Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications

Volume 2011, Article ID 173782, 13 pages
doi:10.1155/2011/173782

Research Article
Dynamic Mechanical Response of Biomedical 316L Stainless
Steel as Function of Strain Rate and Temperature

Woei-Shyan Lee,1 Tao-Hsing Chen,2 Chi-Feng Lin,3 and Wen-Zhen Luo1

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
3 National Center for High-Performance Computing, Hsin-Shi Tainan 744, Taiwan

Correspondence should be addressed to Woei-Shyan Lee, wslee@mail.ncku.edu.tw

Received 30 June 2011; Revised 19 September 2011; Accepted 19 September 2011

Academic Editor: Concepción López

Copyright © 2011 Woei-Shyan Lee et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.

A split Hopkinson pressure bar is used to investigate the dynamic mechanical properties of biomedical 316L stainless steel under
strain rates ranging from 1 × 103 s−1 to 5 × 103 s−1 and temperatures between 25◦ C and 800◦ C. The results indicate that the flow
stress, work-hardening rate, strain rate sensitivity, and thermal activation energy are all significantly dependent on the strain, strain
rate, and temperature. For a constant temperature, the flow stress, work-hardening rate, and strain rate sensitivity increase with
increasing strain rate, while the thermal activation energy decreases. Catastrophic failure occurs only for the specimens deformed at
a strain rate of 5 × 103 s−1 and temperatures of 25◦ C or 200◦ C. Scanning electron microscopy observations show that the specimens
fracture in a ductile shear mode. Optical microscopy analyses reveal that the number of slip bands within the grains increases with
an increasing strain rate. Moreover, a dynamic recrystallisation of the deformed microstructure is observed in the specimens tested
at the highest temperature of 800◦ C.

1. Introduction deformation and fracture behaviour of 316L SS alloy over a

wide range of temperatures and strain rates.
Austenitic 316L stainless steels have a range of favourable The high strain rate mechanical properties of most
mechanical properties, including good corrosion resistance, engineering materials are quite different from those observed
high strength under elevated temperatures, excellent duc- under quasi-static conditions. For example, under quasi-
tility, and good weldability [1, 2]. As a result, they are static loading, the fracture mechanism is dominated by
used for a wide variety of applications in the nuclear, ductile or brittle modes, whereas under impact loading,
chemical and aerospace industries [3–5]. In addition to their specimen fracture is the result primarily of the formation of
adiabatic shear bands due to a localisation of the plastic flow.
excellent mechanical properties, 316L SS alloys also have
The formation of adiabatic shear bands has been extensively
good biocompatibility and are therefore an ideal material
studied [13–16]. In general, the results have shown that shear
for medical tools and surgical implants [6]. While the
band formation is sensitive to both the strain rate and the
quasistatic mechanical properties of 316L SS have attracted deformation temperature.
significant attention [7–12], relatively little information is The flow stress induced within deformed materials is
available regarding its dynamic mechanical behaviour under also dependent on the strain rate and temperature. Specif-
high strain rates and temperatures. Nonetheless, 316L SS ically, the flow stress increases with an increasing strain
components typically experience a wide range of strain rate, but decreases with an increasing temperature. The high
rates and temperatures during their fabrication and/or strain rate mechanical properties of structural materials are
service lives. Thus, to ensure the mechanical integrity of commonly evaluated using a split Hopkinson pressure bar
such components, it is necessary to examine the dynamic (SHPB) [17, 18]. The different deformation behaviours
2 Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications

Heater/cooler

Strike bar Incident pressure bar Transmitter pressure bar

Strain gage 1 Strain gage 2 Dashpot

Sensor Specimen
σ ε
ε t
Pressure control Signal amplifier
system ε̇ σ
t
Output data
Oscilloscope

Filter
PC

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of compressive split Hopkinson pressure bar system.

