REVIEW

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Altermagnetism: Exploring New Frontiers in Magnetism and

Spintronics
Ling Bai, Wanxiang Feng,* Siyuan Liu, Libor Šmejkal, Yuriy Mokrousov, and Yugui Yao*

time-reversal ( ) symmetry-breaking re-

Recent developments have introduced a groundbreaking form of collinear sponses and have therefore been the sub-
magnetism known as “altermagnetism”. This emerging magnetic phase is ject of extensive research and widespread
characterized by robust time-reversal symmetry breaking, antiparallel magnetic applications.[1–4] Nevertheless, the inherent
order, and alternating spin-splitting band structures, yet it exhibits vanishing properties of FMs present significant chal-
lenges for the performance of ferromag-
net magnetization constrained by symmetry. Altermagnetism uniquely inte-
netic spintronic devices, particularly affect-
grates traits previously considered mutually exclusive to conventional collinear ing their stability, scalability, and dynamic
ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism, thereby facilitating phenomena and responses. These limitations render them
functionalities previously not achievable within these traditional categories of suboptimal for incorporation into advanced
magnetism. Initially proposed theoretically, the existence of the altermagnetic electronic systems. Specifically, the field-
sensitivity of ferromagnetic order exposes
phase has since been corroborated by a range of experimental studies, which
these materials to external magnetic dis-
have confirmed its unique properties and potential for applications. This turbances, substantial stray magnetic fields
review explores the rapidly expanding research on altermagnets, emphasizing compromise the potential for high-density
the novel physical phenomena they manifest, methodologies for inducing integration, and the conventional ferromag-
altermagnetism, and promising altermagnetic materials. The goal of this netic precession frequencies, typically on
review is to furnish readers with a comprehensive overview of altermagnetism the order of GHz, constrain the opera-
tional speed of these devices. In conven-
and to inspire further innovative studies on altermagnetic materials which
tional antiferromagnets (AFMs), the per-
can potentially revolutionize applications in technology and materials science. fectly compensated antiparallel magneti-
zation results in zero net magnetic mo-
ment, which confers significant robust-
ness against magnetic disturbances and
1. Introduction eliminates stray magnetic fields. Furthermore, due to antiferro-
magnetic exchange interactions, the precession frequencies of
Magnetism, a fundamental and expansive area within AFMs can extend up to the THz range, thus opening up a new
condensed-matter physics, plays a crucial role in advancing frontier in antiferromagnetic spintronics.[5–8] However, the com-
technology. Historically, this field has primarily focused on two pensated magnetization of AFMs is often perceived as leading
magnetic phases: ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism. to uncontrollable antiferromagnetic order, weak magnetic sig-
Ferromagnets (FMs), known for their spin polarization that nal, and very intricate magnetoelectronic responses. To overcome
mirrors the macroscopic magnetization, facilitate a myriad of the limitations of collinear ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic

L. Bai, W. Feng, S. Liu, Y. Yao L. Šmejkal

Centre for Quantum Physics Max Planck Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems
Key Laboratory of Advanced Optoelectronic Quantum Architecture and Nöthnitzer Str. 38, 01187 Dresden, Germany
Measurement (MOE) L. Šmejkal, Y. Mokrousov
School of Physics Institute of Physics
Beijing Institute of Technology Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz
Beijing 100081, China 55099 Mainz, Germany
E-mail: wxfeng@bit.edu.cn; ygyao@bit.edu.cn
L. Šmejkal
L. Bai, W. Feng, S. Liu, Y. Yao Institute of Physics
Beijing Key Lab of Nanophotonics and Ultrafine Optoelectronic Systems Czech Academy of Sciences
School of Physics Cukrovarnická 10, Praha 6 162 00, Czech Republic
Beijing Institute of Technology Y. Mokrousov
Beijing 100081, China
Peter Grünberg Institut and Institute for Advanced Simulation
Forschungszentrum Jülich and JARA
52425 Jülich, Germany
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202409327
DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202409327

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Figure 1. A) Schematic diagrams of band structures and corresponding energy iso-surfaces of the three nonrelativistic collinear magnetic phases.
B) The planar even-parity wave form of altermagnetism. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY 4.0 license.[25] Copyright 2022, The Authors, published
by American Physical Society. C) Magnetic unit cell of RuO2 without and with O atoms. Two Ru atoms with antiparallel spin magnetic moments are
represented by red and blue balls, and the nonmagnetic O atoms are depicted by gray balls. D) Magnetization density related by fourfold crystal rotational
symmetry. E) Reciprocal space Fermi surface cut at wave vector kz = 0 calculated without spin-orbit coupling. Reproduced with permission.[31] Copyright
2024, American Physical Society. F) Band structure of RuO2 with (black) and without (red and blue) spin-orbit coupling. Reproduced under the terms of
the CC-BY-NC 4.0 license.[9] Copyright 2020, The Authors, Published by American Association for the Advancement of Science.

materials in spintronics, scientists have been exploring new netism”, a term that has gained wide acceptance.[25] Although
materials that can combine the advantages of both ferro- it has, by symmetry, no net magnetization, unlike conventional
magnetism and antiferromagnetism. A new magnetic phase— antiferromagnetism, the sublattices with opposite spins are con-
altermagnetism—has consequently emerged. nected by a real-space rotational transformation—either proper
With compensated antiparallel magnetic order, altermagnetic or improper, and either symmorphic or non-symmorphic—
band structure breaks  symmetry and possesses characteris- rather than by translation or inversion.[25] As a result, while al-
tic nonrelativistic spin-splitting. Indication of unconventional termagnets (AMs) share certain key properties with AFMs, they
magnetism can be tracked back to reports of anomalous ef- demonstrate even more similarities with FMs due to the alternat-
fects by various research groups.[9–21] The anomalous effects have ing spin-splitting of the bands in the absence of spin-orbit cou-
been referred to by several names, such as crystal Hall effect,[9] pling (SOC).[26] Numerous studies have investigated the nature of
AFM-induced spin splitting,[12,17] staggered spin-momentum AMs both theoretically and experimentally,[14,21,27–41] developing
interaction,[14] spin-splitter and symmetric spin currents,[19,22] a Landau theory for AMs,[42] constructing models,[21,25,43–49] and
unconventional antiferromagnetism and valley-dependent spin- connecting altermagnetism with superconductivity,[27,50–59] topo-
momentum interactions,[21] C-paired spin-momentum locking logical phenomena[43,60] and magnetic multipoles.[43,61] More-
and piezomagnetism,[17] unconventional magnetism and anti- over, certain effects such as anomalous Hall effect can be
Kramers nodal surfaces.[15] Shortly after, it was recognized that found also in noncollinear systems as discussed, for instance,
these anomalous properties[9–21] and other results[23,24] are char- in reviews[7,62] and works by Cheong et al.[63] and Hu et
acteristics of an unconventional magnetic class. This unconven- al.[40] Additionally, unconventional odd parity-wave magnets were
tional magnetic class, identified by symmetries by Šmejkal and proposed[64] which are noncollinear and, unlike altermagnets,
colleagues, exhibits alternating spin polarization with d-, g-, or exhibit time-reversal symmetric exchange spin split bands.[64,65]
i-wave symmetry (as shown in Figure 1) in both direct and re- However, this review focuses solely on collinear systems and
ciprocal space; therefore, it has been aptly named as “altermag- AMs.

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We note that there have been several comprehensive re- with spatial operations, meaning the orientation of spin may
views covering topics such as antiferromagnetic spintronics, change under spatial operations. Therefore, when considering
anomalous Hall antiferromagnets, and the emerging field of SOC, it is essential to take magnetic space groups into account
altermagnetism.[8,27,62,66] Some of these reviews were published in symmetry analysis of magnetic materials. Later in the 1960′s,
at a time when research into AMs was still in its early stages Brinkman and Elliott proposed that in many cases, it was suffi-
and predominantly theoretical,[27] while others concentrated cient to include only Heisenberg exchange and anisotropy field
on specific physical properties or considered complex mag- in a spin Hamiltonian, while neglecting SOC.[76] Such groups,
netic configurations, such as noncollinear or noncoplanar an- which usually have more symmetries, were introduced as “spin-
tiferromagnetism, in which the coverage of AMs was notably space groups”. In a spin-space group, the spins are rotated in-
limited.[8,62,66] Here, we focus on the recent theoretical and exper- dependently of the lattice. Therefore, the spin-symmetry oper-
imental progress in AMs, highlighting canonical examples such ation can be represented as [s ||l ], where the transformation
as MnTe,[25,32,67–69] CrSb[25,36,70–74] and RuO2 [25,33,75] to offer a de- on the left (right) of the double vertical bar acts solely in spin
tailed exploration of novel physical phenomena associated with space (spatial space). Although in magnetism, the key features of
altermagnetism. the electronic structure and basic characteristics can be explained
In this review, we first introduce several exotic physical phe- without referring to nonrelativistic physics, people are used to de-
nomena manifested in AMs, including lifted Kramers degener- scribing the symmetry properties of magnetic systems in terms
acy, anomalous and spin transport properties, magneto-optical of the magnetic space groups due to the complexity of spin-space
effects and chiral magnons. Then we discuss various strategies group. Only in recent years has research involving spin-space
for inducing altermagnetism from conventional FMs and AFMs, groups matured significantly,[15,25,27,76–82] with the most notewor-
which broaden the application scope of traditional magnetic ma- thy development being the AMs with lifted Kramers degeneracy.
terials. In addition to artificial AMs, naturally occurring AMs also Kramers degeneracy theorem[83–85] states that any system pos-
play a significant role; therefore, we compile a list of potential 2D sessing combined  symmetry ensures at least double spin
and 3D altermagnetic candidates found in nature. Although our degeneracy at arbitrary wave vectors. Typically, the breaking of
understanding of altermagnetism remains in its nascent stages, Kramers degeneracy is considered to originate from two funda-
the field has already become a rich area for theoretical explo- mental mechanisms: relativistic and nonrelativistic. Here we fo-
ration and a promising avenue for the development of spintronic cus on the latter. For all collinear magnets, the spin-only sym-
devices. metry [∞ ||E] guarantees that spin is a good quantum number
and is momentum (k)-independent, where ∞ denotes arbitrary
rotations of spin around the common axis of spins, and E is the
2. Exotic Physical Phenomena identity transformation in real space. Therefore, the energy band
can be represented by E(k, s), where s denotes spin. Another com-
AMs have demonstrated a series of phenomena that were previ- mon spin-only symmetry in collinear magnets is ̄2 , representing
ously considered exclusive to FMs, including nonrelativistic lifted a twofold rotation perpendicular to the collinear spin axis, fol-
Kramers degeneracy, anomalous Hall/Nernst effect, nonrelativis- lowed by spin-space inversion, which we denote also as [2 || ].
tic spin (polarized) currents, and the magneto-optical Kerr effect. This symmetry (̄2 ) together with collinear symmetry ∞ implies
Moreover, AMs also display unique physical phenomena, e.g. the nonrelativistic inversion symmetry () of the band structure,[64]
emergence of chiral magnons. In this section, we will primarily as it transforms E(k, s) to E(− k, s), and thus enforces E(k, s) =
focus on lifted Kramers degeneracy, anomalous and spin trans- E(− k, s). Consequently, the bands exhibit even parity in mo-
port properties, magneto-optical effects and chiral magnons in mentum around the Γ point. From the analysis above, we observe
AMs. that for any type of collinear magnets, the nonrelativistic bands
remain invariant under  symmetry, regardless of whether the
system possesses real-space inversion symmetry. This observa-
2.1. Lifted Kramers Degeneracy tion means that if a collinear magnet has [2 ||] symmetry, the
spin band is Kramers degenerate across the entire Brillouin zone.
We start by briefly recalling three kinds of space groups. Symme- This degeneracy emerges because the combination [2 ||][2 || ]
try, one of the central concepts in modern physics, plays a signifi- enforces E(k, s) = E(k, −s), which is equivalent to combined  .
cant role in physical properties, enabling physicists to make a pri- In addition, the symmetry denoted by [2 ||E]/[2 ||𝜏] (𝜏 means
ori judgments without knowledge of certain microscopic details. translational symmetries) also enforces E(k, s) = E(k, −s). Given
More than one hundred years ago, based on group theory, the that all nonmagnets have [2 ||E] symmetry, Kramers degeneracy
symmetries of 3D crystals were classified into 230 space groups. is present in all nonmagnetic systems in the nonrelativistic limit.
However, these 230 space groups are only applicable to nonmag- In FMs, if the spin moments of all magnetic atoms are flipped
netic cases. For magnetic systems, an additional degree of free- (under spin-only symmetry), there is no symmetry that acts solely
dom, associated with spin, arises. The spin magnetic moments on the lattice to recover the initial magnetic configuration. Con-
are also periodically arranged in spin space, forming a 3D pseu- sequently, Kramers degeneracy is broken in FMs, resulting in
dovector field. This pseudovector field exhibits even parity under uniform Zeeman splitting between the opposite-spin bands. For
space inversion () symmetry and odd parity under  symme- systems formally spin-compensated by symmetry, there are two
try. Initially, the combination of  symmetry with the aforemen- types of magnetic order: conventional AFMs, which include the
tioned 230 space groups resulted in 1651 magnetic space groups. symmetries of [2 ||][2 || ] and/or [2 ||𝜏], and AMs, which
In these magnetic space groups, the rotation of spin is coupled lack these two symmetries. It is obvious that the former is spin

