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P REFACE TO THE THIRTEE NT H E DITION

An Introduction to Language Files

Since its inception more than forty years ago, Language Files has grown from a collection
of materials designed simply as a supplement for undergraduate courses into a full-fledged
introductory textbook. The scope of the text makes it suitable for use in a wide range of
courses, while its unique organization into instructor-friendly files allows for tremendous
flexibility in course design.
Language Files was originally the idea of Arnold Zwicky, who was among its first au-
thors. Since the first edition, many editors have contributed to the development of Lan-
guage Files; the current edition is the result of this cumulative effort.

Changes in the Current Edition

In this edition, we have revised, clarified, and updated many of the existing files and ac-
companying exercises. Additionally, we have adopted throughout the book the use of the
singular they when referring to a generic person whose gender is unknown or irrelevant.
In addition to these global changes, the following chapters have undergone signifi-
cant revision or changes.

Chapter 1: Introduction
• File 1.4 Design Features of Language has clarified the discussion of arbitrary and
nonarbitrary aspects of language.
• File 1.5 Language Modality has had several sections rewritten for clarity.

Chapter 2: Phonetics
• This chapter has had wording revisions throughout for clarity.
• File 2.1 Representing Speech Sounds has expanded the examples of English syl-
lable structure.
• File 2.3 Articulation: English Vowels has a revised figure (2).
• File 2.4 Beyond English: Speech Sounds of the World’s Languages has revised
the last section on other types of articulation to discuss rhotics and to clarify the discus-
sion of secondary articulations such as palatalization.
• File 2.7 The Phonetics of Signed Languages has added links to online ASL dic-
tionaries for examples throughout.

Chapter 3: Phonology
• This chapter has had wording revisions throughout for clarity.

xi
xii Preface to the Thirteenth Edition

• File 3.2 Phonemes and Allophones has revised and expanded the descriptions of
complementary distribution and overlapping distribution, and tables (7) and (9) have
been reworked.
• File 3.6 Practice has added an exercise on a tone language.

Chapter 4: Morphology
• File 4.1 Words and Word Formation: The Nature of the Lexicon has redefined
lexical categories on the basis of morphosyntactic features expressed, now introduces
the notion of the lexeme, and has added a new section on allomorphy, which includes
a discussion of suppletion.
• File 4.2 Morphological Processes has been revised for clarity throughout; the sec-
tion on alternation has been rewritten; new sections on templatic morphology, supra-
segmental morphology, and morphological metathesis have been added; and the
section on suppletion has been removed.
• File 4.5 Morphological Analysis has a revised discussion of allomorphy.
• File 4.6 Practice has had various exercises deleted or corrected, and exercises added
on allomorphy and the new morphological processes in File 4.2.

Chapter 5: Syntax
• File 5.3 Syntactic Constituency has been expanded to include a section on syntac-
tic non-constituents.
• File 5.4 Syntactic Categories and File 5.5 Constructing a Grammar have re-
vised their use of terminology and abbreviations to make it more obvious that syntactic
categories are different from lexical categories.
• File 5.5 Constructing a Grammar has been expanded to include a section on non-
generative rule systems.

Chapter 6: Semantics
• File 6.1 An Overview of Semantics has been revised for clarity.
• File 6.2 Lexical Semantics: The Meanings of Words has reframed and clarified
the initial discussion on the source of word meanings.

Chapter 7: Pragmatics
• File 7.5 Presupposition has been revised in various places for clarity, and the section
on prosody has been rewritten.

Chapter 8: Language Acquisition

• File 8.1 Theories of Language Acquisition has deleted a paragraph at the end of
Section 8.1.6 that inaccurately reported experimental results.

Chapter 9: Psycholinguistics
• File 9.6 Sentence Processing has clarified some of the discussion of ambiguity.
 Preface to the Thirteenth Edition xiii

Chapter 10: Language Variation

• This chapter has had minor revisions throughout for clarity.

Chapter 12: Language Contact

• File 12.4 Creole Languages has been rewritten to focus on creoles in their initial and
current social contexts.

Chapter 13: Language Change

• File 13.7 Internal Reconstruction and Comparative Reconstruction has been
updated to better align it with the presentation of allomorphy in Chapter 4.

Chapter 14: Animal Communication

• File 14.3 Can Animals Be Taught Language? has had portions revised and up-
dated.

Chapter 16: Language and Computers

• File 16.1 Speech Synthesis has removed discussion of the earliest work in this area.
• File 16.3 Communicating with Computers has removed a long example of an
early dialogue system.
• File 16.4 Machine Translation has had minor trimming and updates.
• File 16.5 Deep Learning in Computational Linguistics is a new file introducing
the important role deep learning and artificial neural networks play in this field, along
with their limitations.
• File 16.6 Other Areas of Computational Linguistics is a new file briefly describ-
ing other tasks in the field, along with a longer discussion of corpus linguistics, incor-
porating material from the previous File 16.5.