observed under different strain rates and temperatures Table 1: Chemical composition of as-received 316L stainless steel.
have been variously attributed to dislocation damping [19],
Element wt.% Element wt.%
thermal activation [20], dislocation generation [21], and so
forth. However, the correlation between the deformation C 0.02 Ni 10.09
mechanism and the dynamic behaviour of 316L SS under Si 0.46 Cr 16.76
high strain rates and temperatures has yet to be reported. Mn 1.77 Mo 2.02
Consequently, this study utilises a compressive SHPB system P 0.029 N 0.06
to investigate the dynamic mechanical behaviour of 316L S 0.027 Fe Balance
SS at strain rates ranging from 1 × 103 s−1 to 5 × 103 s−1
and temperatures between 25◦ C and 800◦ C. The fracture
mechanism of the 316L SS specimens is investigated via test temperatures induced a temperature gradient along the
scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In addition, the lengths of the two pressure bars; causing a change in both
microstructures of the impacted specimens are observed the elastic modulus of the bars and the propagation velocity
using optical microscopy (OM). Finally, the correlation of the pressure pulse. Accordingly, the original equations for
between the macromechanical response of the 316L SS the strain, strain rate, and stress were modified to the forms
specimens and their microstructural evolution is examined given by Chiddister and Malvern in [22] and the current
and discussed. authors in [23]. (Note that full details of the experimental
procedure and analytical technique used to establish the
2. Specimen Preparation and dynamic mechanical response of the impacted specimens are
presented by the current authors in [24]).
Experimental Procedure Specimens for microstructural analysis were prepared
The impact tests were performed using commercial-grade using standard metallographic techniques. The nucleation
316L SS with the chemical composition (wt.%) shown in and growth of the adiabatic shear bands were examined using
Table 1. The as-received material was cold drawn to a bar optical microscopy (Axiovert 200MAT optical microscope).
with a diameter of 13 mm and was then annealed at a Finally, the surfaces of the fractured specimens were observed
temperature of 1000◦ C for 50 min in order to release the using a FEI Quanta 400 F scanning electron microscope with
residual stress produced in the drawing process. Specimens an operating voltage of 30 kV.
with a length of 7 ± 0.1 mm and a diameter of 7.2 mm were
machined from the bar and finished to a final diameter of 3. Results and Discussion
7 ± 0.1 mm via a centre-grinding process. Dynamic impact
tests were conducted using an SHPB system at strain rates 3.1. Mechanical Behaviour and True Stress-Strain Curves.
of 1 × 103 s−1 , 3 × 103 s−1 , and 5 × 103 s−1 , respectively, and Figures 2(a)–2(d) present the stress-strain curves of the
temperatures of 25◦ C, 200◦ C, 400◦ C, and 800◦ C. In each test, 316L SS specimens as a function of the strain rate at
the specimen was sandwiched between the incident bar and deformation temperatures of 25◦ C, 200◦ C, 400◦ C, and
the transmitter bar of the SHPB system, and the incident bar 800◦ C, respectively. In general, the figures show that for
was then impacted by a striker bar fired by a gas gun (see all values of the deformation temperature, the flow stress
Figure 1). depends on both the strain and the strain rate. Specifically,
The test temperatures of 200◦ C, 400◦ C, and 800◦ C were for a constant strain rate, the flow stress increases gradually
obtained by fitting a tunnel-type electric furnace around the with an increasing strain, while for a constant strain, the flow
facing ends of the incident and transmitter bars. The elevated stress increases gradually with an increasing strain rate. It
Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications 3

2000 2000

1600 1600

True stress (MPa)

True stress (MPa)

1200 1200

800 800

400 400

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
True strain True strain
25◦ C 200◦ C
1000 s−1 Fracture strain 1000 s−1 Fracture strain
3000 s−1 3000 s−1
5000 s−1 5000 s−1
(a) (b)

2000 2000

1600 1600
True stress (MPa)

True stress (MPa)

1200 1200

800 800

400 400

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
True strain True strain
400◦ C 800◦ C
1000 s−1 1000 s−1
3000 s−1 3000 s−1
5000 s−1 5000 s−1
(c) (d)

Figure 2: True stress-strain curves of 316L stainless steel deformed at different strain rates and temperatures of (a) 25◦ C; (b) 200◦ C; (c)
400◦ C; (d) 800◦ C.
4 Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications

Table 2: Work-hardening rate of various alloys at 25◦ C.

Metal Strain rate (s−1 ) True strain Work-hardening rate (MPa/unit strain) Reference
316L stainless steel 1000 0.1 1500 current study
6000 series Al-Sc alloy 1200 0.1 403.2 [28]
Unweldable Al-Sc alloy 1200 0.1 200 [26]
Weldable Al-Sc alloy 1300 0.1 160 [27]
Biomedical Ti alloy 800 0.1 250 [25]

1600 rate at temperatures of 25◦ C, 200◦ C, 400◦ C, and 800◦ C,

respectively. The results show that for each test temperature,
bio-Ti alloy, 25◦ C, 800 s−1 the work hardening rate decreases with increasing strain for
a constant strain rate, but increases with increasing strain
1200 rate at a constant strain. Moreover, comparing the four
Current study, 25◦ C, 1000 s−1 figures, it is seen that the work hardening rate decreases
with increasing temperature for a constant strain rate and
True stress (MPa)