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degenerate, and the latter is spin nondegenerate. The nonrela- lead to a planar d-wave spin-momentum locking band structure
tivistic band structures of these three types of collinear magnets of RuO2 , as shown in Figure 1E.[31]
are depicted in Figure 1A.[25] The spin rotational 2 symmetry, In Figure 2A–C, we present the ab initio nonrelativistic band
along with rotational symmetry connecting opposite-spin sublat- structures of other AMs, such as metallic FeSb2 ,[15] organic 𝜅-
tice, causes the electronic band structures of AMs to show d-, g- or (BEDT-TTF)2 Cu[N(CN)]Cl (abbreviated as 𝜅-Cl),[22] and insulat-
i-wave anisotropy (alternating spin polarizations) and character- ing RuF4 ,[92] which also illustrate that altermagnetic spin split-
istics of spin-momentum locking. These phenomena have been ting is strongly momentum dependent and the sign of splitting
comprehensively analyzed in ref. [25], and we selectively show is alternating across the Brillouin zone. Figure 2D illustrates the
the planar even-parity wave form of altermagnetism in Figure 1B. average energy splitting between opposite-spin bands across a
The  -broken band structures enable AMs to exhibit giant piezo- broad pool of altermagnetic candidates, with different color sec-
magnetism when subjected to strain.[17,86] Noncollinear systems tors corresponding to different magnetic atoms.[93] We observe
can also show spin splitting with complex patterns,[87] but it is that no specific magnetic atoms can be identified consistently as
out of the scope of this review. producing particularly sizable spin splitting, and in AMs com-
Next, we use the most investigated altermagnetic candi- posed solely of light elements, significant band splitting also
date RuO2 as a case study to specifically illustrate the d-wave occurs.
anisotropic spin-momentum locking observed in its band struc- In addition to band structures derived from first-principles cal-
ture. Although the magnetic ground state of single crystalline culations, several experimental observations have also revealed
RuO2 remains controversial,[88–91] assuming hypothetical alter- band splitting phenomena in AMs.[32,33,36,67,68,75] Although a re-
magnetic order for RuO2 is justifiable, given our primary in- cent experiment showed that the magnetic ground state of bulk
terest in exploring the interplay between altermagnetism and RuO2 is non-magnetic,[91] a time-reversal symmetry broken band
band structure. As shown in Figure 1C,[31] crystals composed structure of epitaxial RuO2 film was observed by detecting mag-
solely of the magnetic atom Ru possess [2 ||𝜏] symmetry, and netic circular dichroism in angle-resolved photoemission spec-
thus belong to the category of conventional collinear AFMs (left tra (Figure 3A).[75] Conducted at the [001] orientation of the Ru
panel). The arrangement of the nonmagnetic oxygen atoms leads moments, the measurements reveal no detectable remnant net
to the breaking of this symmetry, resulting in altermagnetic order magnetization, indicating unconventional origin of the signal.
(right panel). Therefore, the positioning of nonmagnetic atoms Most detailed experimental evidence of theoretically predicted[25]
significantly influences the magnetic phase of a material. The g-wave altermagnetic spin splitting was reported in studies on
spin-space group of RuO2 incorporates the following symmetry MnTe,[32,67–69] see Figure 3B. The studies reported momentum-
operations: dependent lifting of Kramers degeneracy,[32,67–69] quadratic spin
[ ] splitting form around Γ point,[32] and temperature dependence
E ||||H ]+[ 2 ||G − H ] = [ E|| H ]+[ 2 |||| AH (1) of the splitting.[67,69] Furthermore, Reimers et al. employed
spin-integrated soft X-ray angular-resolved photoelectron spec-
where G represents the space group of RuO2 troscopy (SX-ARPES) to investigate the band structure of epitax-
and H is a halving subgroup of G. H contains ial CrSb thin films.[36] As shown in Figure 3C, their observations
E, , 2z , 2[110] , 2[110]
̄ , z , [110] , [110]
̄ and G − H includes of band dispersions, consistent with theoretical calculations that
𝜏{2x , 2y , ±4z
±
, x , y }, with 𝜏 representing half a unit cell predict spin splitting, strongly support the existence of altermag-
translation and A is operation from G − H such as 𝜏4z +
. We netic band structure in CrSb. The measured spin splitting, with a
note that [E||H] are transformations that interchange atoms significant magnitude of ≈0.6 eV below the Fermi energy, high-
within only one of the two spin sublattices. These symmetries lights the potential applications in spintronics.
are crucial in determining the characteristic anisotropy of the The spin splitting of altermagnetic bands makes it possi-
spin density on the opposite-spin sublattices (Figure 1D).[31] ble to realize numerous spin-dependent phenomena, such as
[2 ||AH] comprises symmetries that interchange atoms between anomalous Hall effect, magneto-optical Kerr effect, unconven-
opposite-spin sublattices and guarantees zero net magnetization. tional longitudinal and transverse spin currents, giant magne-
It is noted that AH does not contain , indicating the broken toresistance (GMR), and tunneling magnetoresistance (TMR) ef-
 symmetry in the band structure, i.e., E(k, s) ≠ E(−k, −s). fects and their thermal and magnonic counterparts. We will now
Moreover, for momentum whose little group does not contain discuss these effects highlighting their potential for faster and
AH elements, such as Γ − S path (Figure 1F), the spin-up and scalable spintronics devices.
spin-down bands are nondegenerate, i.e., E(k, s) ≠ E(k, −s).[9]
The magnitude of the spin splitting can reach up to eV scale,
comparable to that observed in FMs and even larger than that 2.2. Anomalous and Spin Transport Properties
induced by relativistic SOC.[27,68,75] [2 ||x ] and [2 ||y ] (dis-
regarding translational symmetry for simplicity) respectively 2.2.1. Anomalous Hall, Anomalous Nernst, and Anomalous thermal
transform E(k, s) as [2 ||x ]E(kx , ky , kz , s) = E(−kx , ky , kz , −s) Hall effects
and [2 ||y ]E(kx , ky , kz , s) = E(kx , −ky , kz , −s). These two trans-
formations enforce the spin degeneracy on the kx = 0, 𝜋 and The anomalous Hall effect (AHE)[94] is characterized by a trans-
ky = 0, 𝜋 planes. In addition, [2 ||4z +
] transforms E(k, s) as verse voltage drop that occurs in response to a longitudinal
[2 ||4z ] E(kx , ky , kz , s) = E(ky , −kx , kz , −s). This transformation
+
charge current, even in the absence of an applied magnetic
makes the spin splitting of bands alternate across two perpendic- field. The presence of AHE requires broken  and  𝜏 sym-
ular wave vectors in the kz plane. These symmetries collectively metry and therefore, the AHE research was previously limited to

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Figure 2. A) Top view of the spin-polarized Fermi surface of FeSb2 . Reproduced under the terms of the PNAS License.[15] Copyright 2019, The Authors,
Published by PNAS. B) Nonrelativistic 𝜅-Cl band structure. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY 4.0 license.[22] Copyright 2019, The Authors,
Published by Springer Nature. C) Nonrelativistic RuF4 band structure. The inset indicates the spin splitting energies of the two highest occupied energy
bands (V1/2 ) and lowest unoccupied energy bands (C1/2 ). Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY 4.0 license.[92] Copyright 2024, The Authors, Pub-
lished by IOP Publishing Ltd. D) The average energy splitting between opposite-spin bands across a broad pool of altermagnetic candidates. Reproduced
with permission.[93] Copyright 2023, Elsevier.