Further Resources for Using Language Files

The Language Files home page can be found at

https://linguistics.osu.edu/research/pubs/lang-files

This home page includes links to the pages hosting sound files and relevant URLs, which
can be found at

http://linguistics.osu.edu/research/pubs/lang-files/sounds and
http://linguistics.osu.edu/research/pubs/lang-files/links, respectively.

All of these pages are organized by chapter and file.

A password for instructors to access the instructor’s guide and answer key can be obtained
at

https://ohiostatepress.org/
xiv Preface to the Thirteenth Edition

by locating the web page for the 13th edition of Language Files and filling out the online
form provided there.

In order to facilitate the receipt of feedback from users of Language Files, we also provide
an email address,

files@ling.ohio-state.edu

to which any suggestions, questions, or requests for clarification concerning this edition
may be directed.

The home page for the Department of Linguistics at The Ohio State University can be
found at

http://linguistics.osu.edu/.

Contributors to the 13th Edition

Many people have contributed to this edition, including students and faculty of the De-
partment of Linguistics at The Ohio State University and colleagues at other institutions.
We are particularly appreciative of the following for their substantial contributions:
to Andrea Sims, for her advice on and important contributions to the revised Morphology
chapter; to Daniel Puthawala and Symon Stevens-Guille for the new sections on syntactic
non-constituents and non-generative rule systems added to the revised Syntax chapter; to
Ellen Dossey for her work on permissions and licensing; and to Rexhina Ndoci for her in-
valuable help with many pieces of final revisions and proofreading.
We would additionally like to thank the following individuals: Katie Conner, Carly
Dickerson, Micha Elsner, Kevin Lilley, Clayton Marr, Rexhina Ndoci, Daniel Puthawala,
Connor Rouillier, Junyu Ruan, and Yuhong Zhu, for comments, suggestions, examples, and
advice regarding various aspects of the book (Department of Linguistics, The Ohio State
University); Julia Papke, for the new figure in File 2.3 (Department of Linguistics, The Ohio
State University); Bill Vicars (Department of ASL and ASL University, Sacramento State Col-
lege: www.Lifeprint.com); and the many various people who have emailed us with errata
and suggestions over the years.
We are also grateful to our department chair and the supervisor for this edition, Cyn-
thia Clopper, who has provided insight and support throughout the entire process of pre-
paring the book.
Finally, we would like to thank the people at The Ohio State University Press, espe-
cially Tara Cyphers, Tony Sanfilippo, and Juliet Williams, for their care and attention in this
project. We appreciate their advice, patience, flexibility, and cooperation throughout the
production of this edition.

Hope C. Dawson
Antonio Hernandez
Cory Shain

Department of Linguistics
The Ohio State University
AC KNOWLE DGMENTS

The editors and publisher are grateful to the following sources.

We are grateful to Julia Porter Papke for providing cartoons for the first page of each chap-
ter, along with figure (1) in File 1.2, figure (2) in File 2.3, and figure (3) in File 6.2. All ©
2015, 2021 by Julia Porter Papke.

File 1.5
Figure (3) © 2006, William Vicars, www.Lifeprint.com. Used with permission.

File 2.2
Figure (1) from Speech physiology, speech perception, and acoustic phonetics, by Philip Lieber-
man and Sheila E. Blumstein. © 1988, Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with
permission through PLSclear.

File 2.7
Figures (2), (3), (4), (6), (7), and (9) © 2006, William Vicars, www.Lifeprint.com. Used with
or adapted by permission.

File 2.8
Images of ASL in Exercises 36 and 37 © 2006, William Vicars, www.Lifeprint.com. Used
with permission.

File 3.1
Figures (4)–(6) © 2006, William Vicars, www.Lifeprint.com. Used with permission.

File 3.3
Figure (12) © 2006, William Vicars, www.Lifeprint.com. Used with or adapted by permis-
sion.

File 3.6
Images of ASL in Exercise 19 © 2006, William Vicars, www.Lifeprint.com. Used with per-
mission.
Exercises 30 (Totonac), 31 (Tojolabal), and 35 (Farsi) republished with permission of Cen-
gage Learning SO, from Workbook in descriptive linguistics, by Henry A. Gleason, Jr.,
© 1955; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

File 4.2
Figures (2), (3), and (4) © 2006, William Vicars, www.Lifeprint.com. Adapted by permis-
sion.

xv
xvi Acknowledgments

File 4.6
Exercises 9 (Bontok), 33 (Swahili), and 38 (Hanunoo) republished with permission of
Cengage Learning SO, from Workbook in descriptive linguistics, by Henry A. Gleason,
Jr., © 1955; permission conveyed through Cengage. www.cengage.com/permissions.
Images of ASL in Exercises 11 and 30 © 2006, William Vicars, www.Lifeprint.com. Used
with or adapted by permission.
Exercises 27 (Isthmus Zapotec), 36 (Zoque), and 39 (Popoluca) from Morphology: The de-
scriptive analysis of words, 2nd edn., by Eugene A. Nida. © 1949, University of Mich-
igan Press.

