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+nMODULE 2
IOT SENSING AND ACTUATION:

INTRODUCTION

1.​ The basic science of sensing and actuation is based on the process of transduction. Transduction is the
process of energy conversion from one form to another. A transducer is a physical means of enabling
transduction.
2.​ Transducers take energy in any form (for which it is designed)—electrical, mechanical, chemical, light,
sound, and others—and convert it into another, which may be electrical, mechanical, chemical, light, sound,
and others. Sensors and actuators are deemed as transducers. For example, in a public announcement (PA)
system, a microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical signals, which is amplified by an
amplifier system (a process). Finally, a loudspeaker (output device) outputs this into audible sounds by
converting the amplified electrical signals back into sound waves.

Basic outline of the differences between transducers, sensors, and actuators

Parameters Transducers Sensors Actuators

Definition Converts energy Converts various forms of energy Converts electrical
from into electrical signals. signals into
One form to various forms of
another. energy, typically
mechanical energy.
Domain Can be used to It is an input transducer. It is an output transducer.
represent a sensor
as well as an
actuator.

Function Can work as Used for quantifying Used for converting signals
a sensor or an Environmental stimuli into signals. into proportional mechanical or
actuator but not electrical outputs.
simultaneously.

Examples Any sensor or Humidity sensors, Temperature Motors (convert electrical energy to
actuator sensors, Anemometers rotary motion),
(measures flow velocity), Force heads (which impose
Manometers (measures fluid a force), Pumps (which convert
pressure), Accelerometers rotary motion of
(measures the acceleration of a shafts into either a pressure or a
body), Gas sensors (measures fluid velocity).
concentration of specific gas or
gases), and others

SENSORS

1.​ Sensors are devices that can measure, or quantify, or respond to the ambient changes in their environment or
within the intended zone of their deployment. They generate responses to external stimuli or physical

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phenomenon through characterization of the input functions (which are these external stimuli) and their
conversion into typically electrical signals.
2.​ A sensor is only sensitive to the measured property (e.g., a temperature sensor only senses the ambient
temperature of a room). It is insensitive to any other property besides what it is designed to detect (e.g., a
temperature sensor does not bother about light or pressure while sensing the temperature). Finally, a sensor
does not influence the measured property (e.g., measuring the temperature does not reduce or increase the
temperature).
3.​ Fig 1 shows the simple outline of a sensing task. Here, a temperature sensor keeps on checking an
environment for changes. In the event of a fire, the temperature of the environment goes up. The temperature
sensor notices this change in the temperature of the room and promptly communicates this information to a
remote monitor via the processor.

Fig 1: The outline of a simple sensing operation

The various sensors can be classified based on:

1) power requirements, 2) sensor output, and 3) property to be measured.

Power Requirements: The way sensors operate decides the power requirements that must be provided for an
IoT implementation. Some sensors need to be provided with separate power sources for them to function,
whereas some sensors do not require any power sources. Depending on the requirements of power, sensors can
be of two types.

(i) Active: Active sensors do not require an external circuitry or mechanism to provide it with power. It directly
responds to the external stimuli from its ambient environment and converts it into an output signal. For example,
a photodiode converts light into electrical impulses.

(ii) Passive: Passive sensors require an external mechanism to power them up. The sensed properties are
modulated with the sensor’s inherent characteristics to generate patterns in the output of the sensor. For
example, a thermistor’s resistance can be detected by applying voltage difference across it or passing a current
through it.

Output: The output of a sensor helps in deciding the additional components to be integrated with an IoT node
or system. Typically, almost all modern-day processors are digital; digital sensors can be directly integrated to
the processors.
However, the integration of analog sensors to these digital processors or IoT nodes requires additional
interfacing mechanisms such as analog to digital converters (ADC), voltage level converters, and others.
Sensors are broadly divided into two types, depending on the type of output generated from these sensors, as
follows.

(i) Analog: Analog sensors generate an output signal or voltage, which is proportional (linearly or non-linearly)
to the quantity being measured and is continuous in time and amplitude. Physical quantities such as temperature,
speed, pressure, displacement, strain, and others are all continuous and categorized as analog quantities.
For example, a thermometer or a thermocouple can be used for measuring the temperature of a liquid
(e.g., in household water heaters). These sensors continuously respond to changes in the temperature of the
liquid.