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Figure 3. A) Left panel: Calculated 3D Fermi surface and Fermi surface cut for RuO2 . Right panel: Experimental Fermi energy intensity distribution and
the same Fermi surface cut for RuO2. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY 4.0 license.[75] Copyright 2024, The Authors, Published by American
Association for the Advancement of Science. B) Measured angular-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (ARPES) band dispersion at kz = 0.35 Å-1
̄ path and corresponding spin-resolved APRES simulation for 𝛼-MnTe. Blue and red colors indicate spin polarization. Reproduced
along the Γ̄ − M
under the terms of the CC-BY 4.0 license.[32] Copyright 2024, The Authors, Published by Springer Nature. C) The spin integrated soft X-ray angular-
resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (SX-ARPES) intensity, along with the superimposed spin-resolved band structure, is shown for CrSb along the
high-symmetry P-Q path using both p-polarized and s-polarized photons. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY 4.0 license.[36] Copyright 2024, The
Authors, Published by Springer Nature.

FMs and complex noncollinear AFMs,[95] as the AHE was not sublattices. When considering SOC, a small net moment m =
expected to occur in conventional AFMs. AMs naturally meet mA + mB is generated by the Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction
this requirement, thus becoming candidate materials for gener- (DMI), thus inducing a canting angle between magnetizations
ating low-dissipation Hall currents, and indeed the emergence of A and B sublattices, resulting in weak ferromagnetism. It
of AHE in AMs has been demonstrated both theoretically and is essential to note that the emergence of this weak ferromag-
experimentally.[9,14,31,96–105] In 2020, the AHE was theoretically netism is crucial for the electrical manipulation of the altermag-
predicted in RuO2 and CoNb3 S6 , and the corresponding term netic order.[106] Therefore, the anomalous Hall conductivity com-
“crystal Hall effect” (CHE) was introduced to mark its uncon- ponent 𝜎 xz can be separated into 𝜎xz CHE
(even in m) and 𝜎xz
AHE
(odd
ventional properties when compared with conventional anoma- in m), which represent the contributions induced by altermag-
lous Hall effect arising from magnetization.[9] The CHE arises netic order and the small ferromagnetic moment, respectively.
from unusual symmetry breaking and corresponding order pa- We note that the 𝜎 xz is entirely induced by the altermagnetic or-
rameters which originate from combination of magnetic and der when the canting angle is 0°. Furthermore, 𝜎xz CHE
dominates
crystallographic order. In the case of altermagnetic RuO2 the the contribution to 𝜎 xz when the canting angle is less than 10°,
magnetic sites have anisotropic crystallographic environment. suggesting that the effect of the small net magnetic moment on
The symmetry breaking results in a strong angular dependence 𝜎 xz is negligible. Therefore, in the examples to follow, we drop the
of the Hall conductivity on the order parameter (akin to crys- name “crystal Hall effect”, and use commonly accepted “anoma-
talline anisotropic magnetoresistance) –e.g., the effect can be lous Hall effect”. The experimental observation of AHE in RuO2
completely switched-off by rotating spin quantization axis. The is presented in Figure 4C.[98] Note that the measured anoma-
calculated anomalous Hall conductivity of RuO2 with the Néel lous Hall conductivity is 1000 Ω−1 cm−1 for RuO2 at 50 T albeit
vector n along [100] as a function of canting angle is shown in nonzero AHC is picked up already for small fields. The difference
Figure 4A.[9] The Néel vector n is defined as n = (mA − mB )/2, to theoretical prediction[9] is likely due to doping effects and the
where mA/B are the magnetizations of the opposite-spin A and B influence of strong magnetic fields.

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Figure 4. A) Left panel: first-principle calculated AHE conductivity in RuO2 as a function of canting angle along with its ferromagnetic and antiferro-
magnetic components. Right panel: Calculated AHE conductivity in CoNb3 S6 as a function of Fermi level. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY-NC
4.0 license.[9] Copyright 2020, The Authors, Published by American Association for the Advancement of Science. B) Calculated AHE conductivity in
CaCrO3 as functions of Fermi energy. Reproduced with permission.[101] Copyright 2023, American Physical Society. C) Anomalous Hall resistivity in the
(110)-oriented RuO2 film. Reproduced with permission.[98] Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. D) Experimental AHE in Mn5 Si3 . Left panel: Experimental
AHE conductivity as a function of external field with the orientation 𝜃 = 0°. Right panel: Schematic of Hall bar with external field orientation 𝜃 relative
to the [0001] direction and measured AHE conductivity as a function of 𝜃. Reproduced with permission.[105] Copyright 2024, American Physical Society.

For CoNb3 S6 , the sign of the anomalous Hall conductivity re- aligned along,[101] the magnetic space group is Pnn’m’ and 𝜎 xz is
verses when the crystal chirality is reversed (Figure 4A, right permitted.
panel).[9] This phenomenon occurs because the anomalous Hall The anomalous Nernst effect (ANE) and anomalous thermal
conductivity is odd under  symmetry, and the two states of Hall effect (ATHE) are the thermoelectric and thermal coun-
crystal chirality are related by  symmetry. Thus, reversing the terparts, respectively, of the AHE. The ANE describes the ap-
Néel vector can also induce a change in sign. Consequently, in pearance of a transverse voltage induced by a longitudinal heat
AMs, the sign of the anomalous Hall conductivity is determined current in the absence of an external magnetic field, while the
by the combined effect of the Néel vector and crystal chirality. ATHE describes the appearance of a transverse thermal current
As illustrated in Figure 4B, the calculated anomalous Hall con- density under similar conditions. Both phenomena require the
ductivity for perovskite CaCrO3 is substantial and can be further same symmetry conditions as AHE. Consequently, all systems
enhanced by electron or hole doping, which once again under- that permit the existence of the AHE also allow for the occur-
scores the significant impact of doping effects.[101] Additionally, rence of the ANE and the ATHE. However, the ANE and the
the AHE in epitaxial thin films of Mn5 Si3 and MnTe has also ATHE have been investigated only sporadically in AMs, where
been investigated where spontaneous remanence of the signal the ANE and the ATHE can be termed as crystal Nernst ef-
was observed.[14,100,107] As shown in Figure 4D, it can be observed fect and crystal thermal Hall effect, respectively.[31,34,35] The mea-
that the orientation of the Néel vector changes when the exter- sured and calculated ANE of Mn5 Si3 is shown in Figure 5A.[34]
nal magnetic field is rotated, and the AHE in this material is Clear hysteretic behavior and saturation in the transverse ther-
anisotropic, dependent on the relative orientation of the Néel mopower, indicative of a finite ANE, closely correspond to the
vector.[105] Therefore, AHE can serve as an effective method for field dependence of the anomalous Hall conductivity. The mea-
detecting altermagnetic order. It must be mentioned again that sured magnitude of anomalous Nernst conductivity ranges from
not all the states of AMs can generate AHE. Since the anoma- (0.11 ± 0.08) A/(K·m) at 58 K to (0.015 ± 0.005) A/(K·m) at 216 K,
lous Hall conductivity behaves as an axial vector and is odd un- which are in qualitative agreement with the calculated magni-
der  symmetry, a nonvanishing AHE is only observed in sys- tude of 0.25 A/(K·m) for 58 K and 0.12 A/(K·m) for 216 K, re-
tems whose symmetries permit such a vector. This implies that spectively. Besides, it has been demonstrated that the anomalous
the magnetic space group of the system must allow for the exis- Nernst conductivity undergoes a drastic sixfold enhancement in
tence of a nonzero net magnetic moment. For instance, in RuO2 , Mn5 Si3 films with a small amount of Mn doping, especially in
when the Néel vector is oriented along [001], the magnetic space Mn5.10 Si2.90 .[35] In addition, Zhou et al.[31] analyzed the sources of
group is P42 ’/mnm’, and all components of anomalous Hall con- the large anomalous Nernst conductivity in RuO2 through first-
ductivity are prohibited. On the other hand, with the Néel vector principles calculations, identifying Weyl fermions arising from

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Figure 5. A) Transverse Nernst signal (brown) and anomalous Hall conductivity (black) of as a function of applied magnetic field for a sample average
temperature of 216 K (left) and ab initio calculated band structure and ANE at 58 and 216 K (right) for Mn5 Si3 . Reproduced with permission.[34] Copyright
2024, The Authors, Published by arXiv. B) The calculated total anomalous Hall (left) /Nernst (right) conductivity and their spin-conserved and spin-flip
parts of RuO2 . C) Anomalous Hall conductivity, anomalous thermal Hall conductivity and anomalous Lorenz ratio as a function of temperature at
different Fermi levels. Reproduced with permission.[31] Copyright 2024, American Physical Society.

band crossings, strong spin-flip pseudonodal surfaces, and weak the two-point out-of-plane geometry required for both electrical
spin-flip ladder transitions as key contributors. Based on this, the STT writing and TMR-based electrical readout, STT encounters
total anomalous Hall/Nernst conductivity was decomposed into several limitations. A key challenge in STT-MRAMs is to main-
spin-conserving and spin-flip parts (Figure 5B). The results show tain a sufficient separation between writing and readout currents
that, within the hole doping range of −0.2 to 0.0 eV, the ANE is to ensure robust signals while keeping writing currents below the
predominantly driven by the spin-flip processes. Moreover, due tunnel barrier’s breakdown threshold. In contrast, the transversal
to the topological Weyl points, the Wiedemann-Franz law, which spin current induced by relativistic SOC effects such as spin Hall
reflects the relationship between the anomalous Hall conduc- effect (SHE),[112] which is even under  symmetry, can decouple
tivity and anomalous thermal Hall conductivity at low temper- the reading and writing paths in MRAMs and thus enhance the
atures, is applicable up to 150 K in RuO2 , a range significantly device endurance.[113–116] Yet, it relies on relativistic SOC, which
broader than what is typically expected of conventional magnets is typically much weaker than exchange coupling. Furthermore,
(Figure 5C).[31] Furthermore, Hoyer et al. used a toy model of the non-conserving nature of spin significantly restricts the spin
an insulating d-wave AM to investigate the ATHE of magnons, diffusion length to merely nanoscale dimensions, severely lim-
showing that it was strongly dependent on the Néel vector orien- iting the practical utility of spin-orbit-torque magnetic random-
tation and strain.[108] These works enhance our understanding of access memories (SOT-MRAMs). AMs, with the anisotropic band
anomalous transport behavior associated with alternating spin- splitting, offer a new perspective for the generation and manipu-
splitting band structure in AMs. Given these insights, AMs may lation of spin currents.[17,19,22,117–124]
play a leading role in the future development of spintronics and As depicted in Figure 6A,[19] taking d-wave RuO2 as an exam-
spin caloritronics. ple, due to Fermi-surface anisotropies and the [2 ||4z +
] symme-
̄
try, applying an electric field along the [110] axis results in par-
allel spin-up and spin-down charge currents that are different in
2.2.2. Nonrelativistic Spin Current magnitude. As a result, only longitudinal spin polarized current
̄ axis is generated. In contrast, when the electric
along the [110]
In commercial spin-transfer-torque magnetic random-access field is applied along the [100] axis, a transversal pure spin cur-
memories (STT-MRAMs), the foundational mechanism involves rent is produced along the [010] axis. The spin polarization of
applying a longitudinal spin-polarized current in an out-of-plane this nonrelativistic spin current is aligned along the spin quan-
direction, moving from a reference to a recording ferromag- tization axis of the electronic structure. Therefore, there are no
netic layer.[109–111] In this context, the longitudinal spin current, symmetry requirements dictating that the applied field, current
originated from ferromagnetic exchange splitting, has high spin flow direction, and transported spin component be orthogonal to
torque efficiency and is odd under  symmetry. However, due to each other. The transversal spin current, generated by magnetic

