
processing technologies. In the past hundred years of powered flight aircraft structures
have evolved around advances in materials that are lighter and stronger. Aircraft
propulsion systems are constantly striving to become more fuel efficient via
reductions in mass and improved capability for materials to operate at higher
temperatures for longer periods. Gas turbine engines that power modern aircraft are
being designed to run at higher pressures and temperatures to generate more thrust per
pound of engine mass. Similar considerations apply to rocket engines where the
power densities are much higher. Spacecraft are designed to operate in the harsh
radiation environments of outer space. In-space propulsion and power systems are key
components of spacecraft and advanced materials enable these systems. Hence it is
important for aerospace systems designers to have a good understanding of how
specific materials will perform in their systems. Aerospace Materials and Applications
clearly shows the preferred approach to selecting materials given the unique
requirements for design and construction of aerospace systems.

Coverage Includes:

Aerospace Materials Characteristics, Materials Selection for Aerospace Systems,

Advanced Nanoengineered Materials, Subsonic Aircraft Materials Development,
Materials for Spacecraft, Materials for Launch Vehicle Structures. Materials for
Exploration Systems, Thermal Protection Systems and Hot Structures for Hypersonic
Vehicles, Aero Engine Materials, Materials for Solid Rocket Engines, Materials for
Liquid Propulsion Systems, Advanced Materials for In-Space Propulsion, Materials in
Power Systems in Space Exploration

Minchao Huang, Yuqiang Cheng, Jia Dai, Jian Li 2024 [2]

Performance Analysis of a Liquid/Gel Propelled Engines

What Are Gel Propellants:

Gel propellants are thickened liquid propellants that offer the energy density of liquids
and the safety of solids. They are essentially liquids with a gelling agent added,
providing thixotropic behaviour—meaning they flow under pressure but remain stable
at rest.

Gel propellants offer several key advantages that make them attractive for various
aerospace and defence applications. One of the primary benefits is safety-gel
propellants are generally less prone to leakage and combustion compared to pure
liquid propellants. They also possess throttle-ability, meaning they can be throttled,
shut down, or restarted, much like traditional liquid propellants. Additionally, they
present a reduced hazard-being less sensitive to shock or rough handling than solid
propellants. Due to their high viscosity and shear-thinning behaviour, they also carry a
lower risk of leakage further enhancing their safety profile.

These characteristics make gel propellants highly suitable for use in missile systems
and launch vehicles, particularly in scenarios where on-demand ignition,
controllability, or long-term storability is crucial. Their unique properties bridge the
gap between solid and liquid propellants, combining the storability and handling
benefits of solids with the controllability of liquids.

The formulation of gel propellants typically involves three main components: a base
fuel or oxidizer in liquid form, a gellant (often a thickening agent like polymers or
nanoparticles), and various additives that enhance performance, stability, or reduce
viscosity. Despite their advantages, gel propellants also pose several challenges.
These include pumping difficulties due to their high viscosity, complex injector
design, residue formation in the combustion chamber, and storage and stability
issues over extended periods.

Common types of gel fuels include hydroxylammonium nitrate, RP-1, and

kerosene, while typical gelled oxidizers include WFNA (White Fuming Nitric
Acid), RFNA (Red Fuming Nitric Acid), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and
dinitrogen tetroxide (N₂O₄). In terms of combustion and performance, gel
propellants deliver performance that is close to liquid propellants while offering
improved safety margins and controllable burn rates. However, they do require
specialized injectors and pressurization systems to handle their unique flow
characteristics.

A defining feature of gel propellants is their thixotropic behaviour. This means that
the gel becomes more fluid-like under mechanical shear—such as during pumping or
injection—and reverts to a more solid-like state at rest. This behaviour is crucial for
the handling and delivery systems of gel propellants.