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(ii) Digital: These sensors generate the output of discrete time digital representation (time, or amplitude, or
both) of a quantity being measured, in the form of output signals or voltages.
Typically, binary output signals in the form of a logic 1 or a logic 0 for ON or OFF, respectively are
associated wi th digital sensors. The generated discrete (non-continuous) values may be output as a single “bit”
(serial transmission), eight of which combine to produce a single “byte” output (parallel transmission) in digital
sensors.

Measured Property: The property of the environment being measured by the sensors can be crucial in deciding
the number of sensors in an IoT implementation. Some properties to be measured do not show high spatial
variations and can be quantified only based on temporal variations in the measured property, such as ambient
temperature, atmospheric pressure, and
others. Whereas some properties to be measured show high spatial as well as temporal variations such as sound,
image, and others. Depending on the properties to be measured, sensors can be of two types.

(i) Scalar: Scalar sensors produce an output proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being measured. The
output is in the form of a signal or voltage. Scalar physical quantities are those where only the magnitude of the
signal is sufficient for describing or characterizing the phenomenon and information generation. Examples of
such measurable physical quantities
include color, pressure, temperature, strain, and others. A thermometer or thermocouple is an example of a
scalar sensor that has the ability to detect changes in ambient or object temperatures (depending on the sensor’s
configuration). Factors such as changes in sensor orientation or direction do not affect these sensors (typically).

(ii) Vector: Vector sensors are affected by the magnitude as well as the direction and/or orientation of the
property they are measuring. Physical quantities such as velocity and images that require additional information
besides their magnitude for completely categorizing a physical phenomenon are categorized as vector quantities.
Measuring such quantities are undertaken using vector sensors. For example, an electronic gyroscope, which is
commonly found in all modern aircraft, is used for detecting the changes in orientation of the gyroscope with
respect to the Earth’s orientation along all three axes.

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Fig 2: The functional blocks of a typical sensor node in IoT

1.​ A sensor node is made up of a combination of sensor/sensors, a processor unit, a radio unit, and a
power unit.
2.​ The nodes are capable of sensing the environment they are set to measure and communicate the
information to other sensor nodes or a remote server. Typically, a sensor node should have low-power
requirements and be wireless.
3.​ This enables them to be deployed in a vast range of scenarios and environments without the constant
need for changing their power sources or managing wires.
4.​ The wireless nature of sensor nodes would also allow them to be freely relocatable and deployed in
large numbers without bothering about managing wires.

Sensor Characteristics
All sensors can be defined by their ability to measure or capture a certain phenomenon and report them as output
signals to various other systems. However, even within the same sensor type and class, sensors can be
characterized by their ability to sense the phenomenon based on the following three fundamental properties.

• Sensor Resolution: The smallest change in the measurable quantity that a sensor can detect is referred to as
the resolution of a sensor. For digital sensors, the smallest change in the digital output that the sensor is capable
of quantifying is its sensor resolution.
The more the resolution of a sensor, the more accurate is the precision. A sensor’s accuracy does not
depend upon its resolution. For example, a temperature sensor A can detect up to 0:5◦ C changes in temperature;
whereas another sensor B can detect up to 0:25◦ C changes in temperature. Therefore, the resolution of sensor B
is higher than the resolution of sensor A.

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• Sensor Accuracy: The accuracy of a sensor is the ability of that sensor to measure the environment of a
system as close to its true measure as possible.
For example, a weight sensor detects the weight of a 100 kg mass as 99.98 kg. We can say that this
sensor is 99:98% accurate, with an error rate of ±0:02%.

• Sensor Precision: The principle of repeatability governs the precision of a sensor. Only if, upon multiple
repetitions, the sensor is found to have the same error rate, can it be deemed as highly precise.
For example, consider if the same weight sensor described earlier reports measurements of 98.28 kg,
100.34 kg, and 101.11 kg upon three repeat measurements for a mass of actual weight of 100 kg. Here, the
sensor precision is not deemed high because of significant variations in the temporal measurements for the same
object under the same conditions.