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Figure 6. A) Schematic of the longitudinal spin current (left) and transversal spin current (right) in RuO2 . B)  -odd charge-spin conversion ratio
calculated with (solid line) and without (dashed line) SOC. The Néel vector is oriented along [001]. Reproduced with permission.[19] Copyright 2021,
American Physical Society. C) Schematic of ST-FMR measurements for the RuO2 (100)/Py (left) and the RuO2 (110)/Py (right) samples. D) ST-FMR
spectra of the RuO2 (100)/Py (left) and the RuO2 (110)/Py (right) samples. E) The calculated spin torque efficiency (left) and the spin torque conductivity
(right) in RuO2 (100) and RuO2 (110) films. Reproduced with permission.[118] Copyright 2022, American Physical Society.

exchange splitting ( -odd) and independent of SOC, can sim- tioned above, the existence of  -odd spin currents is subject to
ilarly engender spin splitter torque in spintronics, akin to the fewer restrictions. All AMs, including both inorganic and organic
 -even type. This phenomenon is termed “spin-splitter torque” types, are allowed to produce  -odd transversal or longitudinal
(SST).[19] Characterized by high spin torque efficiency and a non- spin currents due to their broken  and  𝜏 symmetries, but
relativistic origin, SST merges the advantages of STT and SOT some require SOC as nonrelativistic SST effect is absent.[17,19]
while overcoming their respective key limitations. The calcu- The GdFeO3 -type perovskite with C-type antiferromagnetic order
lated charge-spin conversion ratio for RuO2 can reach up to 28% were found to generate pure spin current under an applied elec-
(Figure 6B), which is significantly larger than the most exten- tric field;[117] the spin-charge conversion ratio was expected to be
sively exploited spin Hall angle of Pt.[112] Additionally, this ratio over 30% in V2 Te2 O[122] and over 70% in V2 Se2 O;[17] as the twist
is only weakly impacted by SOC. Some literature refers to the angle varies, the spin Hall angle of the twisted bilayer VOBr AM
phenomenon of generating such  -odd spin currents, when con- can reach a peak value of 1.4;[127] organic 𝜅-Cl can act as a spin
sidering SOC, as the magnetic spin Hall effect (MSHE).[125] To current generator by applying a thermal gradient, functioning
verify the aforementioned claims, experimentally, the ferromag- as a time-reversal odd counterpart to the spin Nernst effect.[22]
netic permalloy (Py) layer was deposited on the (100)- and (110)- These theoretical and experimental findings, which demonstrate
oriented RuO2 films (Figure 6C). When brought in contact with the observation of transversal spin current and spin splitting
a ferromagnetic layer, the RuO2 (100) film generates a transver- torque, suggest that AMs are not only ideal as information car-
sal spin current that induces both the SST and SOT, while for the riers free from Joule heating in electronic devices but also as
(110)-oriented RuO2 film, only SOT is exerted on the Py layer. The promising spin source in spintronics.
spin torque-ferromagnetic resonance (ST-FMR) measurements The spin splitting of altermagnetic bands and the associated
were performed to detect the spin current and spin torque gen- spin currents proposed in RuO2 [19] make it possible to be used
erated by the RuO2 films.[118] The ST-FMR spectra of RuO2 /Py in GMR[21] and TMR[20,21] effects. GMR (TMR) effect refers to
samples reveal that RuO2 (100) film exerts much stronger spin the phenomenon where the resistance of a magnetic tunnel
torque on Py film (Figure 6D).[118] The calculated spin torque junction—comprising a nonmagnetic metallic (insulating) layer
efficiency and spin torque conductivity in RuO2 films further sandwiched between two ferromagnetic electrodes—varies with
corroborate this finding, as illustrated in Figure 6E.[118] Further- the relative orientation of the magnetic order of the two fer-
more, the measured spin Hall angle and spin diffusion length romagnetic layers, and a higher spin polarization of the elec-
of RuO2 (100) film is 0.183 and greater than 12 nm, respectively, trodes results in a large MR ratio.[128–130] A large magnitude of
surpassing those of conventional spin source materials such as GMR ratio (𝜌P − 𝜌AP )/(𝜌P + 𝜌AP ), where P(AP) corresponds to
heavy metals.[126] (anti)parallel alignment of Néel vector in altermagnetic layers
RuO2 is not the only example of generating  -odd spin cur- separated by nonmagnetic metallic spacer, up to 100% was pre-
rents. We point out that, unlike the anomalous Hall effect men- dicted in magnetic tunnel junction comprised of RuO2 .[21] TMR

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Figure 7. A) Structures of a TMR stack of RuO2 /TiO2 /RuO2 tunnel junction with parallel (P) and antiparallel (AP) alignment of the Néel vectors. B) Ab
initio calculated k∥ -resolved transmission of spin-up and spin down channel for P and AP states. C) Total transmissions with respect to energy for P and
AP states. D) Energy dependence of calculated TMR. Reproduced under the terms of the CC-BY 4.0 license.[20] Copyright 2021, The Authors, Published
by Springer Nature.

in AMs has been studied both from first-principle and model the rotation of the polarization plane of linearly polarized light
calculations. [20,21] Shao et al. designed a RuO2 /TiO2 /RuO2 tunnel as it reflects from or transmits through magnetic materials, re-
junction (Figure 7A).[20] The k∥ -resolved transmission for spin- spectively. The optical Hall conductivity, which is intimately re-
up and spin-down channel in P states clearly showed a large lated to the magneto-optical Kerr and Faraday effects (MOKE
distribution of the spin-polarized conduction channels in RuO2 and MOFE), can be seen as the ac counterpart of anomalous
(Figure 7B, left panel). In contrast, for the AP state, only the states Hall conductivity. Therefore, both MOKE and MOFE adhere to
near the zone center contributed to the transmission (Figure 7B, the same symmetry rules as the AHE, and consequently, these
right panel), resulting in a significantly lower total transmission effects are also observed in AMs. In fact, as early as 1997, re-
compared to the P state (Figure 7C). The calculated TMR ratio search predicted the presence of  -odd MO effect in LaMO3 (M
can reach up to 500% at the Fermi level (Figure 7D), a value com- = Cr, Mn, Fe), but it was not yet associated with the unconven-
parable to that obtained in commercially used Fe/MgO/Fe (001) tional magnetic order.[133] Samanta et al. also identified crystal
magnetic tunnel junction.[131,132] The superior performance sug- MO effect in the monolayer limit of an SrRuO3 film, associat-
gests that altermagnetic TMR/GMR holds promise for commer- ing it with the lowering structural symmetry and antiferromag-
cial applications. netic order.[134] Zhou et al.,[135] employing first-principles calcu-
lations, identified MOKE and MOFE in AMs, which they desig-
nated as crystal chirality magneto-optical (CCMO) effects. These
2.3. Magneto-Optical Effects effects demonstrate that the signs of Kerr and Faraday spectra in
RuO2 and CoNb3 S6 reverse with changes in material chirality, as
Magneto-optical (MO) effects, which represent the fundamen- illustrated in Figure 8A–C.[135] Moreover, the peak values of the
tal interplay between magnetism and light, play a pivotal role Kerr and Faraday rotation angles induced by this novel CCMO
in condensed matter physics. Within the extensive array of MO effect—0.62 deg and 2.42 × 105 deg cm−1 for RuO2 , respectively—
effects, the Kerr and Faraday effects stand out, both of which are significantly larger than those observed in traditional ferro-
are  -odd MO effects. These phenomena are characterized by magnetic and noncollinear antiferromagnetic materials,[136–138]

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Figure 8. A) Kerr rotation and Faraday rotation angle and B) Kerr ellipticity and Faraday ellipticity for the left- and righthanded chirality states (𝜒 = ±
1) of RuO2 . C) Kerr and Faraday rotation angles for the left- and right-handed chirality states of CoNb3 S6 . Reproduced with permission.[135] Copyright
2021, American Physical Society. D) Mn L2,3 -edge spectra, comparing theoretical results (solid black line) and experimental data (red dotted line), with
light propagation along the c-axis. Top: X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Middle: XMCD in zero magnetic field following cooling in a 6 T field. Bottom:
measured XMCD in an applied magnetic field of 6 T, calculated XMCD with k aligned parallel to the magnetic moment, normalized by the ratio m6T =
msat ≈ 1/50. E) XMCD following cooling in opposing magnetic fields. Reproduced with permission.[141] Copyright 2024, American Physical Society. F)
Real (red) and imaginary (blue) components of the optical conductivity tensor at the Ru M2,3 edge for various orientations of the Néel vector. Reproduced
with permission.[142] Copyright 2024, American Physical Society.

suggesting their potential for applications in MO recording. Hariki et al. employed both ab initio theoretical models and ex-
In addition, a prominent MOKE has also been observed perimental approaches to investigate XMCD in 𝛼-MnTe.[141] As
in altermagnetic RuF4 ,[139] and the time-resolved MOKE has shown in Figure 8D, the trends in XMCD, obtained both theoret-
been employed to explore ultrafast spin dynamics in epitaxial ically and experimentally, remained consistent regardless of the
MnTe(001)/InP(111) thin films.[140] application of an external magnetic field, although the magni-
In addition to the MOKE and MOFE, x-ray magnetic circu- tudes differed significantly.[141] They attributed this phenomenon
lar dichroism (XMCD) also represents a highly significant  -odd to the role of magnetic domains. In zero field, the cooling pro-
MO effect and also shares the same symmetry principles as AHE. cess causes the magnetic moments to cant, forming magnetic