In missile system, gelled propellants are especially advantageous due to their

storability, which allows them to be stored for long durations without degradation,
similar to solid fuels. Their on-demand ignition capability ensures precise ignition
timing, while their throttle-ability allows for variable thrust, a feature that is not
commonly available in solid propellants. Combined with their enhanced safety, these
features make gel propellants ideal for tactical and strategic missile applications.

Examples:

Used in cruise missiles or manoeuvrable re-entry vehicles where mid-flight course

correction or thrust control is critical.

1. Spacecraft and Satellite Propulsion:

Gel propellants are ideal for:

-Orbital manoeuvring systems (OMS)

-Attitude control systems (ACS)

-Deep-space missions needing safe, long-duration storage and restart capability

Benefits include:

-Reduced handling risks on board crewed missions

-Potential use in green propulsion systems by replacing toxic liquid fuels

2. Dual Mode Propulsion Systems:

Gels are used in systems where liquid and solid propellant modes are combined:

-Initial launch with solid motor

-Cruise or upper-stage propulsion with gel for controllability

-Why it works: Solid gives a high-thrust boost; gel provides sustained, throttle-able
propulsion.

3. Military Applications:

Military vehicles or UAVs can benefit from:

-Quick-launch capabilities

-Controllable burn time and velocity

-Reduced logistics burden (safer to transport/store)

-Often paired with compact engines for mobile launcher systems.

4. Research and Testing:

Gelled propellants offer a safe test medium for:

- Injector and combustion chamber design trials

- Simulating liquid behaviour without the full volatility

- Understanding atomization and combustion characteristics

Ankit Mishra, JVML Jeyan 2021 [3] Performance Parameters and

Assessment Techniques in Liquid Propulsion Systems: Short Review

1. Objective of the Paper

The paper also integrates a literature review of various global research efforts,
highlighting experimental and theoretical advancements in propulsion design, thrust
optimization, and material innovation.

The review presents a concise evaluation of liquid propulsion systems, focusing on:

- Performance parameters: Thrust, Specific Impulse (Isp), Mass Flow Rate, Chamber
Pressure

- Types of systems: Monopropellant, Bipropellant, Tri propellant

- Assessment methods used in propulsion research

- Recent developments in propellant technologies, engine design, and control

techniques

2. Fundamental Parameters Explained

Chamber pressure and nozzle efficiency are also critical, affecting how effectively
combustion gases are accelerated to generate thrust.

Thrust (F): F = ṁVe + (Pe - Pa) Ae

Specific Impulse (Isp): Isp = F / (ṁ * g)

These equations help determine how effectively a propulsion system converts

propellant into thrust.

3. Types of Liquid Propellant Systems

Monopropellant Systems

Use a single chemical (e.g., hydrazine or H₂O₂) that decomposes catalytically.

Pros: Simple design, reliable ignition

Cons: Lower thrust and efficiency

Bipropellant Systems

Use separate oxidizer and fuel (e.g., LOX + RP-1, MMH + N₂O₄).

Categories:

Hypergolic: Ignite on contact

Non-Hypergolic: Require ignition source

Pros: High thrust, more efficient

Cons: Complex storage and plumbing

Tri propellant Systems

Use fuel, oxidizer, and a third component (cooling, energy, or dual-mode use).

Pros: Enhanced thrust and thermal management

Cons: Higher complexity

Tri propellant systems also allow for dynamic switching between propellants,
enabling optimization based on mission phase such as high-thrust lift-off vs. high-
efficiency space manoeuvring.

4. Comparison of Propellant Systems

Monopropellant: Moderate Isp, simple and reliable

Bipropellant: High Isp, efficient but complex

Tri propellant: Optimized performance, most complex

Recent advancements also include variable-thrust engines and control systems using
neural networks, significantly enhancing engine adaptability and fault tolerance.

5. Notable Research Highlights

Green propellants like HAN and ADN are cleaner alternatives

Catalysts like platinum/rhenium improve performance

Additive manufacturing enhances injector design

Machine learning is used for control and optimization

Hydrogen-based fuels are explored for higher performance

International space agencies and private aerospace companies continue to drive

research in cryogenic and semi-cryogenic propellants, targeting safer and more
sustainable missions.