strain. From a metallurgical viewpoint, the work-hardening

Unweldable Al-Sc alloy, 25◦ C, 1200 s−1
800
rate reflects the result of a competition process between
the work-hardening mechanism and the thermal-softening
Weldable Al-Sc alloy, 25◦ C, 1300 s−1
mechanism. In general, the work hardening effect is induced
by dislocation multiplication, twin formation, and marten-
6000 series Al-Sc alloy, 25◦ C, 1200 s−1
site transformation [29]. Due to the short timescales involved
400 in dynamic loading, the heat generated by the plastic work
done in the deformation process has insufficient time to
dissipate. Consequently, a local temperature rise occurs;
resulting in a thermal-softening of the deformed material
0 [30, 31]. It is noted that the thermal-softening effect observed
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 at high temperatures can be attributed at least in part to the
True strain suppression of martensite formation.
Figure 3: Comparison of stress-strain response of 316L stainless Table 2 indicates the work-hardening rate of the five
steel with that of biomedical Ti alloy, unweldable Al-Sc alloy, alloys shown in Figure 3 at a true strain of 0.1, a temperature
weldable Al-Sc alloy, and Al-Sc alloy, respectively. of 25◦ C, and a broadly similar strain rate. It can be seen that
the work-hardening rate of the current 316L SS alloy is higher
than that of Al-Sc alloy [26–28] or biomedical Ti alloy [25]
is observed that only those specimens deformed at a high under similar loading conditions.
strain rate of 5 × 103 s−1 and temperatures of 25◦ C or 200◦ C
fracture. In other words, it is inferred that 316L SS alloy has 3.2. Strain Rate Sensitivity and Thermal Activation Energy.
good ductility under low strain rate and high temperature The stress-strain curves presented in Figures 2(a)–2(d)
conditions. indicate that the mechanical behaviour of 316L SS alloy is
Figure 3 compares the experimental stress-strain curve significantly dependent on the strain rate. The strain rate
obtained for the current 316L SS alloy at a strain rate dependence of the 316L SS specimens can be investigated by
of 1 × 103 s-1 and a temperature of 25◦ C with the curves plotting the flow stress against the logarithmic strain rate at
presented by the present group in previous studies for a constant strain. Figure 5 shows the variation of the flow
biomedical Ti alloy [25], unweldable Al-Sc alloy [26], stress with the logarithmic strain rate as a function of the
weldable Al-Sc alloy [27], and Al-Sc alloy [28] under broadly temperature at true strains of 0.1 and 0.3, respectively. It is
equivalent loading conditions. It can be seen that the 316L seen that the flow stress increases dramatically with both an
SS specimen has the highest flow stress of the five alloys at increasing strain rate and an increasing strain. The higher
true strain of 0.4. The results also show that the mechanical flow stress at a higher strain rate suggests that the dynamic
properties of 316L SS are superior to those of Al-Sc alloys; deformation behaviour of 316L SS is governed by different
indicating that Al-Sc alloy is less suitable for biomedical rate-controlling mechanisms in different strain rate ranges.
applications. While biomedical Ti alloy and 316L SS both In general, the strain rate effect at a given temperature can be
have good biocompatibility and strength properties, the quantified via the following strain rate sensitivity parameter
deformability and fracture resistance of 316L SS are superior [32]:
to those of biomedical Ti alloy (see Figure 3). Furthermore,  
∂σ σ2 − σ1
316L SS is cheaper than biomedical Ti alloy. Thus, of the two β= = , (1)
alloys, 316L SS is better suited to biomedical applications. ∂ ln ε̇ ln(ε̇2 / ε̇1 )
Figures 4(a)–4(d) present the work hardening rate where the flow stresses σ2 and σ1 are obtained from impact
(∂σ/∂ε) of the 316L SS specimens as a function of the strain tests conducted at average strain rates of ε̇2 and ε̇1 ,
Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications 5

4000 4000
Work- hardening rate (MPa/unit strain)

Work- hardening rate (MPa/unit strain)

3000 3000

2000 2000

1000 1000

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
True strain True strain
25◦ C 200◦ C
1000 s−1 1000 s−1
3000 s−1 3000 s−1
5000 s−1 5000 s−1
(a) (b)

4000 2000
Work- hardening rate (MPa/unit strain)

Work- hardening rate (MPa/unit strain)

1600
3000

1200

2000

800

1000
400

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
True strain True strain
400◦ C 800◦ C
1000 s−1 1000 s−1
3000 s−1 3000 s−1
5000 s−1 5000 s−1
(c) (d)

Figure 4: Work-hardening rate of 316L stainless steel deformed at different strain rates and temperatures of (a) 25◦ C; (b) 200◦ C; (c) 400◦ C;
(d) 800◦ C.
6 Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications

Table 3: Strain rate sensitivity of various alloys at 25◦ C.