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Figure 9. A) Schematic representation of the nonrelativistic magnon spectra in collinear FM, collinear AFM and AM. B) Up panel: the electronic band
structure of the altermagnetic phase of RuO2 with spin splitting. Down panel: corresponding magnonic band structure with alternating chirality splitting.
C) The magnitude of chirality splitting in altermagnetic CoF2 , MnTe and Fe2 O3 . Reproduced with permission[155] Copyright 2023, American Physical
Society.

domains. Within each domain, there exists a ferrimagnetic-like ing research in magnetic materials and their technological appli-
alignment, with the direction of the magnetic moments varying cations.
between domains. Since XMCD is dependent on the direction of
the magnetic moments, the effects from different domains can-
cel each other out under zero external magnetic field, resulting in 2.4. Chiral Magnons
a measured value that is ten times smaller than theoretical predic-
tions. However, under a 6T external magnetic field, the magnetic Magnons, the spin wave quanta, are collective excitations of the
moments within each domain align due to canting, thus closely spins observed in a magnetic system, that are central to the im-
aligning experimental and theoretical values (the experimentally portant research field called magnonics.[144–149] As depicted in
induced magnetic moments were only 0.1μB compared to 5μB Figure 9A, in the nonrelativistic limit and for collinear FMs,
used in theoretical calculations, a difference of 50 times, yet the the magnons typically are polarized with one chirality (coun-
calculated results differed by only 80 times, nearly a 1:1 ratio). The terclockwise, cyan), have quadratic dispersion near the Γ point
conclusions are corroborated in Figure 8E, where an opposing in the magnonic Brillouin zone, and are in GHz range. In
external magnetic field leads to the reversal of ferrimagnetic-like contrast, for conventional collinear AFMs, the dispersions of
moments within the domains, ultimately reversing the XMCD magnons possess two chiral modes (cyan for counterclockwise
signal.[141] Hariki et al. computed XMCD at L2,3 and M2,3 edges and pink for clockwise) which are degenerate throughout the
of Ru in RuO2 for different orientations of the Néel vector and the entire Brillouin zone and show a linear dispersion close to the
results for M2,3 edges of Ru are shown in Figure 8F, indicating Γ point.[77,150,151] In addition, the resonance frequencies of an-
that the orientation of the altermagnetic order also has a signifi- tiferromagnetic magnons can reach up to THz range, making
cant effect on the MO effect.[142] Moreover, a review systematically AFMs attractive for magnon spintronics when compared with
analyzed the nonlinear MO effects in antiferromagnetic and alter- FMs.[152–154] However, the net spin angular momentum is zero
magnetic materials, revealing that altermagnetic domains with if these two opposite-chirality modes are equally populated. In
antiparallel Néel vector can be distinguished by the MO effects order to observe and take advantages of the magnon-generated
that are linearly proportional to the Néel vector.[143] spin currents, the degeneracy between these two modes must be
These findings indicate that MO tools are effective in prob- lifted by external stimuli (e.g., magnetic field).[151] Given that both
ing altermagnetism, and MO effects can be utilized to investigate FMs and AFMs have limitations in applying them in the realm of
physical properties in AMs. Such insights are crucial for advanc- magnonics, it is natural to wonder whether there exists another

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type of magnetic matter that operated in the THz range and hosts difficulty of achieving 2D artificial AMs. Note that monolayer
nondegenerate magnonic chirality. MnPSe3 forms an antiferromagnetic arrangement, correspond-
Recently, properties of magnons in AMs were theoretically ing to the conventional collinear Néel order on the honeycomb
investigated.[155] In these unconventional collinear compensated lattice. The only symmetry that preserves spin degeneracy is 
magnets, the degeneracy of magnon modes with opposite- symmetry. Consequently, monolayer MnPSe3 is a good source for
chirality can be lifted without external stimuli and the sign of the inducing altermagnetism.
splitting between opposite chirality magnons alternates through- Applied electric fields are one of the most common ways
out the Brillouin zone (Figure 9A).[155] Again, taking RuO2 as an to tune and control physical properties.[158–166] As illustrated in
example, the nonrelativistic electronic and magnonic band struc- Figure 10A,[167] when an electric gate or a substrate is used to in-
tures along the high-symmetry paths at kz = 0 plane under zero troduce an electric field perpendicular to the Mn plane in mono-
magnetic field are shown in Figure 9B.[155] It is noted that both layer MnPSe3 , the two Se layers become crystallographically in-
of these two kinds of splittings are strongly momentum depen- equivalent due to the unequally additional electrostatic potential
dent and the alternating sign of the chirality splitting is similar and thus the  symmetry is broken, while the two opposite-
to that of the spin splitting along the same paths. The origin of spin Mn atoms are still locally equivalent and connected by glide-
the chirality splitting can be traced back to the anisotropic intra- reflection symmetry. The resulting spin splitting is ≈25 meV
sublattice exchange interactions, which must be accompanied by when applying an external electric field of 1 eV Å−1 . This mecha-
the spin group symmetry of altermagnetic phase. The anisotropic nism can generate AHE in collinear AFMs but is different from
exchange alone is not sufficient condition for chiral magnons. layer-polarized anomalous Hall effects, in which the two mag-
This can be seen by analyzing an artificial antiferromagnetic netic layers become crystallographically inequivalent under the
phase of RuO2 , constructed by a 1 × 1 × 2 supercell. Such a su- vertical electric field and are formally like ferrimagnets.[164,166]
percell exhibits the anisotropic intra-sublattice exchange interac- Besides, we notice that a large spin splitting of 100 meV in
tions but due to the antiferromagnetic spin group, the magnon the Fe bands can be seen in FeSe/SrTiO3 heterostructure com-
bands are degenerate. Other AMs such as CoF2 , MnTe and Fe2 O3 bined with quantum spin Hall effect, demonstrating the feasibil-
also showed alternating splitting (Figure 9C)[155] which means ity of combining nontrivial band-topology with unconventional
the alternating sign of the chirality splitting constitutes a distinc- altermagnetism in an experimentally known superconducting
tive hallmark of altermagnetic magnons with no counterpart in monolayer.[167]
collinear FMs or AFMs. We notice that the magnitude of chiral
splitting for RuO2 was calculated to reach 10 meV, which is large
enough to be detected experimentally via, e.g., inelastic polarized 3.2. Janus Altermagnets
neutron scattering.[156] The chiral splitting can also contribute to
efficient spin Seebeck and spin Nernst effects of magnons.[157] In addition to applied electric field, built-in electric field arising
from a Janus structure can also break the inversion symmetry,
thus enabling the transformation of a conventional AFM into an
3. Strategies to Induce Altermagnetism AM. For instance, in monolayer MnPSe3 , if one of the two Se lay-
ers is completely substituted with a different atomic species, such
Although there are many spontaneous altermagnetic candidates as S atoms (Figure 10B),[167] to form a Janus structure, the 
in nature, which we will mention in Section 4, there are always symmetry is broken while the two spin sublattices are mapped
some situations in practice where it is necessary to manually con- on top of each other by mirror rather than inversion or transla-
struct AMs by functionalizing FMs or conventional AFMs. To tional symmetries. The resulting band structure, in the absence
achieve artificial AMs, the guiding principle is to break the com- of SOC, shows altermagnetic spin splitting of i-wave symmetry.
bined  and/or  𝜏 symmetry while preserving altermagnetic Besides, the Janus structure could facilitate the integration of
spin point group symmetries. Here, we briefly review four pro- piezoelectricity, piezovalley, and piezomagnetism with altermag-
posed routes toward altermagnetism. netism, significantly expanding the versatility of AMs.[168,169]

3.1. Applied Electric Fields 3.3. Twisted Bilayer Altermagnets

In 3D magnetic materials, two spin-symmetry operations, “Twisting” has already been demonstrated, both theoretically and
[2 ||][2 || ](≡  ) and [2 ||𝜏], enforce Kramers spin degen- experimentally, to significantly change the physical properties of
eracy throughout the Brillouin zone, while 2D systems have nonmagnetic and magnetic systems without alteration of chemi-
no out-of-plane components of momentum k⊥ , only in-plane cal compositions.[170–176] Recently, twisted bilayer AMs have been
components k∥ , therefore, violations of the aforementioned two proposed.[127,177,178] In normally stacked antiferromagnetic bilay-
symmetries are insufficient to realize spin splitting. For in- ers, spin-up and spin-down states are degenerate in the band
stance, [2 || 2z ][2 || ] symmetry transforms energy eigen- structure due to the high symmetry. Interestingly, introducing a
state E(k∥ ,s) as [2 || 2z ][2 || ]E(k∥ , s) = [2 || 2z ]E(−k∥ , s) = twist between the two magnetic layers results in change of sym-
E(k∥ , −s), resulting in spin degeneracy across the 2D Brillouin metry, which in turn causes significant k-dependent nonrelativis-
zone. [2 || z ] symmetry transforms energy eigenstate E(k∥ ,s) tic spin splitting, introducing all the characteristic physical prop-
as [2 || z ]E(k∥ , s) = E(k∥ , −s), acting as [2 ||𝜏]. The additional erties of altermagnetism.[177,178] Figure 10C illustrates the struc-
constraints imposed by symmetry considerations increase the ture of twisted bilayer MnPSe3 in which the magnetic order is

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Figure 10. Four mechanisms of inducing altermagnetic phase. A) Top: applying external electric field. Bottom: placing the monolayer on a substrate. B)
Forming a Janus structure by replacing the bottom Se atoms with S atoms. Reproduced with permission.[167] Copyright 2024, The Authors, Published by
arXiv. C) Twisting bilayer of MnPSe3 . Reproduced with permission.[178] Copyright 2024, American Physical Society. D) Supercell magnetic configurations
of MnSe2 -I (up) and MnSe2 -II (down) and their corresponding nonrelativistic band structures. Cyan and magenta denote positive and negative values
of the spin density, respectively. Reproduced with permission.[179] Copyright 2024, American Physical Society.