6. Historical Evolution

Covers progress from WWII V-2 rockets to Apollo, Shuttle, and reusable systems like
SpaceX Falcon 9 and Starship.

Emphasizes innovations in reusability, fuel efficiency, and green technology.

Advanced cooling systems like regenerative cooling are commonly employed to

prevent thermal damage to engine components, especially in high-thrust operations.

7. Working Principle of Liquid Engines

Fuel and oxidizer are stored separately, pumped into a combustion chamber, and
burned.

The resulting gases are expelled through a nozzle to create thrust.

Evaluated via metrics like Isp, thrust-to-weight ratio, and thermal efficiency.

The integration of AI, composite materials, and sustainable fuels is expected to further
revolutionize liquid propulsion systems for future manned and unmanned space
missions.

8. Conclusion

Propellant choice affects mission efficiency, cost, complexity, and safety.

Monopropellants: Simple

Bipropellants: Efficient
Tri propellants: Future potential

Research is focused on green fuels, machine learning, and materials for better
propulsion systems.

Monopropellant systems are particularly suited for satellite attitude control and low-
thrust applications due to their ease of use and lower operational complexity.

Bipropellant systems dominate in launch vehicles and deep space missions due to
their high energy efficiency and ability to tailor propellant combinations for specific
mission profiles.

Tri propellant systems, while not yet widely adopted, hold potential in advanced
mission profiles where dual-mode operation (e.g., atmospheric and vacuum) is
desired.

A.G Galeev 2017 [4] Enhancing Safety Management Of Liquid

Propellant As A Green Space Propulsion Fuel

1. Challenges of Using Hydrogen

- Hydrogen has a wide flammability range (4–75%) and low ignition energy, making
it highly susceptible to combustion.

- It has high diffusivity and low molecular weight, which increases the chances of
undetected leakage.

- Cryogenic storage requirements introduce complexity in handling, pressurization,

and insulation.

- The low density of hydrogen necessitates larger storage and feeding infrastructure.

2. Testing Environment Considerations

- Testing must occur in isolated, flame-resistant, and ventilated zones to prevent and
control accidental ignition.

- Continuous hydrogen monitoring through sensors placed in strategic locations.

- Test stands require features such as reinforced flameproof structures and emergency
cutoff systems.
- Integration of advanced fire suppression systems using inert gases such as nitrogen
or CO₂.

3. Engineering Solutions for Safety

- Closed-loop purging using inert gases to displace residual hydrogen from pipelines
and engine components.

- Dual containment piping and vacuum-jacketed fuel lines to reduce leakage risk.

- Redundant measurement systems including pressure, temperature, and flow rate

sensors.

- Layered safety control systems combining mechanical interlocks, electronic

controllers, and software-based logic.

- Real-time diagnostics systems that detect and alert deviations in critical parameters
instantly.

4. Safety Assurance Techniques

- Multi-level redundancy in monitoring and shutdown mechanisms.

- Pre-test and post-test inspection routines for pressure integrity and leak detection.

- Implementation of automated response systems for fire suppression and system

isolation.

- Emergency protocols for personnel evacuation, facility lockdown, and hydrogen

venting.

- Regular simulation-based drills and scenario testing to validate emergency

preparedness.

5. Contributions and Recommendations

- Advocates for the development of international safety standards specifically tailored

for hydrogen-fuelled engine testing.

- Encourages integration of emerging technologies like AI-based diagnostics and

advanced sensor fusion.
- Suggests modular and scalable test facilities to accommodate a variety of engine
sizes and thrust levels.

- Emphasizes the role of historical incident analysis in designing next-generation safe

testing protocols.

- Stresses the need for collaborative safety frameworks involving engine developers,
safety regulators, and facility managers.

