Unit I

What is Graphics?
A graphic is an image or visual representation of an
object. Therefore, computer graphics are simply images
displayed on a computer screen. Graphics are often
contrasted with text, which is comprised of characters,
such as numbers and letters, rather than images.

What is Computer Graphics?

Computer Graphics is an art of drawing pictures, lines,
charts, etc. using computers with the help of
programming. Computer graphics image is made up of
numbers of pixels. Pixel is the smallest addressable
graphical unit represented on computer screen.
Or
Computer graphics are graphics created using
computers and the representation of image data by a
computer specifically with help from specialized graphic
hardware and software excluding typing text and
sound.

Introduction
 Computer is information processing machine. User
needs to communicate with computer and the
computer graphics is one of the most effective and
 commonly used ways of communication with the
user.
 It displays the information in the form of graphical
objects such as pictures, charts, diagram and
graphs.
 Graphical objects convey more information in less
time and easily understandable formats for
example statistical graph shown in stock
exchange.
 In computer graphics picture or graphics objects
are presented as a collection of discrete pixels.
 We can control intensity and color of pixel which
decide how picture look like.
 The special procedure determines which pixel will
provide the best approximation to the desired
picture or graphics object this process is known as
Rasterization.
 The process of representing continuous picture or
graphics object as a collection of discrete pixels is
called Scan Conversion.

History
It would be stupid to summarize the development of
the entire field of computer graphics in one bullet list,
so here goes:
 Before there was interactive computer graphics,
there was non-interactive graphics with several
thousands of years of experience and expertise.
 Ivan Sutherland invented a good part of modern
interactive graphics in the 1960's for the system
called "Sketchpad" that was his Ph.D. thesis.
Graphics was done using vector displays and pen
plotters; input with light pens.

 Much of modern interactive graphics was invented

at Xerox PARC in the 1970's, especially bitmapped
raster graphics, "windows", etc. Engle Bart invents
mouse at Stanford. Graphics bought on $30,000-
200,000+ workstations by mil-industrial complex
giants and top architects/designers.
 1980's were full of hot graphics developments:
o Early PC's were monochrome and had no
graphics capabilities. 12" is a common screen
size.

o Competing lower-end machines offered easy

color graphics (Radio Shack, Apple,
Commodore, Atari ...). 256x192 is a common
screen size.
o PC graphics becomes common on Hercules,
EGA, and VGA graphics, and an idyllic open
system for developers spawns hundreds of
small startups, many of which produce
spectacular new kinds of software and turn
young software engineers fresh out of school
into millionaires.
o MIT introduces multi-platform portable
graphics (X Window System). It was kinda slow
at first.

o Microsoft and Apple majorly fail to adopt X,

slowing progress of entire industry several
 years. X gets better slowly. A German
undergraduate produces the first "good" PC X
server (UNIX/Linux).
o Apple Macintosh was retro (tiny screen,
monochrome) but successfully popularized
Xerox-style WIMP interface and the mouse
input device.

o Microsoft's Windows seems to painfully imitate

Mac. Lawsuits ensue.
o Programmer documentation for Mac, Windows,
and X11 all seem eerily derived (at least in
part) from some common Xerox ancestor (In
fact, Xerox did license some UI features to
Apple and Microsoft).
o API's for graphics programming go from easy
(Coco) to nightmarish. Partly the new
hardware capabilities challenge API designers;
partly monopolies deliberately act to extend
their hegemonies. Learning to program a Mac
or Windows box is a 6-12 month task.
o Microsoft makes Windows programming
difficult enough to wipe out its competition in
every app market it chooses to enter.
"Undocumented Windows" books explain what
Microsoft apps do that others can't. From now
 on, the main way to become a young
millionaire is to go work for Microsoft; BillG
gets a piece of all those young millionaires'
action.
o Silicon Graphics Corporation becomes a
market leader in 3D workstations, with
particularly fine software. Big digital divide
between haves and have-nots.
 1990's were even fuller of hot graphics
developments:
o 20" CRT becomes a popular $1000 option.
1024x768 is a good resolution; up to
1600x1200 is fairly common.
o DOOM proves huge market for 3D immersive
(desktop VR) graphics.

o Graphics hardware "accelerators" implement

2D and then 3D graphics in hardware. A $200
add-on allows a PC's to do what $200,000
workstations did a few years previous.
 o OpenGL becomes the first widely adopted 3D
standard API. Microsoft pledges eternal
allegiance in order to kill the workstation
industry, especially market leaders SGI and
Sun.

