CAMBRIDGE SCHOOL SRINIVASPURI

COMPUTER SCIENCE
COMPUTER SYSTEMS and ORGANISATION

1. Introduction to Computer System

A computer system is an electronic device that accepts input, processes it according to instructions,
and produces output. It is a combination of hardware and software working together to perform
tasks.
• Components:
o Hardware: Physical parts like CPU, memory, input/output devices.
o Software: Programs that instruct the hardware to perform tasks.
o Data: Information processed by the computer.
o Users: People interacting with the system.
• Characteristics:
o Speed: Processes millions of instructions per second.
o Accuracy: Provides precise results if input and instructions are correct.
o Storage: Stores large amounts of data.
o Versatility: Performs various tasks (e.g., calculations, gaming, browsing).
2. Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that can be touched and seen. It
includes devices for input, processing, storage, and output.
2.1 Input Devices
Input devices allow users to enter data or instructions into the computer. It converts user input
(e.g., keystrokes, clicks) into machine-readable signals.
• Examples:
o Keyboard: Enters text and commands (e.g., QWERTY keyboard).
o Mouse: Points and clicks to interact with the graphical user interface.
o Scanner: Converts physical documents into digital data.
o Microphone: Captures audio input.
o Webcam: Captures video or images.
2.2 Output Devices
Output devices display or present the processed data to the user. Converts machine-processed data
into formats like text, images, or sound.
• Examples:
o Monitor: Displays visual output (text, images, videos).
o Printer: Produces hard copies of digital documents.
o Speakers: Outputs audio (sound, music).
2.3 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU, often called the "brain" of the computer, executes instructions by performing the basic
operations of Fetch, Decode, and Execute.
• Components:
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic (e.g., addition) and logical
operations (e.g., comparisons).
o Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor, coordinating data
flow.
o Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU for temporary data.
• Example: Intel Core i5, AMD Ryzen processors.
2.4 Memory
Memory stores data and instructions for processing. It is classified into Primary, Cache, and
Secondary memory.
2.4.1 Primary Memory: Fast, volatile memory directly accessible by the CPU. It holds data and
instructions currently being processed.
• Types:
o RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage for data and programs in
use; volatile (loses data when power is off).
o ROM (Read-Only Memory): Stores permanent instructions (e.g., BIOS); non-
volatile.
• Example: 8 GB DDR4 RAM, PROM, EPROM.
2.4.2 Cache Memory: High-speed memory located inside or close to the CPU. It stores
frequently accessed data to reduce CPU access time to main memory.
• Example: L1, L2, L3 cache in modern processors (e.g., 256 KB L1 cache).
2.4.3 Secondary Memory: Non-volatile storage for long-term data retention. It stores data and
programs not currently in use.
• Examples:
o Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Stores large amounts of data using magnetic disks.
o Solid State Drive (SSD): Faster storage using flash memory.
o USB Flash Drive: Portable storage.
o Optical Disks: CDs, DVDs for data storage.
2.4.4 Units of Memory
Memory is measured in units based on bits and bytes:
• Bit: Smallest unit (0 or 1).
• Nibble: 4 bits.
• Byte: 8 bits.
• Kilobyte (KB): 1024 bytes (2^10).
• Megabyte (MB): 1024 KB.
 • Gigabyte (GB): 1024 MB.
• Terabyte (TB): 1024 GB.
• Petabyte (PB): 1024 TB.
Example:
• A 1 GB USB drive can store approximately 1 billion bytes.
• A 1 TB hard disk can store 1024 GB of data.
3. Software
Software is a set of instructions or programs that tell the computer what to do. It is classified into
System Software, Programming Tools, and Application Software.
3.1 System Software
System software manages and controls computer hardware, providing a platform for other software.
It acts as an interface between hardware and user applications.
• Types:
o Operating Systems: Manages hardware and software resources (e.g., Windows,
Linux, macOS).
o System Utilities: Tools for maintenance (e.g., antivirus, disk defragmenter).
o Device Drivers: Enable communication between hardware and the OS (e.g.,
printer drivers).
3.2 Programming Tools and Language Translators
These tools help developers write, translate, and execute programs.
• Assembler: Converts assembly language (low-level) into machine code.
o Example: Converts MOV AX, BX to binary code.
• Compiler: Translates high-level language code (e.g., C++, Java) into machine code in one
go.
o Example: GCC compiler for C programs.
• Interpreter: Executes high-level code line by line without creating an intermediate file.
o Example: Python interpreter.
3.3 Application Software
Application software performs specific tasks for users. These are the programs designed for end-
users to perform specific functions and meet user-specific needs.
• Examples:
o Word Processors: MS Word for document creation.
o Spreadsheets: MS Excel for data analysis.
o Web Browsers: Chrome, Firefox for internet browsing.
o Games: Educational or entertainment software.
4. Operating System (OS)
An Operating System is system software that manages computer resources and provides a user
interface.
4.1 Functions of the Operating System
• Process Management: Manages running programs (e.g., multitasking, scheduling).
• Memory Management: Allocates and deallocates memory for processes.
• File Management: Organizes, stores, and retrieves files (e.g., creating folders).
• Device Management: Controls hardware devices via drivers (e.g., printer
communication).
• User Interface: Provides interaction methods (e.g., GUI, CLI).
• Security: Protects data and resources (e.g., user authentication).
4.2 OS User Interface
• Command Line Interface (CLI): Users type commands to interact (e.g., Command
Prompt in Windows, Terminal in Linux).
o Example: dir command in Windows lists directory contents.
• Graphical User Interface (GUI): Users interact via visual elements like icons, windows,
and menus.
o Example: Windows 10 desktop with Start menu, taskbar.
Examples of OS:
• Windows: Windows 10, Windows 11.
• Linux: Ubuntu, Fedora.
• macOS: macOS Ventura.
Diagram: Include a diagram showing OS as an intermediary between Hardware (CPU, Memory, I/O
Devices) and Application Software/User.