intralayer and interlayer antiferromagnetic.[178] The special twist recent work has expanded the family of altermagnetic candidates
angle (𝜃 = 21.79°) not only breaks  symmetry but also en- by enlarging the magnetic unit cell.[179] Figure 10D shows two
sures the emergence of rotation symmetry ([2 || 2[010] ]), which magnetic structures of MnSe2 (termed MnSe2 -I and MnSe2 -II)
connects opposite spin sublattices. The bands exhibit spin degen- and their band structure.[179] Both structures are constructed by
eracy along high-symmetry paths, potentially leading to the mis- stacking three nonmagnetic unit cells along the c-axis. The distri-
conception that it represents conventional antiferromagnetism. bution of the magnetic moments varies between them, which is
However, this is not applicable at any generic k-point, where revealed by the different colored spin density around Mn atoms.
no symmetry operations enforce the spin degeneracy. Therefore, The anisotropic spin density also indicates that in both cases, two
a comprehensive analysis of the Brillouin Zone for AMs is es- sites with opposite spin cannot be linked by a straightforward an-
sential. The maximum nonrelativistic spin splitting observed in tiunitary translation. The glide planes connecting Mn with oppo-
twisted bilayer MnPSe3 is 5.1 meV, which is relatively small com- site spin for MnSe2 -I and MnSe2 -II are [2 || y ] and [2 || z ]
pared to that of well-known bulk antiferromagnets but can be (disregarding translational symmetry for simplicity), respectively.
tuned by biaxial strain. Besides, other twist angles, such as 9.43° Due to the differing glide planes, spin splitting occurs along dis-
and 42.10°, can also induce altermagnetism. Therefore, twist an- tinct k-path, with the maximum values of spin splitting being
gles represent a new degree of freedom for tuning the proper- 167 meV and 71 meV, respectively. Symmetry analysis has re-
ties of AMs. It is worth mentioning that in twisted bilayer CrSBr, vealed that both MnSe2 -I and MnSe2 -II are d-wave AMs. Notably,
the transverse charge-to-spin conversion rate can reach up to the energy difference of MnSe2 -I and MnSe2 -II is merely 5 meV.
90%, demonstrating that AMs induced through this method hold This minimal discrepancy suggests that changing the ground
significant potential for applications in spintronics.[177] We no- state through an external perturbation could be feasible. Despite
tice that the induction of spin splitting upon twisting a bilayer the current lack of experimental techniques for manipulating the
system with interlayer antiferromagnetic coupling is a universal magnetic order of individual atoms, the proposal of supercell
phenomenon. Liu et al. have proposed a more comprehensive AMs encourages further exploration in the design of AMs.
analysis of twisted bilayer AMs and demonstrated that the spin-
splitting character can range from d-wave to i-wave symmetry.[127] 4. Altermagnetic Candidates
In this Section, we review the altermagnetic candidates, neglect-
3.4. Supercell Altermagnets ing the artificial AMs mentioned in Section 3. Before moving
on to this Section, we recall the criteria necessary to identify
The above three strategies are applicable in the case of 2D AMs. altermagnetic phase:[27] an even number of magnetic atoms in
Here, a method that can induce 3D altermagnetism is proposed. the magnetic unit cell; no  and  𝜏 symmetries; the sign
Until now, the exploration of new altermagnetic candidates in of the spin splitting alternates across the Brillouin zone; the
nature has predominantly concentrated on materials where the two opposite-spin sublattices are linked by a real space rota-
magnetic unit cell coincides with the nonmagnetic one. A very tion transformation (proper or improper, and symmorphic or

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Table 1. 2D altermagnetic candidates with their corresponding nonmagnetic space group (NSG), magnetic space group (MSG), and even-parity spin
symmetry type. The number of NSG represents in parentheses.

No. Compound NSG MSG Spin symmetry Refs.

1 OsNNaSCl5 P21 (4) P21 d-wave [181]
2 V2 ClBrI2 O2 Cm (8) P1 d-wave [181]
3 RuF4 P21 /c (14) P21 /c d-wave [92]
4 VF4 P21 /c (14) P21 /c d-wave [181]
5 AgF2 P21 /c (14) P21 ’/c’ d-wave [181]
6 OsF4 P21 /c (14) P21 /c d-wave [181]
7 SrRuO3 (010) P21 /c (14) P21 /c d-wave [134]
8 MnTeMoO6 P21 21 2 (18) d-wave [183]
9 FeS(110) Pmma (51) d-wave [182]
10 FeSe(110) Pmma (51) d-wave [182]
11 VP2 H8 (NO4 )2 P4bm (100) g-wave [183]
12 Fe2 WTe4 ̄
P42m (111) d-wave [186]
13 Fe2 MoZ4 (Z = S,Se,Te) ̄
P42m (111) d-wave [186]
14 Ca(CoN)2 ̄
P4m2 (115) ̄
P4’m’2 d-wave [187]
15 Ca(FeN)2 ̄
P4m2 (115) ̄
P4’m’2 d-wave [188]
16 CrO P4/mmm (123) P4’/mmm’ d-wave [189,190]
17 V2 Se2 O P4/mmm (123) Pm’m’m d-wave [17]
18 V2 Te2 O P4/mmm (123) P4’/mm’m d-wave [122]
19 Cr2 Te2 O P4/mmm (123) d-wave [157]
20 Cr2 Se2 O P4/mmm (123) d-wave [157]
21 Fe2 Se2 O P4/mmm (123) P4’/mm’m d-wave [192]
22 FeSe(001) P4/nmm (129) d-wave [167,193]
23 2H-FeBr3 ̄
P62m (189) ̄
P62m i-wave [181]

non-symmorphic). It is worth noting that symmetry constraints research will further expand the family of 2D altermagnetic can-
prevent the emergence of 1D AMs, owing to the absence of didates. Both V2 Se2 O and V2 Te2 O predicted in Ref. [17] have been
rotational transformations in reciprocal space for 1D systems. experimentally verified in K doped or Rb doped samples, which
Therefore, we focus exclusively on 2D and 3D altermagnetic can- has clearly shown the 2D nature.[184,185]
didates, encompassing a diverse spectrum of conduction types
ranging from insulators and metals to superconductors. In addi-
tion, a program was recently developed to determine the mag- 4.2. 3D Altermagnetic Candidates
netic phase of symmetry-compensated collinear magnetic ma-
terial. We refer interested readers to a detailed information in After reviewing the literature on 3D altermagnetic candidates,
ref. [180]. we propose that perovskite materials are particularly favorable
for altermagnetism. This includes those with GdFeO3 -type and
LiNbO3 -type structures, as well as perovskites that are struc-
4.1. 2D Altermagnetic Candidates turally doubled or tripled, in which the distortion of the O octahe-
dra reduces the symmetry of the system, making the emergence
As discussed in Section 3.1, the symmetry requirements for 2D of altermagnetism possible. Additionally, 3D rutile fluorides or
AMs are relatively more stringent compared to their bulk coun- oxides along with other fluorides and sulfate fluorides, have also
terparts. Consequently, there are fewer viable candidates for 2D emerged as promising candidates. Moreover, altermagnetism is
AMs than for 3D ones. Nevertheless, considerable efforts have not limited to inorganic materials; it can also occur in organic
been made to search for and study the properties of 2D AMs. For materials.
instance, Sødequist and Olsen[181] identified seven 2D AMs us- We tabulate 221 3D altermagnetic candidates in Table 2,
ing high-throughput calculations based on the Computational 2D mainly referring to the work of Šmejkal et al.,[9,25,27] Guo et
Materials Database (C2DB), while Liu et al.[182] computationally al.,[93] Chen et al.[194] and Gao et al.[195] Šmejkal and col-
derived two 2D AMs from the 2D NiAs-type non-van der Waals leagues were pioneers in applying spin group theory to iden-
family, providing new perspectives for the synthesis of 2D AMs. tify several important AMs, including MnTe, CrSb, Mn5 Si3 ,
In addition, Zeng and Zhao explored the 2D spin layer group, RuO2 , Co/VNb3 S6 , and Fe2 O3 .[14,25,27,9] Among these, MnTe,
which is conducive to the further understanding of 2D AMs.[183] CrSb, Mn5 Si3 , and RuO2 have been experimentally confirmed
These materials are listed in Table 1, which includes those cur- as AMs.[14,32,34–36,67,70–74,96,98,100,104,107,119–121] Guo et al.[93] and Gao
rently considered to be 2D AMs. It is anticipated that ongoing et al.[195] further selected altermagnetic candidates through a

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Table 2. 3D altermagnetic candidates with their corresponding NSG, MSG, and Néel temperature. The number of NSG represents in parentheses.
The experimentally indicated AMs via measurements of spin-splitting spectrum and anomalous transport are highlighted in bold. RT stands for room
temperature.

No. Compound NSG MSG Néel temperature [K] Refs.

1 KV2 Se2 O P4/mmm ≥ RT [17,184]

(123) P4′/mm′m
2 Rb1-𝛿 V2 Te2 O P4/mmm ≥ 307 [17,185]
(123) P4′/mm′m
3 RuO2 P42 /mnm > 300 [9,10,17,75,88,98,104,118,119,120,121,126]
(136) P42 ′/mnm′
4 Mn5 Si3 P63 /mcm P1̄ 240 [14,34,35,105,107]
(193)
5 CrSb P63 /mmc > 600 [25,36,70,71,72,73,74,196]
(194) P63 ′/m′m′c
6 MnTe P63 /mmc Cm′c′m 310 [17,25,32,67,68,100,140,141,197,198]
(194)
7 LiFeP2 O7 P21 (4) P21 22 [9,199]
8 CaLaFeAgO6 Pc (7) [195]
9 Mn4 Nb2 O9 Cc (9) Cc 52.1(1) [194,200]
10 CaFe5 O7 P21 /m (11) P21 ′/m′ 125 [194,201]
11 Fe3 F8 (H2 O)2 C2/m (12) C2′/m′ 157 [194,202]
12 RbMnF4 P21 /a (14) P1̄ 3.7(1) [93,203]
13 Li2 Co(SO4 )2 P21 /c (14) P21 ′/c′ 7–8 [93,204]
14 LiFe(SO4 )2 P21 /c (14) P21 /c 35–39 [204]
15 Li2 Mn(SO4 )2 P21 /c (14) P21 /c 6 [204]
16 Fe3 (PO4 )2 (OH)2 P21 /c (14) P21 /c 160 [93,205]
17 CuF2 P21 /c (14) 69 [25,206]
18 Li2 Ni(SO4 )2 P21 /c (14) P21 /c 15 [194,207]
19 K2 ReI6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 24 [93,208]
20 Sr2 CoTeO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 15–19 [194,209]
21 Sr2 ScOsO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 92 [194,210]
22 Sr2 YRuO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 26 [194,211]
23 Sr2 TbIrO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 51 [194,212]
24 Sr2 LuRuO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 30(1) [194,213]
25 Sr2 YbRuO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 36 [194,214]
26 Sr2 TmRuO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 36 [194,215]
27 Sr2 TbRuO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 41 [194,216]
28 Sr2 HoRuO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 36 [194,217]
29 Sr2 DyRuO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 39.5 [194,218]
30 Mn2 ScSbO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 22.3 [194,219]
31 CuAg(SO4 )2 P21 /n (14) [220,221]
32 La2 LiRuO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 30 [194,222]
33 Sr2 Co0.9 Mg0.1 TeO6 P21 /n (14) P21 /c 13 [194,209]
34 Sr2 CoOsO6 B2/c (15) C2/c 108 [93,223]
35 Ba3 CoIr2 O9 C2/c (15) C2/c 107 [93,224]
36 FeSO4 F C2/c (15) C2′/c′ 100 [93,225]
37 FeOHSO4 C2/c (15) C2′/c′ 125 [93,226]
38 BiCrO3 C2/c (15) C2/c [9]
39 BaCrF5 P21 21 21 (19) P21 ′21 ′21 3.4 [93,227]
40 FeHO2 Pmn21 (31) > RT [195,228,229]
41 CaLaCr2 O6 Pmn21 (31) [195]
42 Y2 Cu2 O5 Pna21 (33) Pna21 13 [93,230,231]
43 NaFeO2 Pna21 (33) [195,232]
(Continued)

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Table 2. (Continued)

No. Compound NSG MSG Néel temperature [K] Refs.

