GROUP 1: FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

(Altitude of beds, Outcrops, and Geological Maps)

I. INTRODUCTION
Presenter: Klein
Good day, everyone. We are Group 1, and today we’ll be presenting one of the key foundations of
Structural Geology. Our topic is ‘Foundational Concepts in Structural Geology,’ focusing on
three main parts: the altitude of beds, outcrops, and geological maps. These concepts are not just
theoretical—they’re highly useful in real-world applications, especially in engineering geology
where understanding rock structures helps in designing roads, tunnels, dams, and buildings.”
Structural Geology is the branch of geology that deals with the form, arrangement and internal
structure of rocks. It is the study of factors such as origin, occurrence, classification, type and
effects of various secondary structures like folds, faults, joints, rock and cleavage and are
different from those primary structures such as bedding and vesicular structure, which develop in
rocks at the time of their formation. It deals with the geometric relationships of rocks and
geologic features in general. The scope of structural geology is vast, ranging in size from
submicroscopic lattice defects in crystals to mountain belts and plate boundaries
To guide you through this, we’ve divided the report into clearly outlined sections. Let’s begin
with the altitude of beds—for this, I’ll now turn it over to Frana.

II. Altitude of Beds

Presenter: Frana
Thank you, Klein.
The first foundational concept is the altitude of beds, which refers to the orientation of rock
layers in space. Two key measurements describe this orientation: strike and dip. But first, we
need to define what is a “BED”
Beds are the layers of sedimentary rocks that are distinctly different from overlying and
underlying subsequent beds of different sedimentary rocks
Layers of beds are called Strata. They are formed from sedimentary rocks being deposited on the
Earth's solid surface over a long period of time. When more beds of sediment are laid down on
top of the structures comes to resemble a pile of pages in a book. This stratified structure is
known as Bedding.
Strike and Dip refer to the orientation or attitude of a geologic feature (bedding attitude).
Strike- (is a scalar quantity), it is the direction of the line of intersection between inclined layers
and a horizontal plane (parallel to the surface to the earth). Such beds would have an infinite
number of strike lines as the intersection of an imaginary horizontal plane with a horizontal bed
is an infinite number of lines oriented from 0 to 360⁰.
Dip- (is a vector quantity), the direction in which a layer is inclined. It is measured perpendicular
to the strike. In all of the above illustrations strike and dip is defined for an inclined layer such as
a bed or lamination or rock stratigraphic unit (e.g., a member or formation). However, the
orientation of any planar surface can be expressed by its strike and dip. For example, the
orientation of a fault or foliation surface is commonly given as its strike and dip. - Vertical rock
has a dip of 90 - Horizontal rock has a dip of zero.
There are two types of Dips:
1.True Dip- It is the maximum amount of slope along a line perpendicular to the strike, in other
words, it is the maximum slope with respect to the horizontal.
2.Apparent Dip- along any direction other than that of the true dip, the gradient is scheduled to
be much less and therefore it is defined as the apparent dip. An instrument often used to measure
the strike and dip of a surface is called Brunton compass.
To summarize, these two measurements are vital because they help geologists and engineers
understand the orientation of rocks underground. For example, if you’re building a tunnel, you
need to know which way the rock beds dip to avoid hazards.

III. OUTCROPS
Presenter: Ealyssa
Thank you, Frana
Now, let’s move on to the second topic: Outcrops. These were formed by the intrusion of molten
granite into preexisting country rock at a depth of about ten miles below the surface. Over
millions of years, erosion removed thousands of feet of overlying rock, exposing the more
resistant bodies of granite. Any Geological formation on the surface is called an Outcrop. When
weathering and erosion expose part of a rock layer or formation, an outcrop appears. An outcrop
is the exposed rock so named, because the exposed rock "crops out." Outcrops are exposure of a
solid rock on the surface of the Earth
Let us go over to Outcrop Dimensions
Width or breadth- given by the distance between the top and bottom edges of the bed as
measured on the surface of the ground in a direction perpendicular to the strike of that particular
bed.
Thickness- is the perpendicular distance between the top and bottom surface of the same layer as
seen in a vertical section at right angles to the strike of the layer.
Depth- is given by the perpendicular distance between the ground surface and the top surface of
that particular layer.
Types of Outcrops:
1. Tabular Outcrops
Tabular outcrops are rock exposures that display flat, layered surfaces with a relatively uniform
appearance. These are typically seen along road cuts, cliffs, or quarry walls, where the rock has
been sliced cleanly to expose the bedding planes. Their straight and consistent geometry makes
them ideal for measuring strike and dip in the field.
2. Irregular Outcrops
Irregular outcrops appear broken, rough, or uneven, often due to natural erosion, faulting, or
weathering. The rock layers in these outcrops may not be clearly visible or continuous, making
interpretation more complex. Despite their chaotic appearance, they can still provide clues about
rock type, mineral content, or tectonic disturbance.
3. Folded Outcrops
Folded outcrops feature curved or wavy rock layers that have been bent by tectonic forces, such
as compression. These structures reveal the presence of folds—for example, anticlines (arched
upward) and synclines (dipped downward)—which are clear evidence of past geological stress
and crustal movement. Studying folded outcrops helps geologists understand the intensity and
direction of earth forces that acted on a region.
Geologists read outcrops like a book. By looking at the layers, fossils, or fractures, they can tell
the geologic history of an area. To apply it in engineering, outcrops help identify weak zones,
water pathways, or landslide risks.