5. Number System
A number system is a way to represent numbers using a specific base and symbols. Computers
use different number systems to process and store data. The key number systems in the CBSE
syllabus are Binary, Octal, Decimal, and Hexadecimal.
Octal Table:
0 0 0 → 0
0 0 1 → 1
0 1 0 → 2
0 1 1 → 3
1 0 0 → 4
1 0 1 → 5
1 1 0 → 6
1 1 1 → 7
Hexadecimal Table:
0 0 0 0 → 0
0 0 0 1 → 1
0 0 1 0 → 2
0 0 1 1 → 3
0 1 0 0 → 4
0 1 0 1 → 5
0 1 1 0 → 6
0 1 1 1 → 7
1 0 0 0 → 8
1 0 0 1 → 9
1 0 1 0 → 10 (A)
1 0 1 1 → 11 (B)
1 1 0 0 → 12 (C)
1 1 0 1 → 13 (D)
1 1 1 0 → 14 (E)
1 1 1 1 → 15 (F)

5.1 Types of Number Systems

5.1.1 Binary Number System
• Base: 2
• Symbols: 0, 1
• Use: Used by computers for internal data representation (e.g., machine code).
• Example: 1011 (represents 11 in decimal).
5.1.2 Octal Number System
• Base: 8
• Symbols: 0 to 7
• Use: Used in early computers and for compact representation of binary numbers.
• Example: 17 (represents 15 in decimal).
5.1.3 Decimal Number System
• Base: 10
• Symbols: 0 to 9
• Use: Standard number system used by humans in daily life.
• Example: 25 (represents 25 in decimal).
5.1.4 Hexadecimal Number System
 • Base: 16
• Symbols: 0 to 9, A to F (A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15)
• Use: Used in computing for memory addresses and color codes (e.g., #FF0000 for red).
• Example: 1A (represents 26 in decimal).
Table: Include a comparison table:

Number System Base Symbols Example

Binary 2 0, 1 1011 (11)

Octal 8 0–7 17 (15)

Decimal 10 0–9 25

Hexadecimal 16 0–9, A–F 1A (26)