Metal Strain rate (s−1 ) True strain Strain rate sensitivity β (MPa) Reference
316L stainless steel 1000–3000 0.1 130 current study
6000 series Al-Sc alloy 0.001–3200 0.1 4 [28]
Unweldable Al-Sc alloy 1200–3200 0.1 66.8 [26]
Weldable Al-Sc alloy 1300–3200 0.1 58.6 [27]
Biomedical Ti alloy 800–3000 0.1 203 [25]

Ti alloy is significantly higher than that of 316L SS. In

other words, the flow stress in biomedical Ti alloy increases
more rapidly than that in 316L SS under dynamic load-
1600
ing conditions. Consequently, a strength mismatch occurs
between artificial implants fabricated from biomedical Ti
alloys and the surrounding natural structure. Overall, the
results presented in Table 3 suggest that 316L SS is a more
True stress (MPa)

suitable material for biomedical applications due to its

1200 relatively lower strain rate sensitivity, which leads in turn
to a lower strength mismatch between the implant and the
surrounding structure. As a result, 316L SS is ideally suited
for such biomedical applications as bone, acetabula cup (one
half of an artificial hip joint), and knee cap replacements, as
well as for screws, plates, and prostheses in odontology and
800 orthopaedic applications.
The plastic deformation of 316L SS is a thermally
activated process and can be expressed in the form of the
following Arrhenius equation [33]:
500 1000 10000
 
Strain rate (s−1 ) ΔG∗
ε̇ = ε̇0 exp − , (2)
25◦ C 800◦ C
Kb T
200◦ C ε = 0.1
where ε0 is the frequency factor, ΔG∗ is the activation
400◦ C ε = 0.3
energy, Kb is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the absolute
temperature. According to [34, 35], ΔG∗ can be derived as
Figure 5: Variation of true stress with strain rate as function of
temperature at true strains of 0.1 and 0.3.  
∂σ
ΔG∗ = −Tν∗ , (3)
∂T ε̇,ε

respectively, and are calculated at the same value of the where ν∗ is the activation volume and can be obtained as [36]
plastic strain. Figure 6(a) shows the variation of the strain  
∂ ln ε̇ kT
rate sensitivity of the present 316L SS specimens with ν∗ = kT = . (4)
∂σ β
the true strain at different temperatures and strain rates.
The results show that the strain rate sensitivity increases Figure 6(b) presents the results obtained for the activation
with increasing strain and strain rate, but decreases with volume of the present 316L SS specimens by substituting the
increasing temperature. Table 3 indicates the strain rate stress-strain data in Figures 2(a)–2(d) into (4). (Note that
sensitivity of the various alloys shown in Figure 3 at a true the activation volume data are normalised by b3 , where b
strain of 0.1 and a temperature of 25◦ C. It is found that is the Burger’s vector and has a value of 2.58 Å for 316L
for a strain rate range of 1000–3000 s−1 , the present 316L SS). It can be seen that for a constant strain and strain rate,
SS alloy is more sensitive to the strain rate than the Al-Sc the activation volume increases with increasing temperature.
alloys [27, 28], but is less sensitive to the strain rate than the However, for a constant temperature, the activation volume
biomedical Ti alloy [25]. decreases with increasing strain rate. Table 4 compares the
In general, the strain rate sensitivity index of a material activation volume of the present 316L SS alloy with that of
represents the extent to which the flow stress is affected by the Al-Sc alloys tested in [26–28] and the biomedical Ti alloy
the strain rate. The lower strain rate sensitivity of Al-Sc tested in [25]. Note that in every case, the true strain is equal
alloys compared to 316L SS and biomedical Ti alloy implies to 0.1 and the temperature is equal to 25◦ C. It is seen that
that such alloys are insufficiently strong and durable to the activation volume of 316L SS is higher than that of the
withstand high physiological loads during their service lives. biomedical Ti alloy, but lower than that of the Al-Sc alloys.
As a result, they are unsuitable for biomedical applications. Figure 6(c) plots the variation of the activation energy
Table 3 shows that the strain rate sensitivity of biomedical with the flow stress at true strains of 0.1 and 0.3, respectively.
Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications 7

16

300

12
Strain rate sensitivity, β (MPa)

Activation volume, A∗ /b3

200
8

100
4

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
True strain True strain
25◦ C 800◦ C 25◦ C 800◦ C
200◦ C 1000–3000 s−1 200◦ C 1000–3000 s−1
400◦ C 3000–5000 s−1 400◦ C 3000–5000 s−1
(a) (b)
400

300
Activation energy, Q (kJ/mole)

200

100

400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

True stress (MPa)
ε = 0.1
ε = 0.3

(c)

Figure 6: (a) Variation of strain rate sensitivity of 316L stainless steel with true strain as function of temperature and strain rate; (b) variation
of activation volume of 316L stainless steel with true strain as function of temperature and strain rate; (c) variation of thermal activation
energy of 316L stainless steel with true stress as function of true strain.
8 Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications

1 1.2

1
0.8
Temperature sensitivity (MPa/K)

Temperature sensitivity (MPa/K)

