Linux Files, Inodes, File Systems, and Processes
1. Linux Files, Inodes, and Structure
Files in Linux
● Everything in Linux is treated as a file (including devices, processes, and directories).
● File Types:
○ Regular Files (-): Contains text, data, or binary.
○ Directory Files (d): Special files that contain lists of filenames and metadata.
○ Special Files:
■ Character Device Files (c): Represent character-oriented devices.
■ Block Device Files (b): Represent block-oriented devices.
■ FIFO Files (p): Named pipes.
■ Socket Files (s): For inter-process communication.
■ Symbolic Links (l): Shortcut-like links to other files.
Inodes (Index Nodes)
● An inode is a data structure that stores metadata about a file or directory, excluding its
name or content.
● Information stored in an inode:
○ File type and permissions.
○ Owner and group IDs.
○ File size.
○ Timestamps: creation, modification, and access.
○ Link count (number of hard links).
○ Pointers to data blocks (where the file data is stored).
● The ls -i command shows inode numbers.
File System Structure
● Hierarchical Structure: Organized as a tree starting from the root (/).
● Key Directories:
○ /: Root directory.
○ /home: User home directories.
○ /bin and /sbin: Essential binaries.
○ /etc: Configuration files.
○ /var: Variable files (e.g., logs).
○ /usr: User-installed software and libraries.
○ /dev: Device files.
2. File System and Its Components
File System Components
1. Superblock:
○ Contains metadata about the filesystem (size, block size, number of inodes, etc.).
○ Essential for mounting and accessing the filesystem.
2. Inodes:
○ Refer to the previous section for details.
3. Data Blocks:
○ Store the actual content of files.
○ File data may span multiple blocks, linked via the inode.
4. Directories:
○ Map filenames to inode numbers.
5. Journal (Optional):
○ Found in journaling filesystems like ext3 and ext4.
○ Logs changes before applying them to reduce corruption risks.
Standard File Systems in Linux
● ext2: Second Extended Filesystem (non-journaling).
● ext3: Adds journaling to ext2.
● ext4: Enhanced version of ext3 with larger file and partition support.
● XFS: High-performance journaling filesystem.
● Btrfs: Modern filesystem with advanced features (e.g., snapshots, pooling).
● FAT32: Compatible across multiple OS but lacks Linux permissions.
● NTFS: Commonly used in Windows.
File System Types
● Journaling File Systems: Ext3, Ext4, XFS, Btrfs.
● Distributed File Systems: NFS, GlusterFS, CephFS.
● Special Purpose File Systems:
○ tmpfs: In-memory temporary filesystem.
○ proc: Virtual filesystem for process and kernel info.
○ sysfs: Provides device and driver info.
3. Processes in Linux
Definition of a Process
● A process is an instance of a running program.
● Processes are identified by a unique Process ID (PID).
● Types:
○ Foreground: Runs interactively.
○ Background: Runs independently of the terminal.
Starting and Stopping Processes
● Starting:
○ Run a command directly (e.g., ls, nano).
○ Run in the background using & (e.g., sleep 100 &).
● Stopping:
○ Ctrl+C: Stops a foreground process.
○ kill [PID]: Sends a signal to stop a process.
○ killall [name]: Stops all processes with a given name.
○ Signals:
■ SIGTERM: Graceful termination.
■ SIGKILL: Forceful termination.
Initialization Processes
● init: The first process started by the kernel.
○ Modern systems use systemd, which replaces init.
○ Responsible for starting services and managing processes.
Mechanism of Process Creation
1. Fork:
○ A process creates a copy of itself using the fork() system call.
○ Parent and child processes share the same code but have separate memory
spaces.
2. Exec:
○ Replaces the process’s memory with a new program.
3. Wait:
○ Parent process waits for child processes to terminate.
4. Exit:
○ Terminates the process and releases resources.
Job Control in Linux
● Job Control Commands:
○ jobs: Lists current jobs.
○ fg: Brings a job to the foreground.
○ bg: Resumes a job in the background.
○ &: Runs a command in the background.
○ Ctrl+Z: Suspends a foreground job.
Using at, batch, cron, and time
● at:
○ Runs a task at a specific time.
Usage:
echo "command" | at HH:MM
○
● batch:
○ Runs tasks when the system load is low.
Usage:
echo "command" | batch
○
● cron:
○ Runs tasks periodically as specified in crontab.
Crontab format:
* * * * * command
○
■ Fields: minute, hour, day of month, month, day of week.
● time:
○ Measures the execution time of a command.
Usage:
time command
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