o Java capitalizes on need for portable graphics

 2000-2008 are simply screaming:

o 3D Graphics chips (GPU's) outpace CPU's in
rate of progress.
o Big video memories, "true color" displays are
ubiquitous.
o Researchers work on how to use GPU's to
speedup general-purpose computation.
o Fixed pipeline model gives way to
programmable shader model and shading
languages.
o Motion picture industry switches all animation
to computers; CG achieves lifelike detail in
non-real-time on giant server farms
o Videogame industry chases behind with very
detailed, real-time on a single PC.
o 24" LCD becomes a popular $500 option.
o Multiple monitors and resolutions > 1600 x
1200 become common.
o Microsoft quietly tries to derail OpenGL and
own the standard (D3D, DirectX)
o Two vendors dominate hardware (NVIDIA and
ATI). NVIDIA embraces Linux and OpenGL. ATI
is eaten by AMD.
o 4x3 aspect ratio gives way to 16x9 aspect
ratio, spurred by HDTV
Technologies related to computer graphics
Graphics Software and Standard
There are mainly two types of graphics Software:
1. General Programming Package
2. Special-Purpose Application Package
General Programming Package
 A general programming package provides an
extensive set of graphics function that can be used
in high level programming language such as C or
FORTRAN.
 It includes basic drawing element shape like line,
curves, polygon, color of element transformation
etc.
 Example:- GL (Graphics Library).
Special-Purpose Application Package
 Special-Purpose Application Package are
customizing for particular application which
implement required facility and provides interface
so that user need not to vary about how it will work
(programming). User can simply use it by
interfacing with application.
 Example: CAD, medical and business systems.
Coordinate Representations
 Except few all other general packages are
designed to be used with Cartesian coordinate
specifications.
 If coordinate values for a picture are specified is
some other reference frame they must be
converted to Cartesian coordinate before giving
input to graphics package.
 Special-purpose package may allow use of other
coordinates which suits application.
 In general several different Cartesian reference
frames are used to construct and display scene.
 We can construct shape of object with separate
coordinate system called modeling coordinates or
sometimes local coordinates or master
coordinates.
 Once individual object shapes have been specified
we can place the objects into appropriate positions
called world coordinates.
 Finally the world-coordinates description of the
scene is transferred to one or more output device
reference frame for display. These display
coordinates system are referred to as “Device
Coordinates” or “Screen Coordinates”.
 Generally a graphic system first converts the
world-coordinates position to normalized device
 coordinates. In the range from 0 to 1 before final
conversion to specific device coordinates.
Graphic Function
 A general purpose graphics package provides user
with variety of function for creating and
manipulating pictures.
 The basic building blocks for pictures are referred
to as output primitives. They includes character,
string, and geometry entities such as point,
straight lines, curved lines, filled areas and shapes
defined with arrays of color points.
 Input functions are used for control and process
the various input device such as mouse, tablet,
etc.
 Control operations are used to controlling and
housekeeping tasks such as clearing display
screen, etc.
 All such inbuilt function which we can use for our
purpose is known as graphics function.
Graphics Kernel System (GKS)
 This system was adopted as a first graphics
software standard by the international standard
organization (ISO) and various national standard
organizations including ANSI.
  GKS was originally designed as the two
dimensional graphics package and then later
extension was developed for three dimensions.
PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive
Graphic Standard)
 PHIGS is extension of GKS. Increased capability for
object modeling, color specifications, surface
rendering, and picture manipulation are provided
in PHIGS.
 Extension of PHIGS called “PHIGS+” was developed
to provide three dimensional surface shading
capabilities not available in PHIGS.

Characteristics
Itwon’t be wrong to say that digital computers have
changed the way we think about and imagine pictures.
Most of the exciting images we see on TV, most of the
cute picture along with sports commentaries ,
documentaries and almost all the computer games are
made possible through the magic of computer graphics
packages.
Some of the major characteristics of computer
graphics may be listed as follows:
1. The interactive nature and the preview
capability of computer processing. One can create
a drawing, modify it as required, look at it from various
angles and in different styles, and arrive at a
satisfactory final version quickly and pleasantly. This is
the most efficient characteristic of modern computer
usage but is often taken completely for granted.
2. Computer graphics is not only pretty and
impressive to look at but also very user-friendly,
making its operation a joy and an adventure. Modern
computer packages have made it very easy for anyone
with some computer training and experience to use
these packages for quickly and neatly producing
complicated drawings that would have taken draftsman
many days and weeks of efforts. In these packages it is
very easy to color, hatch or shade at the touch of a
button that would take hours for a veteran artist to do
by hand.
3. But the ease of production of these high
quality graphics does not come cheap. For,
a) A good graphics package will cost a fortune.
b) The hardware to run the package will also be quite
expensive, involving large storage, very high-resolution
monitors, and fast machines with math co-processors
to speed up the countless calculations involved.
c) Even to use a package efficiently, it would need
proper and formal training from experienced staff.
4. Finally, as with most other computer applications, it
must be remembered that invariably it is not the
computer that makes mistakes, it is the person
entering the data or using the command. Same is true
for computer graphics and its applications.

Components
Hardware Components
Interactive computer Graphics consist of three
components namely digital buffer, TV monitor
anddisplay controller. Using these components, we are
able to see the output on the screen in form of pixels
(Picture elements). Following is the explanation of
these components:-
1.Digital Memory Buffer:-
This is a place where images and pictures are
stored as an array (matrix of 0 &1, 0 represents
darkness and 1 represents image or picture). This
is also called frame buffer. In today'sterm frame
buffer is called V-RAM (video RAM) and it helps to
store the image in bit form. It helps toincrease the
speed of graphics (sometimes we watch movies on
our computer system and movie runslowly. System
engineer is then called for. He comes and fits in V-
 RAM (in Megabytes) into our systemand movie
runs perfectly.