0.8
0.6

0.6

0.4
0.4

0.2
0.2

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
True strain True strain
25◦ C–200◦ C 200◦ C–400◦ C
1000 s−1 1000 s−1
3000 s−1 3000 s−1
5000 s−1 5000 s−1
(a) (b)

1.4

1.2
Temperature sensitivity (MPa/K)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
True strain
400◦ C–800◦ C
1000 s−1
3000 s−1
5000 s−1
(c)

Figure 7: Temperature sensitivity of 316L stainless steel at temperatures in the range of (a) 25◦ C to 200◦ C; (b) 200◦ C to 400◦ C; (c) 400◦ C to
800◦ C.
Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications 9

3/9/2010 Mag HV WD Sig 50 μm 3/9/2010 Mag HV WD Sig 50 μm

9:38:45 AM 1000x 12.5 kV 21.5 mm SE NCKU ESEM 9:52:37 AM 1000x 12.5 kV 21.4 mm SE NCKU ESEM

(a) (b)

Figure 8: SEM fractographic images of 316L stainless steel specimens deformed at strain rate of 5 × 103 s−1 and temperatures of (a) 25◦ C
and (b) 200◦ C.

Table 4: Activation volume of various alloys at 25◦ C.

Metal Strain rate (s−1 ) True strain Activation volume (ν∗ /b3 ) Reference
316L stainless steel 1000–3000 0.1 1.3 current study
6000 series Al-Sc alloy 1200–3200 0.1 4.2 [28]
Unweldable Al-Sc alloy 1200–3200 0.1 1.9 [26]
Weldable Al-Sc alloy 1300–3200 0.1 2.4 [27]
Biomedical Ti alloy 800–3000 0.1 1.11 [25]

Table 5: Activation energy of various alloys at 25◦ C.

Max.
activation Corresponding
Metal Reference
energy flow stess (MPa)
(kJ/mole)
316L stainless steel 150 640 current study
Unweldable Al-Sc
48 400 [37]
alloy
Biomedical Ti alloy 160 703 [25]

that of the biomedical alloy, but is significantly higher than

Figure 9: Optical micrograph of undeformed 316L stainless steel that of the unweldable Al-Sc alloy.
specimen.
3.3. Temperature Effect. In practice, it is virtually impossible
to measure the temperature rise (ΔT) induced during
The results show that the flow stress increases as the acti- high strain rate loading using direct experimental methods.
vation energy decreases. In other words, as the activation As a result, ΔT is generally
ε estimated using the integral
energy reduces, the ability of the mobile dislocations in the equation ΔT = 1/(ρC p ) 0 σdε [38], where ρ is the density
deformed microstructure to overcome short-range barriers (8.0 g/cm3 ), C p is the heat capacity (500 J/(kg·K)), σ is the
also reduces, and thus the flow stress increases. Table 5 stress, and dε is the strain interval. Table 6 presents the
compares the maximum activation energy of the current variation of ΔT with the true strain as a function of the
316L SS alloy with that of unweldable Al-Sc alloy [37] and strain rate and temperature. It is observed that ΔT increases
biomedical Ti alloy [25]. It is seen that the maximum with increasing strain rate and strain, but decreases with
activation energy of the 316L SS alloy is slightly lower than increasing temperature. The thermal-softening effect caused
10 Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications

20 μm 20 μm

(a) (b)

20 μm 20 μm

(c) (d)

20 μm 20 μm

(e) (f)

20 μm 20 μm

(g) (h)

Figure 10: Metallographic images of 316L stainless steel specimens deformed at (a) 25◦ C and 1 × 103 s−1 ; (b) 25◦ C and 5 × 103 s−1 ; (c)
200◦ C and 1 × 103 s−1 ; (d) 200◦ C and 5 × 103 s−1 ; (e) 400◦ C and 1 × 103 s−1 ; (f) 400◦ C and 5 × 103 s−1 ; (g) 800◦ C and 1 × 103 s−1 ; (h) 800◦ C
and 5 × 103 s−1 .
Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications 11

Table 6: Variation of deformation-induced temperature rise as function of temperature and strain rate.