44 Pna21 (33) Pn′a′21 [194,233]

[C(ND2 )3 ]Cu(DCOO)3
45 Pna21 (33) Pna21 [194,233]
[C(ND2 )3 ]Cu(DCOO)3
46 Ca3 Mn2 O7 Cmc21 (36) Cm′c21 ′ 115 [93,234]
47 Ca3 Cr2 O7 Cmc21 (36) [195]
48 ErGe1.83 Cmc21 (36) Cmc21 6 [194,235]
49 Cu2 V2 O7 Fdd2 (43) Fd′d′2 33.4(1) [93,236]
50 ZnFeF5 (H2 O)2 Imm2 (44) Imm2 9(2) [93,237]
51 Sr2 MnGaO5 Ima2 (46) Im′a2′ 180 [194,238]
52 BiFe0.5 Sc0.5 O3 Ima2 (46) Im′a2′ ≈220 [194,239]
53 Pnna (52) Pn′na′ 14.04(1) [194,233]
[C(ND2 )3 ]Co(DCOO)3
54 Pnna (52) Pn′n′a 8.73(2) [194,233]
[C(ND2 )3 ]Mn(DCOO)3
55 Fe1.5 Mn1.5 BO5 Pbam (55) Pbam 100 [194,240]
56 Mn(N(CN)2 )2 Pnnm (58) Pnn′m′ 16 [93,241]
57 FeSb2 Pnnm (58) Pnn′m′ [15]
58 CrSb2 Pnnm (58) 273 [15,242,243]
59 Eu3 In2 As4 Pnnm (58) [244,245]
60 Fe2 WO6 Pbcn (60) Pbc′n′ [194,246]
61 Ca2 RuO4 Pbca (61) [247]
62 CaCrO3 Pbnm (62) Pb′n′m 90 [25,248,249]
63 YCrO3 Pbnm (62) Pn′ma′ 141 [93,250]
64 TbCrO3 Pbnm (62) Pn′m′a 158 [93,250,251]
65 DyCrO3 Pbnm (62) Pn′m′a [194,252]
66 ErCrO3 Pbnm (62) Pn′ma′ 133 [194,250]
67 CeFeO3 Pbnm (62) Pnma 220 [194,253]
68 CeFeO3 Pbnm (62) Pn′ma′ 720 [194,253]
69 SmFeO3 Pbmn (62) Pn′m′a 480 [93,254]
70 SmFeO3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ 675 [93,254]
71 TbFeO3 Pbnm (62) Pn′ma′ 681 [17,93,255]
72 DyFeO3 Pbnm (62) Pnma 73 [194,256]
73 DyFeO3 Pbnm (62) Pn′ma′ [194,256]
74 ErVO3 Pbnm (62) P21 /c 56 [194,257]
75 NdCoO3 Pbnm (62) Pnma 1.20(1) [194,258]
76 TbCr0.5 Mn0.5 O3 Pbnm (62) Pn′ma′ ≈84 [194,259]
77 𝜅-Cl Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ 23 [22,27,260]
78 YVO3 Pnma (62) Pn′m′a 77 [194,261]
79 NdVO3 Pnma (62) P21 ′/m′ 135 [194,261]
80 LaCrO3 Pnma (62) Pnma 289 [93,262]
81 LaCrO3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ [17,93,263]
82 ScCrO3 Pnma (62) Pnma 73 [93,264]
83 InCrO3 Pnma (62) Pnma 93 [93,264]
84 TlCrO3 Pnma (62) Pnma 89 [93,264]
85 ZrCrO3 Pnma (62) [195]
86 YRuO3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ 97 [194,265]
87 LaMnO3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ 139.5 [9,17,266]
88 CaMnO3 Pnma (62) 120 [9,267]
89 Ca1–x Cex MnO3 Pnma (62) [9]
90 NdMnO3 Pnma (62) P21 /m 85 [194,268]
(Continued)

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Table 2. (Continued)

No. Compound NSG MSG Néel temperature [K] Refs.

91 PrMnO3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ 91 [194,268]

92 LaFeO3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ 750 [269]
93 NdFeO3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ 760 [93,270]
94 NaOsO3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ 411.(2) [17,93,271]
95 Fe2 PO5 Pnma (62) Pnma 250 [93,272,273]
96 NiFePO5 Pnma (62) Pnma 178(5) [93,274]
97 CuFePO5 Pnma (62) Pnma 195(5) [93,274]
98 Mn2 SeO3 F2 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ 26 [93,275]
99 MnO2 Pnma (62) [195,276]
100 KMnF3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ 75 [25,277]
101 Ca2 MnGaO5 Pnma (62) Pnm′a′ 160 [194,238]
102 Ca2 PrCr2 TaO9 Pnma (62) Pn′m′a 130 [194,278]
103 Ca2 PrCr2 NbO9 Pnma (62) Pn′m′a 110 [194,278]
104 Ho0.2 Bi0.8 FeO3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ [194,279]
105 Ho0.15 Bi0.85 FeO3 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ [194,279]
106 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ [194,280]
La0.95 Ba0.05 Mn0.95 Ti0.05 O3
107 Pnma (62) Pnma 350 [194,281]
La0.75 Bi0.25 Fe0.5 Cr0.5 O3
108 Pnma (62) Pn′ma′ [194,282]
La0.5 Sr0.5 FeO2.5 F0.5
109 BiFe0.5 Sc0.5 O3 Pnma (62) Pn′m′a ≈220 [194,239]
110 Pnma (62) Pn′m′a [194,283]
Bi0.85 Ca0.15 Fe0.55 Mn0.45 O3
111 Pnma (62) Pn′m′a [194,284]
Ca2 Fe0.875 Cr0.125 GaO5
112 Pmcn (62) Pm′c21′ 9 [194,285]
Pb2 Mn0.6 Co0.4 WO6
113 NiCrO4 Cmcm (63) Cmcm [194,286]
114 Tb2 Ir3 Ga9 Cmcm (63) Cm′cm′ 12.5 [194,287]
115 CaIrO3 Cmcm (63) Cm′cm′ 115 [93,288,289]
116 CoFe3 O5 Cmcm (63) Cm′cm′ ≈300 [194,290]
117 Nd2 PdGe6 Cmce (64) Cm′c′a 4 [194,291]
118 LaCaFeO4 Cmce (64) Cm′c′a [194,292]
119 Sr4 Fe4 O11 Cmmm (65) Cmm′m′ 232(4) [93,293]
120 La2 NiO3 F2 Cccm (66) 49 [294,295]
121 YBaMn2 O5.5 Ibam (72) C2/m ≈140 [194,296]
122 YBaMn2 O5.5 Ibam (72) Ib′a′m ≈120 [194,296]
123 Y2 SrCu0.6 Co1.4 O6.5 Ibam (72) Ib′a′m 385 [194,297]
124 Imma (74) Imm′a′ ≈240 [194,298]
Bi0.8 La0.2 Fe0.5 Mn0.5 O3
125 𝛼-MnO2 I4/m (87) [24,299]
126 KRu4 O8 I4/m (87) [25]
127 Ky Fe2-x Se2 I4/m (87) C2′/m′ [194,300]
128 Rby Fe2-x Se2 I4/m (87) C2′/m′ [194,300]
129 NaFeO2 P41 21 2 (92) [195,301]
130 GdAlSi I41 md (109) I41 ′ m′d 32 [302]
131 SrMn2 V2 O8 I41 cd (110) Ib′a2′ 42.2 [93,303]
132 Ba2 MnSi2 O7 ̄ 1 m (113)
P42 ̄ 1m
P42 2.95 [93,304]
133 Ba2 CoGe2 O7 ̄ 1 m (113)
P42 Cm′m2′ 6.7 [93,305]
134 Ca2 CoSi2 O7 ̄ 1 m (113)
P42 P21 21 ′2′ 5.7 [194,306]
135 CsCoF4 ̄ (120)
I4C2 ̄
I4′ 54 [194,307]
(Continued)

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Table 2. (Continued)

No. Compound NSG MSG Néel temperature [K] Refs.

136 CuFeS2 ̄ (122)

I42d ̄
I42d > RT [194,308]
137 UCr2 Si2 C P4/mmm Pm′m′m [194,309]
(123)
138 ZrMn2 Ge4 O12 P4/nbm P4′/nbm′ 8 [93,310]
(125)
139 CeMn2 Ge4 O12 P4/nbm P4′/nbm′ 7.6 [194,311]
(125)
140 CeMnCoGe4 O12 P4/nbm Pb′an′ 5.8 [194,311]
(125)
141 Nb2 FeB2 P4/mbm [102]
(127) P4/mb′m′
142 Ta2 FeB2 P4/mbm [102]
(127) P4/mb′m′
143 NdB2 C2 P4/mbm 8.8 [195,312]
(127)
144 Mg2 FeIr5 B2 P4/mbm [195,313]
(127)
145 Mg2 MnIr5 B2 P4/mbm [195,313]
(127)
146 Mg2 NiIr5 B2 P4/mbm [195,313]
(127)
147 Sc2 MnIr5 B2 P4/mbm [195,314]
(127)
148 MnF2 P42 /mnm 67.4 [17,25,315]
(136) P42 ′/mnm′
149 CoF2 P42 /mnm 37.7 [17,25,316]
(136) P42 ′/mnm′
150 NiF2 P42 /mnm Pnn′m′ 73.2 [17,194,317]
(136)
151 ReO2 P42 /mnm [318]
(136) P42 ′/mnm′
152 𝛽-MnO2 P42 /mnm [24,25]
(136)
153 LiFe2 F6 P42 /mnm 105 [93,319]
(136) P42 ′/mnm′
154 La2 NiO4 P42 /ncm Pc′c′n 80 [93,320]
(138)
155 La2 O3 FeMnSe2 I4/mmm Im′m′m 76 [194,321]
(139)
156 Sr0.7 Tb0.3 CoO2.9 I4/mmm ≈300 [194,322]
(139) I4′/mmm′
157 Sr0.7 Er0.3 CoO2.8 I4/mmm ≈300 [194,322]
(139) I4′/mmm′
158 Sr0.7 Ho0.3 CoO2.7 I4/mmm ≈300 [194,322]
(139) I4′/mmm′
159 KMnF3 I4/mcm (140) I4/mcm 86.8 [25,277]
160 𝛽-Fe2 (PO4 )O I41 /amd I41 ′/am‘d 408 [323,324]
(141)
161 Co2 (PO4 )O I41 /amd I41 ′/am‘d [325,326]
(141)
162 Cr2 S3 R3̄ (148) P1̄ [9]
163 MnTiO3 R3c (161) Cc′ 28 [9,327]
164 PbNiO3 R3c (161) R3c 205 [93,328,329]
165 ZrMnO3 R3c (161) [195]
166 GaFeO3 R3c (161) Cc′ 408 [194,330]
(Continued)

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Table 2. (Continued)

No. Compound NSG MSG Néel temperature [K] Refs.