2.TV Monitor: -
Monitor helps us to view the display and they make
use of CRT technology (Cathode rayTube).

3.Display Controller:-
It is an interface between Memory Buffer and TV
Monitor. Its job is to pass thecontents of frame
buffer to the monitor. This passing has to be fast
for steady display on the monitor(depending upon
the material of the system). The image must be
passed repeatedly to the monitor tomaintain a
steady picture on the screen. The display controller
reads each successive byte of data from FBMemory
and converts 0's and 1's into corresponding video
signals. This signal is then feed to the TVmonitor to
produce a black and white picture on screen. In
today's term, display controller is recognizedas a
display card and one of our choices can be VGA
card with a resolution of 640x480.(Display
Controlleris also capable of displaying image in
colors).
Software Components
1. Modeling:
Defining objects in terms of primitives, coordinates
and characteristics
2.Storing:
Storing scenes and images in memory and on disk
3.Manipulating:
Changing the shape, position and characteristics of
objects
4.Rendering:
Applying physically based procedures to generate
(photorealistic) images from scenes (usinglighting
and shading)
5.Viewing:
Displaying images from various viewpoints on
various devices

Advantages
 Computer Graphics is one of the most effective and
commonly used ways of communication with
computer.
 It provides tools for producing picture of “real-
world” as well as synthetic objects such as
mathematical surfaces in 4D and of data that have
no inherent geometry such as survey result.
 It has ability to show moving pictures thus possible
to produce animation with computer graphics.
 With the use of computer graphics we can control
the animation by adjusting the speed, portion of
picture in view the amount of detail shown and so
on.
 It provides tools called motion dynamics. In which
user can move objects as well as observes as per
requirement for example walk throw made by
builder to show flat interior and surrounding.
 It provides facility called update dynamics. With
this we can change the shape color and other
properties of object.
 Now in recent development of digital signal
processing and audio synthesis chip the interactive
graphics can now provide audio feedback along
with the graphical feed backs.

Disadvantages
 Memory required for depth buffer
 Wasted computation on drawing distant points that
are drawn over with closer points that occupy the
same pixel
  Impossible to get multiple y values for a single x
value; can’t represent circles and other closed
forms with a single function
 Not rotationally invariant (rotation may require
breaking the curve into multiple segments)

Applications of Computer Graphics

Computer graphics deals with creation, manipulation
and storage of different type of images and objects.
Some of the applications of computer graphics are:
 Computer Art:
Using computer graphics we can create fine and
commercial art which include animation packages,
paint packages. These packages provide facilities
for designing object shapes and specifying object
motion.Cartoon drawing, paintings, logo design can
also be done.

 Computer Aided Drawing:

Designing of buildings, automobile, aircraft is done
with the help of computer aided drawing, this helps
 in providing minute details to the drawing and
producing more accurate and sharp drawings with
better specifications.

 Presentation Graphics:
For the preparation of reports or summarizing the
financial, statistical, mathematical, scientific,
economic data for research reports, managerial
reports, moreover creation of bar graphs, pie
charts, time chart, can be done using the tools
present in computer graphics.

 Entertainment:
Computer graphics finds a major part of its utility
in the movie industry and game industry. Used for
creating motion pictures ,music video, television
shows, cartoon animation films. In the game
industry where focus and interactivity are the key
players, computer graphics helps in providing such
features in the efficient way.

 Education:
Computer generated models are extremely useful
for teaching huge number of concepts and
fundamentals in an easy to understand and learn
 manner. Using computer graphics many
educational models can be created through which
more interest can be generated among the
students regarding the subject.

 Training:
Specialized system for training like simulators can
be used for training the candidates in a way that
can be grasped in a short span of time with better
understanding. Creation of training modules using
computer graphics is simple and very useful.

 Visualization:
Today the need of visualize things have increased
drastically, the need of visualization can be seen in
many advance technologies , data visualization
helps in finding insights of the data , to check and
study the behavior of processes around us we need
appropriate visualization which can be achieved
through proper usage of computer graphics

 Image Processing:
Various kinds of photographs or images require
editing in order to be used in different places.
 Processing of existing images into refined ones for
better interpretation is one of the many
applications of computer graphics.

 Machine Drawing:
Computer graphics is very frequently used for
designing, modifying and creation of various parts
of machine and the whole machine itself, the main
reason behind using computer graphics for this
purpose is the precision and clarity we get from
such drawing is ultimate and extremely desired for
the safe manufacturing of machine using these
drawings.

 Graphical User Interface:

The use of pictures, images, icons, pop-up menus,
graphical objects helps in creating a user friendly
environment where working is easy and pleasant,
using computer graphics we can create such an
atmosphere where everything can be automated
and anyone can get the desired action performed
in an easy fashion.