Sensorial Deviations
Most of the sensing in IoT is non-critical, where minor deviations in sensorial outputs seldom change
the nature of the undertaken tasks. However, some critical applications of IoT, such as healthcare, industrial
process monitoring, and others, do require sensors with high-quality measurement capabilities. As the quality of
the measurement obtained from a sensor is dependent on a large number of factors, there are a few primary
considerations that must be incorporated during the sensing of critical systems.

1.​ The sensitivity of a sensor may differ from the value specified for that sensor leading to sensitivity error.
This deviation is mostly attributed to sensor fabrication errors and its calibration.
2.​ Under real conditions, if the output of a sensor differs from the actual value to be measured by a constant,
the sensor is said to have an offset error or bias. For example, while measuring an actual temperature of
0◦ C, a temperature sensor outputs 1:1◦ C every time. In this case, the sensor is said to have an offset error
or bias of 1:1◦ C.
3.​ If a sensor’s transfer function (TF) deviates from a straight line transfer function, it is referred to as its
non-linearity. The amount a sensor’s actual output differs from the ideal TF behavior over the full range
of the sensor quantifies its behavior. It is denoted as the percentage of the sensor’s full range. Most sensors
have linear behavior.
4.​ If the output signal of a sensor changes slowly and independently of the measured property, this behavior
of the sensor’s output is termed as drift. Physical changes in the sensor or its material may result in
long-term drift, which can span over months or years. Noise is a temporally varying random deviation of
signals.
5.​ If a sensor’s output varies/deviates due to deviations in the sensor’s previous input values, it is referred to
as hysteresis error. The present output of the sensor depends on the past input values provided to the
sensor. Typically, the phenomenon of hysteresis can be observed in analog sensors, magnetic sensors, and
during heating of metal strips.
​ ​ One way to check for hysteresis error is to check how the sensor’s output changes when we first
increase, then decrease the input values to the sensor over its full range. It is generally denoted as a positive
and negative percentage variation of the full-range of that sensor.
6.​ Focusing on digital sensors, if the digital output of a sensor is an approximation of the measured property,
it induces quantization error. This error can be defined as the difference between the actual analog signal
and its closest digital approximation during the sampling stage of the analog to digital conversion.
Similarly, dynamic errors caused due to mishandling of sampling frequencies can give rise to
aliasing errors. Aliasing leads to different signals of varying frequencies to be represented as a single signal
in case the sampling frequency is not correctly chosen, resulting in the input signal becoming a multiple of
the sampling rate.

Finally, the environment itself plays a crucial role in inducing sensorial deviations. Some sensors may be prone
to external influences, which may not be directly linked to the property being measured by the sensor. This
sensitivity of the sensor may lead to deviations in its output values. For example, as most sensors are

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semiconductor-based, they are influenced by the temperature of their environment.

Sensing Types
Sensing can be broadly divided into four different categories based on the nature​
of the environment being sensed and the physical sensors being used to do so​
1) Scalar sensing,
2) Multimedia sensing,
3) Hybrid sensing, and
4) Virtual sensing

Scalar sensing
1.​ Scalar sensing encompasses the sensing of features that can be quantified simply by measuring
changes in the amplitude of the measured values with respect to time.
2.​ Quantities such as ambient temperature, current, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, light, humidity,
flux, and others are considered as scalar values as they normally do not have a directional or
spatial property assigned with them.
3.​ Simply measuring the changes in their values with passing time provides enough information
about these quantities.
4.​ The sensors used for measuring these scalar quantities are referred to as scalar sensors, and the
act is known as scalar sensing. A simple scalar temperature sensing of a fire detection event is
shown in Fig a.

Multimedia sensing
1.​ Multimedia sensing encompasses the sensing of features that have a spatial variance property
associated with the property of temporal variance.
2.​ Unlike scalar sensors, multimedia sensors are used for capturing the changes in amplitude of a
quantifiable property concerning space (spatial) as well as time (temporal).
3.​ Quantities such as images, direction, flow, speed, acceleration, sound, force, mass, energy, and
momentum have both directions as well as a magnitude. Additionally, these quantities follow the vector
law of addition and hence are designated as vector quantities.
4.​ The sensors used for measuring these quantities are known as vector sensors. Figures 5.3(a) and 5.3(c)
are vector sensors. A simple camera-based multimedia sensing using surveillance as an example is
shown in Figure 5.4(b)