Temperature rise ΔT (K)

T (◦ C) Strain rate (s−1 )
ε = 0.05 ε = 0.1 ε = 0.2 ε = 0.3 ε = 0.4
5000 12.83 27.85 61.76 99.33 139.72
25 3000 12.48 27.06 59.80 85.3 121.2
1000 10.29 22.31 53.2 79.4 100.3
5000 11.94 25.86 57.12 91.54 128.37
200 3000 11.13 24.05 52.85 82.36 109
1000 9.85 21.32 50.2 73.4 95.6
5000 10.96 23.54 51.41 81.76 113.95
400 3000 10.26 22.00 47.91 75.97 99.4
1000 9.22 19.89 39.3 65.9 89.6
5000 8.38 17.62 37.52 58.68 80.78
800 3000 7.81 16.49 35.25 55.23 76.10
1000 7.15 15.19 34.2 51.3 72.1

by the local temperature rise can be quantified via the within each grain are straight and parallel, but are oriented
following temperature sensitivity parameter [39]: at a different angle from those in the neighboring grains.
  Observing Figure 10(b), it is seen that the number of slip
 (σ − σ ) 
 2 1  bands increases as the strain rate is increased. A similar
na = , (5)
 (T2 − T1 )ε̇  tendency is observed in the specimens deformed at higher
temperatures of 200◦ C, 400◦ C, and 800◦ C, respectively
where the stresses σ2 and σ1 are obtained from tests (see Figures 10(c)–10(h)). According to Fujita et al. [40]
conducted at temperatures T2 and T1 , respectively. As shown and Sakai [41], dynamic recrystallisation (or some other
in Figures 7(a)–7(c), the temperature sensitivity of the 316L form of recovery mechanism) commonly occurs under high
SS specimens increases significantly with increasing temper- temperature deformation conditions. In the present impact
ature. Moreover, for a constant temperature and true strain, tests, the highest deformation temperature (800◦ C) is more
the temperature sensitivity increases with increasing strain than 50% of the melting point of 316L SS (1380◦ C). Thus, as
rate. Thus, it can be inferred that the strain rate-induced shown in Figure 10(h), the microstructure of the specimen
strengthening effect is restrained by a thermal-softening deformed at a strain rate of 5 × 103 s−1 and a temperature
effect. This restraining effect is particularly pronounced at of 800◦ C shows signs of dynamic recrystallisation in some
higher strain rates (5 × 103 s−1 ) and higher temperatures regions.
(800◦ C). In general, the present results show that the flow stress in
316L SS increases with increasing strain rate, but decreases
3.4. Fracture Surface Observations and Microstructural Evo- with increasing temperature. Moreover, the microstructural
lution. In the impact tests performed in this study, only observations show that the number of slip bands within the
those specimens deformed at a strain rate of 5 × 103 s−1 and individual grains increases as the strain rate is increased or
temperatures of 25◦ C or 200◦ C suffered catastrophic failure. the temperature is decreased. The slip bands act as obstacles
Figures 8(a) and 8(b) present SEM micrographs of the to dislocation motion and enhance the interaction of the
specimens deformed at 25◦ C and 200◦ C, respectively. Both dislocations with the surrounding slip bands. Thus, the
fracture surfaces are characterised by a transgranular dimple- resistance encountered by the moving dislocations increases
like structure. Thus, it is inferred that both specimens at higher strain rates and lower temperatures. This accounts
fracture in a predominantly ductile mode as a result of for the strengthening effect observed at higher strain rates
localised shearing. Comparing the two figures, it is seen and lower temperatures in Figure 2.
that the density of the dimples increases with increasing
temperature. In other words, the ductility of 316L SS 4. Conclusions
increases at higher temperatures.
Figure 9 presents an optical micrograph of an unde- This study has examined the dynamic mechanical properties
formed 316L SS specimen. A small number of annealing of biomedical 316L SS under strain rates ranging from
twins are observed within the grains, which suggests that 1 × 103 s−1 to 5 × 103 s−1 and temperatures of 25◦ C to
the microstructure has a FCC structure. Figures 10(a) and 800◦ C. In general, the results have shown that the dynamic
10(b) present optical micrographs of the 316L SS specimens mechanical behaviour and microstructural evolution of 316L
deformed at a temperature of 25◦ C and strain rates of SS are significantly dependent on both the strain rate and
1 × 103 s−1 and 5 × 103 s−1 , respectively. Figure 10(a) shows the temperature. The stress-strain curves have shown that the
that high strain rate loading prompts the formation of slip flow stress and work-hardening rate increase with increasing
bands within the grains. It is noted that the slip bands strain rate, but decrease with increasing temperature. The
12 Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications

strain rate sensitivity decreases with increasing temperature. model for AISI 316L,” Mechanics of Materials, vol. 40, no. 11,
Conversely, the thermal activation energy increases with pp. 907–919, 2008.
increasing temperature, but decreases with increasing flow [10] M. N. A. Nasr, E. G. Ng, and M. A. Elbestawi, “Modelling the
stress. Under high strain rate loading conditions, a notable effects of tool-edge radius on residual stresses when orthogo-
deformation-induced temperature rise occurs, resulting in nal cutting AISI 316L,” International Journal of Machine Tools
& Manufacture, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 401–411, 2007.
a thermal softening effect. Of all the specimens, only those
[11] C. Herrera, R. L. Plaut, and A. F. Padilha, “Microstructural
deformed at a strain rate of 5 × 103 s−1 and temperatures of
refinement during annealing of plastically deformed austenitic
25◦ C or 200◦ C suffer catastrophic failure. Thus, it is inferred stainless steels,” Materials Science Forum, vol. 550, pp. 423–
that 316L SS alloy has good ductility under low strain rate 428, 2007.
and high temperature loading conditions. SEM observations [12] K. P. Staudhammer, L. E. Murr, and S. S. Hecker, “Nucleation
have shown that the fracture surfaces are characterised by and evolution of strain-induced martensitic (b.c.c.) embryos
a transgranular dimple-like structure. In other words, the and substructure in stainless steel: a transmission electron
specimens fail in a predominantly ductile mode. Finally, the microscope study,” Acta Metallurgica, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 267–
microstructural observations have shown that a dynamic 274, 1983.
recrystallisation of the deformed microstructure occurs in [13] S. P. Timothy and I. M. Hutchings, “Initiation and growth
the specimens tested under the highest deformation temper- of microfractures along adiabatic shear bands in Ti-6Al-4V,”
ature of 800◦ C. Materials Science and Technology, vol. 1, no. 7, pp. 526–530,
1985.
[14] J. F. Molinari and M. Ortiz, “A study of solid-particle erosion
Acknowledgment of metallic targets,” Acta Metallurgica, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 347–
358, 2002.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support [15] S. P. Timothy, “Structure of adiabatic shear bands in metals: a
provided to this study by the National Science Council (NSC) critical review,” Acta Metallurgica, vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 301–306,
of Taiwan under Grant no. NSC 99-2221-E-006-020. 1987.
[16] W. S. Lee and C. F. Lin, “Adiabatic shear fracture of titanium
alloy subjected to high strain and high temperature loadings,”
References Journal de Physique IV, vol. C3, pp. C3–C855, 1997.
[17] P. S. Follansbee and G. T. Gray, “An analysis of the low
[1] E. Otero, A. Pardo, M. V. Utrilla, E. Saenz, and J. F. Alvarez, temperature, low and high strain-rate deformation of Ti-6Al-
“Corrosion behaviour of AISI 304L and AISI 316L stainless 4V,” Metallurgical Transactions A, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 863–874,
steels prepared by powder metallurgy in the presence of 1989.
sulphuric and phosphoric acid,” Corrosion Science, vol. 40, no. [18] M. A. Meyers, Y. J. Chen, F. D. S. Marquis, and D. S.
8, pp. 1421–1434, 1998. Kim, “High-strain, high-strain-rate behavior of tantalum,”
[2] R. A. Luna, J. G. Parr, and A. Hanson, “Stainless steel,” in Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, vol. 26, no. 10, pp.
Proceedings of the American Society for Microbiology (ASM ’86), 2493–2501, 1995.
pp. 60–70, Metals Park, Ohio, USA, 1986. [19] W. G. Ferguson, A. Kumar, and J. E. Dorn, “Dislocation
[3] T. Kruml, J. Polák, and S. Degallaix, “Microstructure in 316LN damping in aluminum at high strain rates,” Journal of Applied
stainless steel fatigued at low temperature,” Materials Science Physics, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 1863–1869, 1967.
and Engineering A, vol. 293, no. 1-2, pp. 275–280, 2000. [20] A. Seeger, “Dislocations and mechanical properties of crys-
[4] M. Gerland, R. Alain, B. Ait Saadi, and J. Mendez, “Low tals,” Philosophical Magazine, vol. 46, pp. 1194–1217, 1955.
cycle fatigue behaviour in vacuum of a 316L-type austenitic [21] W. S. Lee and C. F. Lin, “Comparative study of the impact
stainless steel between 20 and 600◦ C—part II: dislocation response and microstructure of 304L stainless steel with and
structure evolution and correlation with cyclic behaviour,” without prestrain,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A,
Materials Science and Engineering A, vol. 229, no. 1-2, pp. 68– vol. 33, no. 9, pp. 2801–2810, 2002.
86, 1997. [22] J. L. Chiddister and L. E. Malvern, “Compression-impact
[5] S. G. Hong and S. B. Lee, “The tensile and low cycle fatigue testing of Aluminum at elevated temperatures,” Experimental
behaviour of cold worked 316L stainless steel: influence of Mechanics, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 81–90, 1963.
dynamic strain aging,” International Journal of Fatigue, vol. 26, [23] W. S. Lee and C. F. Lin, “Plastic deformation and fracture
pp. 899–910, 2004. behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V alloy loaded with high strain rate
[6] N. Maruyama, D. Mori, S. Hiromoto, K. Kanazawa, and M. under various temperatures,” Materials Science and Engineer-
Nakamura, “Fatigue strength of 316L-type stainless steel in ing A, vol. 241, no. 1-2, pp. 48–59, 1998.
simulated body fluids,” Corrosion Science, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. [24] W. S. Lee and T. H. Chen, “Dynamic mechanical response
2222–2227, 2011. and microstructural evolution of high strength aluminum-
[7] D. W. Kim, W. S. Ryu, J. H. Hong, and S. K. Choi, “Effect of scandium (Al-Sc) alloy,” Materials Transactions, vol. 47, no. 2,
nitrogen on high temperature low cycle fatigue behaviors in pp. 355–363, 2006.
type 316L stainless steel,” Journal of Nuclear Materials, vol. 254, [25] W. S. Lee, T. H. Chen, and H. H. Hwang, “Impact response
no. 2-3, pp. 226–233, 1998. and microstructural evolution of biomedical titanium alloy
[8] M. F. Abbod, C. M. Sellars, A. Tanaka, D. A. Linkens, and M. under various temperatures,” Metallurgical and Materials
Mahfouf, “Effect of changing strain rate on flow stress during Transactions A, vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 1435–1448, 2008.
hot deformation of Type 316L stainless steel,” Materials Science [26] W. S. Lee and T. H. Chen, “Effects of strain rate and tempera-
and Engineering A, vol. 491, no. 1-2, pp. 290–296, 2008. ture on dynamic mechanical behaviour and microstructural
[9] L. E. Lindgren, K. Domkin, and S. Hansson, “Dislocations, evolution in aluminium-scandium (Al-Sc) alloy,” Materials
vacancies and solute diffusion in physical based plasticity Science and Technology, vol. 24, no. 10, pp. 1271–1282, 2008.
Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications 13