5.2 Conversion Between Number Systems

5.2.1 Decimal to Binary
• Method: Divide the decimal number by 2, record remainders (0 or 1), and write them in
reverse order.
• Example: Convert 19 to binary.
o 19 ÷ 2 = 9 remainder 1
o 9 ÷ 2 = 4 remainder 1
o 4 ÷ 2 = 2 remainder 0
o 2 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 0
o 1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1
o Binary: 10011 (read remainders bottom-up).
5.2.2 Binary to Decimal
• Method: Multiply each binary digit by 2 raised to its position (starting from 0 on the right)
and sum the results.
• Example: Convert 1011 to decimal.
o 1 × 2^3 = 8
o 0 × 2^2 = 0
o 1 × 2^1 = 2
o 1 × 2^0 = 1
o Total: 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 11
o Decimal: 11.
5.2.3 Decimal to Octal
• Method: Divide the decimal number by 8, record remainders (0–7), and write them in
reverse order.
• Example: Convert 25 to octal.
 o 25 ÷ 8 = 3 remainder 1
o 3 ÷ 8 = 0 remainder 3
o Octal: 31.
5.2.4 Octal to Decimal
• Method: Multiply each octal digit by 8 raised to its position and sum the results.
• Example: Convert 31 to decimal.
o 3 × 8^1 = 24
o 1 × 8^0 = 1
o Total: 24 + 1 = 25
o Decimal: 25.
5.2.5 Decimal to Hexadecimal
• Method: Divide the decimal number by 16, record remainders (0–9, A–F), and write them
in reverse order.
• Example: Convert 26 to hexadecimal.
o 26 ÷ 16 = 1 remainder 10 (10 = A)
o 1 ÷ 16 = 0 remainder 1
o Hexadecimal: 1A.
5.2.6 Hexadecimal to Decimal
• Method: Multiply each hexadecimal digit by 16 raised to its position and sum the results.
• Example: Convert 1A to decimal.
o 1 × 16^1 = 16
o A (10) × 16^0 = 10
o Total: 16 + 10 = 26
o Decimal: 26.
5.2.7 Binary to Octal
• Method: Group binary digits into sets of 3 (from right), convert each group to an octal digit
(0–7).
• Example: Convert 11010 to octal.
o Pad to 011010 (6 digits, divisible by 3).
o Groups: 011 (3), 010 (2).
o Octal: 32.
5.2.8 Octal to Binary
• Method: Convert each octal digit to a 3-bit binary number.
• Example: Convert 32 to binary.
o 3 = 011
o 2 = 010
 o Binary: 011010.
5.2.9 Binary to Hexadecimal
• Method: Group binary digits into sets of 4 (from right), convert each group to a
hexadecimal digit (0–9, A–F).
• Example: Convert 11010 to hexadecimal.
o Pad to 00011010 (8 digits, divisible by 4).
o Groups: 0001 (1), 1010 (10 = A).
o Hexadecimal: 1A.
5.2.10 Hexadecimal to Binary
• Method: Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-bit binary number.
• Example: Convert 1A to binary.
o 1 = 0001
o A (10) = 1010
o Binary: 00011010 (or 11010 after removing leading zeros).
Diagram: Include a flowchart for number system conversions (e.g., Decimal → Binary, Binary →
Decimal) with steps like "Divide by base", "Record remainder", etc.

6. Encoding Schemes
Encoding schemes define how characters are represented as binary data in computers. They
assign unique codes to characters for storage and processing.
6.1 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
• Definition: A 7-bit or 8-bit encoding scheme for representing English characters, numbers,
and symbols.
• Range: 128 characters (7-bit, 0–127) or 256 characters (8-bit, 0–255).
• Example:
o 'A' = 65 (binary: 01000001)
o 'a' = 97 (binary: 01100001)
o '0' = 48 (binary: 00110000)
• Use: Widely used in early computers and text files.
6.2 ISCII (Indian Script Code for Information Interchange)
• Definition: An 8-bit encoding scheme for representing Indian languages (e.g., Hindi, Tamil).
• Range: Supports characters for multiple Indian scripts.
• Example: Represents Devanagari characters for Hindi.
• Use: Used in Indian language computing before Unicode.
6.3 Unicode (UTF-8, UTF-32)
• Definition: A universal encoding standard that supports characters from all languages.
 • Types:
o UTF-8: Variable-length encoding (1–4 bytes per character). Efficient for English and
common characters.

▪ Example: 'A' = 1 byte (01000001), Hindi 'क' = 3 bytes.

o UTF-32: Fixed-length encoding (4 bytes per character). Uses more space but
simpler for processing.
▪ Example: 'A' = 4 bytes (00000000 00000000 00000000 01000001).
• Use: Standard for modern applications (e.g., web browsers, OS).
Table: Include a comparison table:

Encoding Bits/Bytes Character Support Example Use

ASCII 7 or 8 bits English characters Text files, emails

ISCII 8 bits Indian scripts Indian language apps

UTF-8 1–4 bytes All languages Web, modern software

UTF-32 4 bytes All languages Databases, processing