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Hybrid sensing
1.​ The act of using scalar as well as multimedia sensing at the same time is referred to as hybrid sensing.
Many a time, there is a need to measure certain vector as well as scalar properties of an environment at
the same time.
2.​ Under these conditions, a range of various sensors are employed (from the collection of scalar as well
as multimedia sensors) to measure the various properties of that environment at any instant of time, and
temporally map the collected information to generate new information.
3.​ For example, in an agricultural field, it is required to measure the soil conditions at regular intervals of
time to determine plant health. Sensors such as soil moisture and soil temperature are deployed
underground to estimate the soil’s water retention capacity and the moisture being held by the soil at
any instant of time. However, this setup only determines whether the plant is getting enough water or
not.
4.​ There may be a host of other factors besides water availability, which may affect a plant’s health. The
additional inclusion of a camera sensor with the plant may be able to determine the actual condition of
a plant by additionally determining the color of leaves. The aggregate information from soil moisture,
soil temperature, and the camera sensor will be able to collectively determine a plant’s health at any
instant of time.
5.​ Other common examples of hybrid sensing include smart parking systems, traffic management
systems, and others. Figure (c) shows an example of hybrid sensing, where a camera and a temperature
sensor are collectively used to detect and confirm forest fires during wildlife monitoring.

Virtual Sensing

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1.​ Many a time, there is a need for very dense and large-scale deployment of sensor nodes spread over a
large area for monitoring of parameters. One such domain is agriculture.
2.​ Here, often, the parameters being measured, such as soil moisture, soil temperature, and water level, do
not show significant spatial variations.
3.​ If sensors are deployed in the fields of farmer A, it is highly likely that the measurements from his
sensors will be able to provide almost concise measurements of his neighbour B’s fields; this is
especially true of fields which are immediately surrounding A’s fields. Exploiting this property, if the
data from A’s field is digitized using an IoT infrastructure and this system advises him regarding the
appropriate watering, fertilizer, and pesticide regimen for his crops, this advisory can also be used by B
for maintaining his crops. In short, A’s sensors are being used for actual measurement of parameters;
whereas virtual data (which does not have actual physical sensors but uses extrapolation-based
measurements) is being used for advising B.
4.​ This is the virtual sensing paradigm. Figure (d) shows an example of virtual sensing. Two temperature
sensors S1 and S3 monitor three nearby events E1, E2, and E3 (fires). The event E2 does not have a
dedicated sensor for monitoring it; however, through the superposition of readings from sensors S1 and
S3, the presence of fire in E2 is inferred.

Sensing Considerations

The choice of sensors in an IoT sensor node is critical and can either make or break the feasibility of an IoT
deployment. The following major factors influence the choice of sensors in IoT-based sensing solutions: 1)
sensing range, 2) accuracy and precision, 3) energy, and 4) device size. These factors are discussed as follows:

(i) Sensing Range:

1.​ The sensing range of a sensor node defines the detection fidelity of that node.
2.​ Typical approaches to optimize the sensing range in deployments include fixed k-coverage and
dynamic k-coverage.
3.​ A lifelong fixed k-coverage tends to usher in redundancy as it requires a large number of sensor nodes,
the sensing range of some of which may also overlap.
4.​ In contrast, dynamic k-coverage incorporates mobile sensor nodes post detection of an event, which,
however, is a costly solution and may not be deployable in all operational areas and terrains.
Additionally, the sensing range of a sensor may also be used to signify the upper and lower bounds of a
sensor’s measurement range. For example, a proximity sensor has a typical sensing range of a couple of meters.
In contrast, a camera has a sensing range varying between tens of meters to hundreds of meters. As the
complexity of the sensor and its sensing range goes up, its cost significantly increases.

(ii) Accuracy and Precision:

1.​ The accuracy and precision of measurements provided by a sensor are critical in deciding the
operations of specific functional processes. Typically, off-the-shelf consumer sensors are low on
requirements and often very cheap.
2.​ For example, a standard temperature sensor can be easily integrated with conventional components for
hobby projects and day-to-day applications, but it is not suitable for industrial processes.
3.​ Regular temperature sensors have a very low-temperature sensing range, as well as relatively low
accuracy and precision. The use of these sensors in industrial applications, where a precision of up to
3–4 decimal places is required, cannot be facilitated by these sensors.
4.​ Industrial sensors are typically very sophisticated, and as a result, very costly. However, these industrial
sensors have very high accuracy and precision score, even under harsh operating conditions.