D.K. Huzel and D.H. Huang [5] Design of Liquid Propellant Rocket
Engines

1. Fundamentals of Liquid Rocket Propulsion (Chapters 1 & 2)

The book begins by laying the groundwork for understanding liquid rocket engines,
explaining what they are and their role in modern space exploration. It introduces
propulsion system classifications and compares liquid rockets with solid and hybrid
systems, highlighting advantages like throttle-ability, restart capability, and higher
performance. Key terms such as thrust, specific impulse, total impulse, and mass flow
rate are clearly defined.

Following this, the text dives into the types of liquid propellants used. Cryogenic
propellants (e.g., LOX and LH₂) and storable propellants (e.g., N₂O₄, hydrazine,
UDMH, MMH) are explored with respect to their performance characteristics, such as
specific impulse, combustion temperature, and density impulse. Safety considerations
—including toxicity, corrosiveness, and storability—are also emphasized. The
oxidizer-to-fuel ratio (O/F) is introduced as a critical design factor affecting
performance and combustion behaviour.

2. Propulsion Cycles and Engine Architecture (Chapters 3 & 4)

This section discusses how propellants are converted into thrust through different
engine cycle configurations. Simpler pressure-fed systems are contrasted with more
complex pump-fed cycles like the gas generator, staged combustion, and expander
cycles—each offering different trade-offs in efficiency, complexity, and scalability.

The design of the combustion chamber, where thrust is generated, is then covered in
detail. Chamber geometry, throat sizing, and nozzle expansion ratios are critical to
achieving desired performance. Cooling methods—regenerative, film, and ablative
cooling are analysed in terms of effectiveness and engineering constraints. The
interplay between combustion, thermal stress, material selection, and chamber design
is a central focus.

3. Propellant Delivery and Mixing Systems (Chapters 5, 6 & 7)

The performance and stability of a liquid rocket engine hinge on how efficiently the
propellants are delivered and mixed. Injector design plays a pivotal role here, with
several configurations discussed—such as impinging, coaxial swirl, and pintle
injectors. Each injector type affects atomization quality, combustion efficiency, and
susceptibility to instability.

Turbopump assemblies are introduced as the heart of high-performance feed systems.

The authors explore centrifugal and axial pumps, turbine operation, and the associated
engineering challenges like cavitation, vibration, and material durability. Bearings,
seals, and thermal management are crucial to turbopump reliability under extreme
conditions.

Valve types (e.g., ball, butterfly, poppet) and feed lines are also examined. These
systems must ensure reliable flow control while minimizing pressure losses and
enduring the harsh chemical and thermal environments of liquid propellants.

4. Engine Performance and Combustion Stability (Chapters 8 & 9)

This part of the book tackles the analytical side of rocket engine design.
Thermodynamic performance parameters—thrust equations, specific impulse,
characteristic velocity (c*), and combustion efficiency—are thoroughly detailed.
Concepts from gas dynamics, such as isentropic flow and nozzle expansion, are
incorporated into performance modelling, supported by charts and empirical data.

Combustion stability is given critical attention, with instabilities categorized into low-
frequency (chugging) and high-frequency (acoustic) types. Causes include poor
injector design, resonance within the combustion chamber, and feedback loops in
structural dynamics. The authors present techniques to suppress instabilities, such as
baffles, Helmholtz resonators, and acoustic liners, emphasizing the importance of
designing for a strong stability margin.

5. Testing, Integration, and Design Methodology (Chapters 10 & 11)

Testing validates theoretical models and ensures engine reliability. The book outlines
a comprehensive testing strategy that includes component-level, subscale, and full-
scale tests. Key diagnostics like thrust measurement, pressure and temperature
monitoring, and combustion analysis are explored, along with the implementation of
robust safety and instrumentation systems.

Finally, system integration is addressed, detailing the process of bringing together all
subsystems into a cohesive, high-performance engine. The design methodology
follows a structured path—from defining requirements and selecting design concepts
to detailed engineering, testing, and refinement. Engineers must navigate trade-offs in
mass, cost, thrust, reliability, and mission goals in an iterative, data-driven process.