IV. HOW TO INTERPRET AN OUTCROP

Presenter: Heinrich
Now that we’ve discussed what outcrops are and their types, let’s talk about how geologists
interpret them in the field. Interpreting an outcrop means reading the visible rock layers and
structures to understand the subsurface geology, past geological events, and even predict
conditions underground.
Here’s how to interpret an outcrop step by step:
1. Observe the layering and orientation
Start by looking for visible bedding planes or rock layers. Are they horizontal, tilted,
folded, or broken? Use this to identify the strike and dip of the beds. For example, tilted
layers dipping eastward might suggest regional tectonic forces acted from the west.
2. Identify the rock types
Check for differences in color, texture, or grain size. This helps distinguish between
sedimentary, igneous, or metamorphic rocks, which tells you about the environment of
formation (e.g., marine sediment, volcanic activity, deep burial).
 3. Look for geological structures
Find evidence of folds, faults, joints, veins, or unconformities. These structures reveal
the tectonic history. For instance, a fault cutting across layers means the faulting
happened after the rock was deposited.
4. Take strike and dip measurements
Use a compass (e.g., Brunton compass) to measure the orientation of the layers. This
gives a more precise understanding of the bed's altitude and helps correlate it with
geological maps or cross-sections.
5. Note surface weathering and erosion
Surface features like cracks, oxidation, or vegetation can affect how the outcrop looks.
Geologists consider this when mapping the true rock features underneath.
6. Record sketches or photographs
Create field sketches or take photos with notes showing the key features. This helps
document the interpretation and can be used later when comparing with geological maps.
To explain geological maps, here’s our next presenter.

V. Geological Maps
Presenter: Jake
Thank you for that interpretation, Heinrich.
Next is Geological Maps. These are specialized maps that show the distribution, type, and age of
rocks at the surface. Geological maps are important tools used by geologists to represent the
distribution and characteristics of rocks and geological features on the Earth's surface.
Geological maps provide a visual representation of the geology of a region, including rock types,
faults, folds, and other geological features. The purpose of these maps is to help geologists
understand the geological history and structure of a given area, which can be used for a variety
of purposes, such as mineral exploration, natural resource management, and hazard assessment.
Map symbols and conventions:
Geological maps use a variety of symbols and conventions to represent different geological
features. These symbols can include colors, patterns, and line types, which represent different
rock types, faults, folds, and other features. Learn more here -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w7OUSLeHiVk
Let’s go over the parts of a geological map:
First, Legend. The legend explains the symbols, patterns, and colors used on the map to
represent different rock types, formations, and structures. It serves as the key to interpreting the
map accurately.
Second, Title. The title tells you what the map represents and often includes the location, scale,
and author or source. It provides immediate context and sets the focus of the map.”
Third, Interpretation Section. Some geological maps include a brief written interpretation or
explanation summarizing the major geologic features and their implications. This section helps
users understand what the map reveals in terms of structural history or resource potential
Fourth, Susceptibility Overlay (if applicable). In engineering geology maps, overlays may
show areas susceptible to landslides, flooding, or subsidence. These are essential for risk
assessment and safe project planning.”
Fifth, Sources or References. This part lists where the data for the map came from—such as
field surveys, satellite images, or previous studies. It builds the credibility of the map and allows
users to verify or explore further.
Sixth, Coordinate System / Grid. The coordinate system (like UTM or latitude-longitude)
allows users to accurately locate features on the ground. It’s essential for aligning the map with
GPS tools or site plans.
There are still other parts of geological maps but these are just keys or what we can usually see
in a simple geological map. Now, let us provide you an example on how to interpret a simple
geological map. Klein, take it away!