167 ScFeO3 R3c (161) Cc′ 360(5) [194,331]

168 Ho0.1 Bi0.9 FeO3 R3c (161) R3c [194,279]
169 Ho0.05 Bi0.95 FeO3 R3c (161) R3c [194,279]
170 ̄ (163)
P31c ̄
P31c [194,332]
K1.62 Fe4O6.62 (OH)0.38
171 MnCO3 ̄ (167)
R3c C2/c 31.5 [93,333]
172 FeBO3 ̄ (167)
R3c C2′/c′ 348 [93,334]
173 FeCO3 ̄ (167)
R3c ̄
R3c 38 [93,335]
174 NiCO3 ̄ (167)
R3c C2/c 24.25 [93,336]
175 CoCO3 ̄ (167)
R3c C2/c 18.1 [194,337]
176 CoF3 ̄ (167)
R3c ̄
R3c 460 [25,338,339]
177 FeF3 ̄ (167)
R3c C2′/c′ 394 [25,338,339]
178 CrF3 ̄ (167)
R3c [195]
179 NiF3 ̄ (167)
R3c [195]
180 VF3 ̄ (167)
R3c [195]
181 𝛼-Fe2 O3 ̄ (167)
R3c P1̄ 259.1(2) [9,155,340]
182 𝛼-Fe2 O3 ̄ (167)
R3c C2′/c′ 955 [9,155,340]
183 Ca3 LiRuO6 ̄ (167)
R3c C2′/c′ 117.0(8) [93,341]
184 Sr3 LiRuO6 ̄ (167)
R3c C2′/c′ 90 [93,342]
185 Sr3 NaRuO6 ̄ (167)
R3c C2′/c′ 70 [342]
186 Ca3 LiOsO6 ̄ (167)
R3c C2′/c′ 117.1(9) [93,343]
187 LaCrO3 ̄ (167)
R3c ̄
R3c [194,263]
188 Ca3 Co2-x Mnx O6 ̄ (167)
R3c R3c 16.5 [194,344]
(x≈0.96)
189 La0.33 Sr0.67 FeO3 ̄ (167)
R3c C2/c 200 [9,345]
190 CoNb3 S6 P63 22 (182) C2′2′21 25 [9,96,135,346]
191 VNb3 Sb6 P63 22 (182) C2′2′21 50 [25,347]
192 Fe2 Mo3 O8 P63 mc (186) P63 ′m′c 59(3) [194,348]
193 Co2 Mo3 O8 P63 mc (186) P63 ′m′c 42(3) [194,348]
194 MnO P63 mc (186) [195,349]
195 MnSe P63 mc (186) [350]
196 UNiGa ̄
P62m (189) P6̄ ′ 2m′ 38 [194,351]
197 FeS ̄ (190)
P62c ̄
P6′2c′ [194,352]
198 CsCr3 Sb5 P6/mmm [353]
(191)
199 BaMnO3 P63 /mmc 2.3 [194,354]
(194) P63 ′/m′cm′
200 CrNb4 S8 P63 /mmc [93,355]
(194) P63 ′/m′m′c
201 Ba3 NiRu2 O9 P63 /mmc [93,356]
(194) P63 ′/m′m′c
202 Ba5 Co5 ClO13 P63 /mmc 110 [194,357]
(194) P63 ′/m′m′c
203 MnSe P63 /mmc 120(10) [350]
(194)
204 CaMnN2 P63 /mmc [195]
(194)
205 EuIn2 As2 P63 /mmc [358]
(194)
206 CsNiCl3 P63 /mmc C22′21 ′ 4.85 [194,359]
(194)
207 CsCoCl3 P63 /mmc 20.82 [194,360]
(194) P63 ′/m′cm′
(Continued)

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Table 2. (Continued)

No. Compound NSG MSG Néel temperature [K] Refs.

208 RbCoBr3 P63 /mmc 36 [194,361]

(194) P63 ′/m′cm′
209 CoNb4 Se8 P63 /mmc 168 [362]
(194)
210 MnTeLi0.003 P63 /mmc C2′/m′ 307 [194,363]
(194)
211 MnSe2 Pa3̄ (205) Pca′21 ′ 49 [194,364]
212 MnSe2 Pa3̄ (205) Pbca [194,365]
213 Co2 Mo3 N P41 32 (213) C22′21 ′ [194]
214 Ce4 Sb3 ̄ (220)
I43d I4̄ ′ 2d′ [194,366,367]
215 Ce4 Ge3 ̄ (220)
I43d ̄
I42d ≈5 [194,368]
216 Tb2 C3 ̄ (220)
I43d Fd′d2′ 33(4) [194,369]
217 LiTi2 O4 ̄ (227)
Fd3m [370]
I41 ′/am′d
218 Bi2 RuMnO7 ̄ (227)
Fd3m Fd′d′d 20 [194,371]
219 Er2 Ru2 O7 ̄ (227)
Fd3m 90 [194,372]
I41 ′/am′d
220 La2 NiO4 Bmab 770 [320,373]
221 La2 CuO4 Bmab PA ccn 316(2) [25,374]

large-scale ab initio study and AI search engine, respectively. and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant
Chen et al. systematically developed the Spin Space Group the- No. 2024CX06104). Y. M. and L. S. acknowledge support by the DFG-TRR
ory to describe collinear magnetic configurations, identified 422 288/2–422213477/2 and DFG-TRR 173/3–268565370/3. The authors also
acknowledge the Joint Sino-German Research Projects (Chinese Grant
altermagnetic spin space groups, and identified potential alter-
No. 12061131002 and German Research Foundation, DFG, Grant No.
magnetic candidates using the MAGNDATA database.[194] 44880005) for funding.

5. Conclusion Conflict of Interest

In this review, we explore the intriguing world of AMs, focusing The authors declare no conflict of interest.
on their physical properties, the various methodologies used to
induce altermagnetism, and the promising candidates for alter-
magnetic materials. As a magnetic phase that has only recently
Keywords
been identified, the study of AMs remains in its foundational
stages, and the existence of a real material that exhibits all the Altermagnetism, anomalous transport properties, nonrelativistic spin
predicted features of altermagnetism has yet to be conclusively splitting, spin space group, time-reversal symmetry breaking
demonstrated. This nascent field promises a wealth of uncharted
physical properties, which may pave the way for groundbreak- Received: May 30, 2024
ing applications in technology. Given their unique magnetic be- Revised: August 28, 2024
Published online: September 16, 2024
haviors, AMs could revolutionize fields such as data storage,
spintronics, and magnetic sensing, offering more efficient and
durable alternatives to traditional ferromagnetic and antiferro-
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Ling Bai is a Ph.D. candidate in school of physics at Beijing Institute of Technology, under the super-
vision of Prof. Wanxiang Feng. She obtained her bachelor’s degree from Shandong University in 2019
and her master’s degree from Peking University in 2022. Her research interests mainly focus on the
anomalous and spin transport properties in altermagnets.

Wanxiang Feng is a full professor at the School of Physics, Beijing Institute of Technology, and a Youth
Changjiang Scholar of the Ministry of Education. He has long been engaged in computational con-
densed matter physics, employing first-principles calculations to explore quantum functional mate-
rials and their anomalous transport properties. He has published over 50 peer-reviewed papers with
12 400 citations. His theoretical predictions, including 3D Z2 topological insulators, spin Hall effect
and electron mobility in 2D transition metal dichalcogenides, and magneto-optical, anomalous Hall,
and anomalous Nernst effects in antiferromagnets, have been experimentally validated.

Siyuan Liu is currently a Ph.D. student in school of physics at Beijing Institute of Technology. He ob-
tained his bachelor’s degree from China University of Mining and Technology in 2018 and his master’s
degree from Henan University in 2023. His research interests primarily focus on various topological
materials and their anomalous transport phenomena.

Libor Šmejkal is a head of Max Planck Research Group at Institute for the Physics of Complex Systems
in Dresden and an affiliated researcher at the Czech Academy of Sciences. After studies of theoreti-
cal and experimental physics in Brno and Vienna, he received his Ph.D. in 2020 from Prague and was
research team leader in Mainz. He is researching quantum matter including altermagnets and spin-
tronics functionalities. His scientific contributions were recognized by several awards, e.g. the Falling
Walls Science Breakthrough of 2023, the European Magnetism Association Young Scientist Award
2021, the Czech Head Prize 2021 and the Siemens Award 2020.

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www.advancedsciencenews.com www.afm-journal.de

Yuriy Mokrousov is the leader of Topological Nanoelectronics Group at the Institute of Physics of Uni-
versity of Mainz and at Peter Grünberg Institute of Forschungszentrum Jülich. He received his Ph.D.
from the RWTH Aachen University in 2006. His main expertise is theoretical solid-state physics and
computational methods for magnetic properties, and his main research interests lie in the areas of
topological materials, magneto-electric effects, ultrafast and non-equilibrium physics, topological
transport properties, antiferromagnets, chiral and orbital magnetism.

Yugui Yao is a distinguished professor at Beijing Institute of Technology, Director of Key Lab of Ad-
vanced Optoelectronic Quantum Architecture and Measurement, and Dean of the School of Physics.
His research areas include computational physics, condensed matter physics, and material physics.
With over 300 peer-reviewed papers and 31,800 citations, he has made significant contributions to
fields such as anomalous transport, topological physics, 2D materials, and energetic materials detec-
tion. He is a Fellow of the American Physical Society and has been named a Clarivate Analytics “Highly
Cited Researcher” for six consecutive years.

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