CHAPTER 3

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF LIQUID PROPELLED

RAMJET ENGINE

3.1 Introduction

A ramjet is a variant of an air breathing jet engine that does not include a rotary
compressor; rather, it uses the engine's forward motion to compress the incoming air.
A ramjet cannot function at zero airspeed and therefore cannot be used to power an
aircraft in all phases of flight. A ramjet equipped aircraft requires another type of
propulsion to accelerate it to a speed at which the ramjet is capable of producing
thrust. A ramjet can theoretically be started at speeds as low as 185.2 kmph but it does
not start to produce any significant thrust until the airspeed reaches
approximately Mach 0.5. Even at this speed, efficiency is very low and peak
efficiency will not be attained until reaching supersonic speeds in the realm of Mach
3. Ramjet engines are limited to a maximum speed of about Mach 6 due to the
shockwave induced pressure loss which occurs when slowing the intake air to
subsonic speed.

Fig: 3.1 Ramjet Engine & Parts

In its most basic form, a ramjet has very few moving parts and, because of this
simplicity, is often referred to as a "flying stovepipe". The engine consists of an air
intake, a combustor and an exhaust nozzle. A high-speed object moving through the
air generates a high-pressure region in front of it. The ramjet engine intake takes in
high dynamic pressure air from this region and, using shockwaves created by the
intake configuration, slows the air to subsonic speed before it enters the combustion
chamber. In the combustor, fuel is mixed with the compressed air and ignited to
reaccelerate the exhaust to supersonic speed. The exhaust gas is further accelerated as
it exits the engine due to the geometric configuration of the exhaust nozzle.

3.1.1 Working of Ramjet

The working of a ramjet begins with air entering the engine through an intake as the
vehicle moves at high speed. This incoming air is naturally compressed due to the
high-speed motion process known as "ram compression." The air then slows down
and increases in pressure as it passes through a diffuser section. This compressed air
enters the combustion chamber, where fuel is injected and ignited. The resulting high-
temperature and high-pressure gases expand rapidly and are expelled through a nozzle
at the rear of the engine, generating thrust.

Fig: 3.2 Ramjet Engine

Ramjets are relatively simple in design because they do not have rotating parts,
making them lighter and mechanically more straightforward compared to turbojets or
turbofans. However, their simplicity comes at a cost: they are only efficient at high
speeds and cannot operate from a standstill. They are mainly used in applications
where very high speeds are needed, such as in supersonic missiles or experimental
aircraft. At speeds beyond Mach 6, traditional ramjets become inefficient due to
extreme temperatures and pressure, which is where advanced engines like scramjets
are used.

Ram compression is the core principle behind how a ramjet engine functions. It
refers to the process of compressing incoming air by using the engine’s high-speed
forward motion rather than mechanical components like compressors. As a ramjet-
powered vehicle travels at supersonic speeds (above the speed of sound), air rushes
into the intake at a very high velocity. This high-speed motion causes the air to be
compressed naturally as it slows down in the diffuser section of the engine. The
kinetic energy of the air is converted into pressure energy, raising the air’s pressure
and temperature before it enters the combustion chamber.

Overall, ramjets are ideal for high-speed, high-altitude flight in situations where
efficiency and simplicity are more important than versatility at low speeds.

3.2 Designing and Modelling of Ramjet Engine

The design for this project involves the following steps:

1. Model Creation: A 3D model of the ramjet inlet was designed using SolidWorks,
ensuring accurate representation of the inlet geometry for CFD analysis.

2. CFD Simulation Setup: The model was imported into ANSYS for computational
fluid dynamics simulations. The far-field method was employed to define the inlet
conditions with a pressure of 26,436 Pa, Mach number of 3, and temperature of
223.15 K.

3. Fluid Domain Definition: The fluid domain was established to simulate the flow
entering the ramjet inlet, ensuring proper boundary conditions were set for the inlet
and surrounding flow region.