VI. HOW TO INTERPRET A GEOLOGICAL MAP

Presenter: Klein
1. Title and Location
"The title at the top, 'Santa Clara Valley (Silicon Valley)', indicates the geographic focus of this
geologic study. It tells us this map is centered on a highly urbanized and tectonically active
region in California."
2. Legend
"On the right side of the map is the legend. This is a key component that explains what each
color and symbol on the map represents. We see units labeled from 'Holocene' and 'T0–T4',
which are likely sedimentary deposits, to deeper units like 'KJf' and 'Jgb', representing older rock
layers such as Franciscan complex and granitic formations. Blue represents water bodies. These
rock units help us understand the geological history and age of the area."
3. Coordinate System and Scale
"The map includes a 3D coordinate system labeled X, Y, and Z. The horizontal distance is
measured in kilometers, from 0 to about 130 km. The vertical axis represents depth or elevation.
Z exaggeration is noted to be 1.0, meaning there's no artificial stretching of vertical features.
Inclination and azimuth values are also provided to show the orientation of the 3D view."
4. Faults
"Several major fault lines are clearly labeled: the San Andreas Fault, Hayward Fault, Calaveras
Fault, and Loma Prieta Fault. These are strike-slip faults responsible for the tectonic activity in
the region. Their positions across the model highlight how the crust is broken and displaced,
which is critical for understanding earthquake hazards."
5. Rock Units
"The map reveals a layered system of rock units. Near the surface, we have younger sediments
(T0–T4), while deeper in the model, we observe older basement rocks like KJf and Jgb. The
variation in thickness and tilt of these layers shows the effects of tectonic compression and
faulting over millions of years."
6. Susceptibility (Implied)
• While not explicitly labeled, the presence of active faults like San Andreas implies high
earthquake susceptibility.
• Use: This diagram would be critical in land-use planning, showing which areas are near
active faults, helping engineers determine no-build zones or places needing
reinforcement.
7. Sources / Data
• Not directly shown here, but most professional maps would include citations or data
sources. Given this is a scientific 3D model, it likely comes from USGS data or
geophysical surveys.
 VII. TYPES OF GEOLOGIOCAL MAP
Presenter: Carl
There are several types of geological maps, each designed to provide specific information about
the geology of a particular area. Some of the most common types of geological maps include:
Surficial Geology Maps
1.Bedrock maps- these maps show the location and distribution of different types of rock
formations at or near the Earth's surface. Bedrock maps can be used to identify the age,
composition, and structure of rocks in an area, as well as their potential for use as natural
resources.
2.Surficial maps- these maps show the distribution of different types of surficial materials, such
as soils, sediments, and glacial deposits. Surficial maps can be used to study the history of
climate change, the location of natural resources like water and minerals, and the potential for
soil erosion and landslides.
3.Structural maps- these maps show the orientation and location of different types of geologic
structures, such as faults and folds. Structural maps can be used to study the history of tectonic
activity in an area, as well as the potential for earthquakes and other natural hazards.
4.Mineral maps- these maps show the location and distribution of different types of minerals and
mineral resources in an area. Mineral maps can be used to study the geology of an area, as well
as the potential for economic development through mining and other resource extraction.
5.Geologic hazard maps- these maps show the potential for natural hazards, such as earthquakes,
landslides, and volcanic eruptions, in an area. Geologic hazard maps can be used to identify areas
that are at risk for these types of events, as well as to develop strategies for mitigating their
effects.
These maps are essential for civil engineers when planning excavations or construction. They
guide decisions about foundations, tunneling paths, and slope stability.
VIII. MAP-TO-SECTION INTEREPRETATION
Presenter: Jhamierose
Map-to-section interpretation is the process of drawing a cross-sectional view of what lies
beneath the surface, based on the surface data shown in geological maps.
[Play video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2fpH-CcArtg]
While watching this, notice how:
• The orientation of layers on the map is projected downward.
• Strike and dip angles are used to draw the layers in their proper tilt.
 • Faults and folds are translated into vertical form for engineering reference.
This technique is especially useful in planning tunnels, foundations, or wells.
IX. USE OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS
Presenter: Emmanuel
Let’s now watch a video demonstration of how to use a geological compass, specifically a
Brunton Compass, to measure strike and dip accurately in the field.
[Play video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbXhooadhZw]
While watching, focus on:
• How to orient the compass on a bedding plane
• Reading the strike direction and dip angle
• Proper handling techniques to ensure accuracy
These are skills every geologist needs in the field.
And with that, let’s wrap up our discussion.

X. CONCLUSIVE STATEMENT
Presenter: Klein