File 8.1
List in (1) adapted from Lenneberg’s characteristics in The articulate mammal: An introduc-
tion to psycholinguistics, by Jean Aitchison, p. 60. Routledge Classics Edition, 2011. ©
1976, Jean Aitchison. Reproduced with permission of Taylor & Francis Group.
Examples (5) and (6) reproduced with permission of Thomas Wadsworth, from Psycholin-
guistics, by Jean Berko Gleason and Nan Bernstein Ratner, 2nd edn., © 1998; permis-
sion conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

File 8.4
Example (2) from “The development of conversation between mothers and babies,” by
Catherine E. Snow. Journal of Child Language 4.1–22. © 1977, Cambridge University
Press. Reproduced with permission through PLSclear.

File 8.5
Example (1) from Language acquisition of a bilingual child: A sociolinguistic perspective (to age
10), by Alvino E. Fantini. © 1985, Channel View Publications Ltd./Multilingual Mat-
ters. Used with permission.

File 8.6
Data in Exercise 3 republished with permission of Blackwell Publishing, Incorporated,
from “Later lexical development and word formation,” by Eve V. Clark. The hand-
book of child language, ed. by Paul Fletcher and Brian MacWhinney, © 1995; permis-
sion conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
Data in Exercise 4 from “The acquisition of language in infant and child,” by Martin D. S.
Braine. The learning of language, ed. by Carroll E. Reed. © 1971, National Council of
Teachers of English. Used with permission.
Data in Exercises 9 and 12d from An introduction to language and linguistics, by Ralph Fasold
and Jeffrey Connor-Linton. © 2006, Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with
permission through PLSclear.
Data in Exercises 12e, f and 16a from The study of language, by George Yule, 2nd edn. ©
1996, Cambridge University Press. Reproduced with permission through PLSclear.
Data in Exercise 16b from The lexicon in acquisition, by Eve V. Clark. © 1993, Cambridge
University Press. Reproduced with permission through PLSclear.
Data in Exercise 17 from “The development of conversation between mothers and ba-
bies,” by Catherine E. Snow. Journal of Child Language 4.1–22. © 1977, Cambridge
University Press. Reproduced with permission through PLSclear.

File 9.1
Figure (1) reprinted from Cognition, Vol. 92, Gregory Hickok and David Poeppel, “Dorsal
and ventral streams: A framework for understanding aspects of the functional anat-
omy of language,” pp. 67–99, © 2004, with permission from Elsevier.
 Acknowledgments xvii

Figure (2) from “Dynamic processing in the human language system: Synergy between
the arcuate fascicle and extreme capsule,” by Tyler Rolheiser, Emmanuel A. Stamata-
kis, and Lorraine K. Tyler. The Journal of Neuroscience 31(47).16949–57. © 2011, re-
published with permission of the Society for Neuroscience.

File 9.2
Example (2) republished from Howard Poizner, Edward Klima, and Ursula Bellugi, What
the hands reveal about the brain, p. 120, © 1987 Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy, with permission of the MIT Press.
Examples (4), (5), and (6) from “Neuropsychological studies of linguistic and affective
facial expressions in deaf signers,” by David P. Corina, Ursula Bellugi, and Judy
Reilly. Language and Speech 42(2–3).307–31, © 1999 by SAGE Publications. Reprinted
with permission of SAGE Publications, Ltd.; permission conveyed through Copy-
right Clearance Center, Inc.

File 9.7
Figure (1) adapted from “Functional MRI in the investigation of blast-related traumatic
brain injury,” by John Graner, Terrence R. Oakes, Louis M. French, and Gerard Riedy.
Frontiers in Neurology 4:16. © 2013 by the authors. Creative Commons Attribution
3.0 Unported License.
Figure (2) adapted from image provided by Aaron G. Filler, MD, PhD, via Wikicommons
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:DTI_Brain_Tractographic_Image_Set.
jpg). Creative Commons Attribution—Share Alike 3.0 Unported License.

File 9.8
Data in Exercise 8b from “Linguistics and agrammatism,” by Sergey Avrutin. GLOT Inter-
national 5.87–97. © 2001, Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Reprinted with permission of
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Data in Exercises 8c and 8d are excerpts from The shattered mind, by Howard Gardner, ©
1974 by Howard Gardner. Used by permission of Alfred A. Knopf, an imprint of the
Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, a division of Penguin Random House LLC. All
rights reserved.