4. Meshing: A structured mesh was created, ensuring sufficient resolution around the
inlet region to capture flow behaviour accurately. The mesh was refined in critical
areas such as the throat and entry region for better accuracy.

5. Boundary Conditions: Far-field boundary conditions were applied at the inlet with
specified pressure, Mach number, and temperature, while appropriate conditions were
set for the outlet and walls.

6. Post-Processing: The simulation results were analysed by extracting velocity,

pressure, and temperature contours, as well as path lines.

7. Analysis: The data obtained from the contours and graphs were used to assess the
efficiency of various fuels

3.2.1 Introduction to SolidWorks

SolidWorks is a powerful parametric 3D computer-aided design (CAD) software

developed by Dassault Systèmes. It is widely used in industries such as mechanical
engineering, aerospace, automotive, consumer product design, and education.
SolidWorks allows users to create detailed 3D models, assemblies, and 2D technical
drawings, all within a highly intuitive and user-friendly interface. It is particularly
valued for its ease of use, robust feature set, and ability to bring engineering concepts
to life from initial sketches to complete products.

At the core of SolidWorks is its parametric modelling capability. This means that all
design features are defined by parameters such as dimensions and constraints,
allowing users to easily modify and update models without starting from scratch.
Designers typically begin with a 2D sketch, applying constraints and dimensions, and
then use tools like extrude, revolve, sweep, or loft to create complex 3D shapes. These
models can be combined in assemblies, where multiple parts are brought together and
constrained using "mates" to simulate real-world mechanical relationships.

In addition to modelling, SolidWorks includes powerful tools for creating 2D

drawings. These drawings are automatically generated from 3D models and can
include multiple views, dimensions, tolerances, and notes for manufacturing.
SolidWorks also offers integrated simulation capabilities, allowing users to analyse
how their designs will perform under stress, thermal loads, or motion. Flow
Simulation can be used to study fluid dynamics and heat transfer, while rendering
tools like Photo View 360 and SolidWorks Visualize can produce high-quality,
photorealistic images for presentations or marketing.

Fig: 3.1 Sketcher Workbench in SolidWorks

The software's interface is designed to streamline the design process. Key components
include the Feature Manager design tree for model history, the Command Manager for
easy access to tools, the graphics area for modelling, and the Property Manager for
adjusting feature settings. SolidWorks also supports a wide range of file formats, such
as STEP, IGES, STL, DXF, and DWG, making it compatible with many other CAD
and manufacturing systems. This versatility makes it easy to share files across teams
and platforms.

SolidWorks is not just a modelling tool—it's a complete engineering solution. From

prototyping and simulation to design documentation and visualization, it covers the
full product development cycle. Its widespread adoption across industries, strong
community support, and comprehensive learning resources make it a go-to choice for
both beginners and experienced designers. Whether you're creating a simple bracket
or a complex aerospace component, SolidWorks provides the tools to design with
precision and confidence.

3.2.2 Introduction to Ansys

ANSYS is a leading simulation software suite used across a wide range of

engineering disciplines, providing advanced solutions for modelling, analysing, and
optimizing the behaviour of structures, fluids, and systems under various conditions.
Developed by ANSYS Inc., it is widely recognized for its powerful capabilities in
finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), thermal analysis,
and electromagnetics. The software is employed in industries such as aerospace,
automotive, electronics, energy, and manufacturing to improve product designs,
reduce prototyping costs, and ensure safety and efficiency before physical production.
ANSYS has become a go-to tool for engineers seeking to simulate real-world physics
and make informed design decisions based on accurate predictions.

One of the primary strengths of ANSYS lies in its ability to simulate complex
physical phenomena. The finite element analysis (FEA) module allows engineers to
model structural components under different loading conditions, predicting stress,
strain, deformation, and fatigue life. ANSYS also excels in computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), enabling users to simulate the behaviour of fluids—whether air,
water, or other substances—through components like pipes, turbines, or heat
exchangers. This capability is particularly useful in industries like aerospace,
automotive, and HVAC systems, where optimizing fluid flow and heat transfer is
critical to performance. Additionally, ANSYS provides tools for thermal analysis,
electromagnetic analysis, and Multiphysics simulations, making it a comprehensive
solution for solving a wide variety of engineering challenges.