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(iii) Energy:
1.​ The energy consumed by a sensing solution is crucial to determine the lifetime of that solution and the
estimated cost of its deployment.
2.​ If the sensor or the sensor node is so energy inefficient that it requires replenishment of its energy
sources quite frequently, the effort in maintaining the solution and its cost goes up; whereas its
deployment feasibility goes down.
3.​ Consider a scenario where sensor nodes are deployed on the top of glaciers. Once deployed, access to
these nodes is not possible.
4.​ If the energy requirements of the sensor nodes are too high, such a deployment will not last long, and
the solution will be highly infeasible as charging or changing of the energy sources of these sensor
nodes is not an option.

(iv) Device Size:

1.​ Larger the size of a sensor node, larger is the obstruction caused by it, higher is the cost and energy
requirements, and lesser is its demand for the bulk of the IoT applications.
2.​ Consider a simple human activity detector. If the detection unit is too large to be carried or too bulky to
cause hindrance to regular normal movements, the demand for this solution would be low.
3.​ The wearable sensors are highly energy-efficient, small in size, and almost part of the wearer’s regular
wardrobe.

Actuators
1.​ An actuator can be considered as a machine or system’s component that can affect the movement or
control the said mechanism or the system.
2.​ Control systems affect changes to the environment or property they are controlling through actuators.
3.​ The system activates the actuator through a control signal, which may be digital or analog. It elicits a
response from the actuator, which is in the form of some form of mechanical motion.
4.​ The control system of an actuator can be a mechanical or electronic system, a software-based system
(e.g., an autonomous car control system), a human, or any other input. Figure 5 shows the outline of a
simple actuation system.
5.​ A remote user sends commands to a processor. The processor instructs a motor controlled robotic arm
to perform the commanded tasks accordingly. The processor is primarily responsible for converting the
human commands into sequential machine-language command sequences, which enables the robot to
move. The robotic arm finally moves the designated boxes, which was its assigned task.

Fig 5: The outline of a simple actuation mechanism

Actuator Types
Broadly, actuators can be divided into seven classes:
1) Hydraulic, 2) Pneumatic, 3) Electrical, 4) Thermal/Magnetic, 5) Mechanical, 6) Soft, and
7) Shape Memory Polymers. Fig 6 shows some of the commonly used actuators in IoT applications.

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Fig 6 Some common commercially available actuators used for IoT-based control
Applications

Hydraulic actuators
1.​ A hydraulic actuator works on the principle of compression and decompression of fluids.
2.​ These actuators facilitate mechanical tasks such as lifting loads through the use of hydraulic power
derived from fluids in cylinders or fluid motors.
3.​ The mechanical motion applied to a hydraulic actuator is converted to either linear, rotary, or
oscillatory motion.
4.​ These hydraulic actuators are also considered as stiff systems. The actuator’s limited acceleration
restricts its usage.

Pneumatic actuators
1.​ A pneumatic actuator works on the principle of compression and decompression of gases.
2.​ These actuators use a vacuum or compressed air at high pressure and convert it into either linear or
rotary motion.
3.​ Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators are commonly used for valve controls of water pipes.
4.​ Pneumatic actuators are considered as compliant systems. The actuators using pneumatic energy for
their operation are typically characterized by the quick response to starting and stopping signals.
5.​ Small pressure changes can be used for generating large forces through these actuators.
6.​ Pneumatic brakes are an example of this type of actuator which is so responsive that they can convert
small pressure changes applied by drives to generate the massive force required to stop or slow down a
moving vehicle.
7.​ The power source in the pneumatic actuator does not need to be stored in reserve for its operation.

Electric actuators
1.​ Typically, electric motors are used to power an electric actuator by generating mechanical torque.
2.​ This generated torque is translated into the motion of a motor’s shaft or for switching (as in relays). For
example, actuating equipment such as solenoid valves control the flow of water in pipes in response to
electrical signals.
3.​ This class of actuators is considered one of the cheapest, cleanest and speedy actuator types available.

Thermal or magnetic actuators

1.​ The use of thermal or magnetic energy is used for powering this class of actuators.
2.​ These actuators have a very high power density and are typically compact, lightweight, and
economical.
3.​ One classic example of thermal actuators is shape memory materials (SMMs) such as shape memory
alloys (SMAs).