[27] W. S. Lee and T. H. Chen, “Comparative study of dynamic

impact properties and microstructures of weldable and
unweldabe aluminum-scandium (Al-Sc) alloys,” Materials
Science and Technology, vol. 25, pp. 1271–1282, 2009.
[28] W. S. Lee, T. H. Chen, C. F. Lin, and M. S. Chen, “Impact
deformation behaviour and dislocation substructure of Al-Sc
alloy,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds, vol. 493, no. 1-2, pp.
580–589, 2010.
[29] K. P. Staudhammer and L. E. Murr, “The effect of prior
deformation on the residual microstructure of explosively
deformed stainless steels,” Materials Science and Engineering,
vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 97–113, 1980.
[30] M. C. Mataya and V. E. Sackschewsky, “Effect of internal
heating during hot compression on the stress-strain behavior
of alloy 304L,” Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, vol.
25, no. 12, pp. 2737–2752, 1994.
[31] R. Kapoor and S. Nemat-Nasser, “Determination of temper-
ature rise during high strain rate deformation,” Mechanics of
Materials, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 1–12, 1998.
[32] S. S. Ezz, Y. Q. Sun, and P. B. Hirsch, “Strain rate dependence
of the flow stress and work hardening of γ,” Materials Science
and Engineering A, vol. 192-193, no. 1, pp. 45–52, 1995.
[33] J. Harding, “Effect of temperature and strain rate on strength
and ductility of four alloy steels,” Metals Technology, vol. 4, pp.
6–16, 1977.
[34] H. Conrad, “Thermally activated deformation of metals,”
Journal of Metals, vol. 16, pp. 582–588, 1964.
[35] L. Shi and D. O. Northwood, “Mechanical behavior of an aisi
type 310 stainless steel,” Acta Metallurgica et Materialia, vol.
43, no. 2, pp. 453–460, 1995.
[36] G. B. Gibbs, “Thermodynamic analysis of dislocation glide
controlled by dispersed local obstacles,” Materials Science and
Engineering, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 313–328, 1969.
[37] W. S. Lee and T. H. Chen, “Mechanical and microstructural
response of aluminum-scandium (Al-Sc) alloy as a function of
strain rate and temperature,” Materials Chemistry and Physics,
vol. 113, no. 2-3, pp. 734–745, 2009.
[38] J. D. Campbell and W. G. Ferguson, “The temperature and
strain-rate dependence of the shear strength of mild steel,”
Philosophical Magazine, vol. 21, no. 169, pp. 63–82, 1970.
[39] W. S. Lee and Y. C. Lin, “Strain rate and temperature
dependence of dynamic shear properties of Al-Sc alloy,”
Materials Science and Technology, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 571–582,
2006.
[40] N. Fujita, S. Ryoji, T. Narushima, and C. Ouchi, “Austenitic
grain growth behavior immediately after dynamic recrystal-
lization in HSLA steels and austenitic stainless steel,” ISIJ
International, vol. 48, no. 10, pp. 1419–1428, 2008.
[41] T. Sakai, “Dynamic recrystallization microstructures under
hot working conditions,” Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, vol. 53, no. 1-2, pp. 349–361, 1995.