The user interface of ANSYS is designed to accommodate both novice and advanced
users, with a range of tools that streamline the setup, solving, and post-processing of
simulations. The software offers ANSYS Workbench, a unified platform that
integrates various solvers and simulation tools, enabling users to perform multi-
disciplinary simulations. This integration allows engineers to handle complex
simulations involving both structural and thermal effects or fluid-structure
interactions, among others. The powerful meshing tools within ANSYS automatically
divide the model into smaller elements, optimizing the accuracy and efficiency of the
simulation process. Additionally, ANSYS provides parametric studies and
optimization capabilities, allowing engineers to test multiple design iterations,
material properties, and configurations to find the most optimal solution.

Fig: 3.3 Ansys Fluent Workbench

ANSYS is also known for its high performance in solving large-scale problems,
supported by parallel computing and cloud computing options that reduce
computation time and allow simulations of more complex and larger models. This
scalability is critical for industries that require extensive simulation runs, such as
aerospace for aircraft design or automotive for crash simulations. The software’s post-
processing tools provide detailed visualization and reporting, including stress
distribution, fluid flow patterns, and thermal gradients, helping engineers interpret
results and communicate findings with stakeholders or to guide further design
modifications.

3.2.3 Cad Model

 Fig: 3.5 Front View

Fig: 3.6 Sectional View

Fig 3.4 Isometric View

CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
4.1 ANALYSIS SETUP:

Fluid Domain:

The fluid domain for the ramjet inlet was defined to represent the airflow
entering the inlet and the surrounding computational region. A far-field boundary was
used at the inlet to simulate the external flow conditions at a Mach number of 3, with
a pressure of 26,436 Pa and temperature of 223.15 K. The fluid domain was extended
sufficiently around the inlet to capture the flow characteristics and any potential shock
formations or boundary layer effects that may occur during supersonic flow.

Fig: 4.1 Fluid Domain

Fig: 4.2 Boolean Body

Meshing:

A high-quality structured mesh was generated to accurately resolve the flow

field within the ramjet inlet. The mesh was refined near the inlet region, especially at
the throat and entry area, to ensure precise capture of shock waves, boundary layer
effects, and flow transitions. The mesh size was set to 100 mm, with further
refinement applied to critical regions such as the nozzle surface for better resolution
of flow behaviour and accuracy of results.

Fig: 4.4 Meshing

Boundary Conditions:

Inlet (Far-Field): The far-field boundary was set with a pressure of 26,436 Pa, Mach
number of 3, and a temperature of 223.15 K, representing the external supersonic flow
conditions.

Outlet: A pressure outlet condition was applied, assuming the backpressure at the exit
of the inlet.

Wall: No-slip boundary conditions were applied to the walls of the inlet to simulate
the solid surfaces in contact with the airflow, ensuring accurate velocity and pressure
profiles near the walls.

Fig: 4.5 Boundary Setup

Contours:
 The CFD analysis generated velocity, pressure, and temperature contours
within the ramjet inlet to visualize the flow characteristics. The velocity contour
provided insights into the distribution of flow speed across the inlet, highlighting
areas of high and low velocity. The pressure contour revealed pressure variations
along the inlet, indicating shock formations and areas where flow deceleration occurs.
Similarly, the temperature contour illustrated thermal gradients across the inlet,
showing how the temperature changes as the supersonic flow enters and interacts with
the inlet geometry. These contours were essential for understanding the aerodynamic
performance and identifying regions of potential flow separation or inefficiency.

\ Fig: 4.5 Pressure Contour Fig: 4.6 Velocity Contour

Fig: 4.7 Temperature contour