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4.​ These actuators do not require electricity for actuation. They are not affected by vibration and can work
with liquid or gases. Magnetic shape memory alloys (MSMAs) are a type of magnetic actuators.

Mechanical actuators
1.​ In mechanical actuation, the rotary motion of the actuator is converted into linear motion to execute
some movement.
2.​ The use of gears, rails, pulleys, chains, and other devices are necessary for these actuators to operate.
3.​ These actuators can be easily used in conjunction with pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrical actuators.
They can also work in a standalone mode.
4.​ The best example of a mechanical actuator is a rack and pinion mechanism.
5.​ The mechanical switches uses the mechanical motion of the switch to switch on or off an electrical
circuit.

Soft actuators
1.​ Soft actuators (e.g., polymer-based) consists of elastomeric polymers that are used as
embedded fixtures in flexible materials such as cloth, paper, fiber, particles, and others.
2.​ The conversion of molecular level microscopic changes into tangible macroscopic deformations is the
primary working principle of this class of actuators.
3.​ These actuators have a high stake in modern-day robotics. They are designed to handle fragile objects
such as agricultural fruit harvesting, or performing precise operations like manipulating the internal
organs during robot-assisted surgeries.

Shape memory polymers

1.​ Shape memory polymers (SMP) are considered as smart materials that respond to some external
stimulus by changing their shape, and then revert to their original shape once the affecting stimulus is
removed.
2.​ Features such as high strain recovery, biocompatibility, low density, and biodegradability characterize
these materials.
3.​ SMP-based actuators function similar to our muscles.
4.​ Modern-day SMPs have been designed to respond to a wide range of stimuli such as pH changes, heat
differentials, light intensity, and frequency changes, magnetic changes, and others.
5.​ Photopolymer/light-activated polymers (LAP) are a particular type of SMP, which require light as a
stimulus to operate. LAP-based actuators are characterized by their rapid response times.
6.​ Using only the variation of light frequency or its intensity, LAPs can be controlled remotely without
any physical contact.
7.​ The development of LAPs whose shape can be changed by the application of a specific frequency of
light have been reported.
8.​ The polymer retains its shape after removal of the activating light. In order to change the polymer back
to its original shape, a light stimulus of a different frequency has to be applied to the polymer.
9.​ Actuator Characteristics
The correct choice of actuators is necessary for the long-term sustenance and continuity of operations,
as well as for increasing the lifetime of the actuators themselves. A set of four characteristics can define all
actuators:

• Weight: The physical weight of actuators limits its application scope. For example, the use of heavier
actuators is generally preferred for industrial applications and applications requiring no mobility of the IoT
deployment.
In contrast, lightweight actuators typically find common usage in portable systems in vehicles, drones,
and home IoT applications. It is to be noted that this is not always true. Heavier actuators also have selective
usage in mobile systems, for example, landing gears and engine motors in aircraft.

• Power Rating: The power rating defines the minimum and maximum operating power an actuator can safely
withstand without damage to itself. Generally, it is indicated as the power-to-weight ratio for actuators.
For example, smaller servo motors used in hobby projects typically have a maximum rating of 5 VDC,
500 mA, which is suitable for an operations-driven battery-based power source. Exceeding this limit might be

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detrimental to the performance of the actuator and may cause burnout of the motor. In contrast to this, servo
motors in larger applications have a rating of 460 VAC, 2:5 A, which requires standalone power supply systems
for operations. It is to be noted that actuators with still higher ratings are available and vary according to
application requirements.

• Torque to Weight Ratio: The ratio of torque to the weight of the moving part of an instrument/device is
referred to as its torque/weight ratio. This indicates the sensitivity of the actuator. Higher is the weight of the
moving part; lower will be its torque to weight ratio for a given power.

• Stiffness and Compliance: The resistance of a material against deformation is known as its stiffness, whereas
compliance of a material is the opposite of stiffness. Stiffness can be directly related to the modulus of elasticity
of that material.
Stiff systems are considered more accurate than compliant systems as they have a faster response to the
change in load applied to it. For example, hydraulic systems are considered as stiff and non-compliant, whereas
pneumatic systems are considered as compliant.

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