File 10.1
Sections adapted from “Styles,” by Ann D. Zwicky. Styles and variables in English, ed. by
Timothy Shopen and Joseph M. Williams. © 1981, Winthrop Publishers (Prentice-
Hall).

File 10.2
Figure (1) © 2006, William Vicars, www.Lifeprint.com. Used with permission.

File 10.3
Figure (1) from Signs across America, by Edgar H. Shroyer and Susan P. Shroyer, pp. 96, 97.
© 1984, Gallaudet University Press. Reproduced with permission.
Figure (2) adapted from American regional dialects, by Craig M. Carver. © 1987, University
of Michigan Press. Figure originally from A word geography of the eastern United States,
by Hans Kurath, Fig. 5a. © 1949, University of Michigan Press.

File 10.6
Images of ASL in Exercise 13 from Signs across America, by Edgar H. Shroyer and Susan P.
Shroyer, p. 3. © 1984, Gallaudet University Press. Reproduced with permission.
xviii Acknowledgments

File 11.1
Example (7) adapted from “Strategies of status manipulation in the Wolof greeting,” by
Judith Irvine. Explorations in the ethnography of speaking, ed. by Richard Bauman and
Joel Sherzer, p. 171. © 1974, Cambridge University Press.
Figure (8) by Jake Berman, via Wikicommons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NYC_
subway-4D.svg). Creative Commons Attribution—Share Alike 3.0 Unported License.

File 12.3
Example (1) adapted from Some day been dey: West African Pidgin folktales, by Loreto Todd.
© 1979, Routledge and Kegan Paul.

File 12.5
Examples (1) and (2) from “Intersections between social motivations and structural pro-
cessing in code-switching,” by Carol Myers-Scotton. Papers for the Workshop on Con-
straints, Conditions, and Models: London, 27–29 September 1990. © 1991, European
Science Foundation. Reproduced with permission.

File 12.7
Example (3) from“The role of English in Pennsylvania German development: Best sup-
porting actress?,” by Janet M. Fuller. American Speech 74(1).38–55. © 1999, the Amer-
ican Dialect Society. Republished by permission of the copyrightholder, and the
present publisher, Duke University Press. www.dukeupress.edu.
Examples (4) and (6) from “Language contact phenomena in Pennsylvania German: A
literature review,” by Steven Hartman Keiser. © 1999, unpublished manuscript, Co-
lumbus, OH.
Example (5) from “Linguistic structure and sociolinguistic identity in Pennsylvania Ger-
man society,” by Mark Louden. Language and lives: Essays in honor of Werner Enninger,
ed. by James R. Dow and Michèle Wolff, 79–91. © 1997, Peter Lang.

File 12.8
Data in Exercise 18 adapted from “On the pidgin status of Russenorsk,” by Ernst Håkon
Jahr. Language contact in the Arctic: Northern pidgins and contact languages, ed. by Ernst
Håkon Jahr and Ingvild Broch, 107–22. © 1996, Mouton de Gruyter. And from “Rus-
senorsk: A new look at the Russo-Norwegian pidgin in northern Norway”, by In-
gvild Broch and Ernst Håkon Jahr. Scandinavian language contacts, ed. by P. Sture
Ureland and Iain Clarkson, 21–65. © 1984, Cambridge University Press.
Data in Exercise 19 from The present state of Australia, 2nd edn., by Robert Dawson. 1831,
Smith, Elder and Co.
Data in Exercise 24 adapted from “Negotiations of language choice in Montreal,” by
Monica S. Heller. Language and social identity, ed. by John J. Gumperz, 108–18. ©
1982, Cambridge University Press.
Data in Exercise 25 adapted from “The pragmatics of code-switching: A sequential ap-
proach,” by Peter Auer. One speaker, two languages: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on
code-switching, ed. by Lesley Milroy and Pieter Muysken, 115–35. © 1995, Cambridge
University Press. Reproduced with permission through PLSclear.

File 13.8
Data in Exercise 30 republished with permission of Cengage Learning SO from Problems
in the origins and development of the English language, by John Algeo, 3rd edn. New
York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, © 1982, pp. 245–46. Permission conveyed through
Cengage. www.cengage.com/permissions
 Acknowledgments xix

Data in Exercise 37 (Proto-Western Turkic) adapted from Introductory workbook in histori-

cal phonology, 5th edn., by Frederick Columbus. © 1974, Slavica Publishers. Used
with permission.

File 14.2
Parts of Sections 14.2.2 adapted from “The birds and the bees,” An introduction to language,
2nd edn., by Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman, 41–45. © 1978, Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.

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