Communication Network (ECE 321)

Module-I

By: Dr. Tushar S. Muratkar

Syllabus:

• Overview of Data Communication, Types of Communication: Simplex, Half

Duplex, Full Duplex,
• Introduction to Network, Network Topology, Network classification:-
LAN,MAN,WAN,BAN,
• Network Architecture, Protocols, Services and primitives, OSI Reference Model,
TCP/IP Reference Model
• Transmission Media: Guided Media, Unguided,
• Structure of Switch, types of switches, Switching Techniques: Circuit-switching,
Message switching, Packet switching, MQTT.
Data Communication

• The data communication is the exchange of data between two devices using some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
• To initiate data communication the devices should be collection of both physical
equipment’s (hardware) and programs (software).
• The typical data communication system is as shown in below fig:
• As seen, the data communication system consists of five components:
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
• Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message.
• It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message.
• It can be a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4.Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver.
• Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
• It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
• Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person
speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

❖ Effectiveness of a data communications system:

• The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on the following fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness.
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.
• Data must be received by the intended device or user and not by any other device.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately.
• Data that have been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
• Data delivered late are of no use.
Types of Communication
• Here we are going to do the classification on the basis of how the data is
transmitted between two devices.
• And there are three types: Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex.
1) Simplex:
• Here, the communication is unidirectional.
• The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
• Keyboards and monitors are traditional examples of simplex devices.
• Fig below represents the concept of simplex communication.
2) Half-Duplex:
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
• The entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is
transmitting at the time.
• Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are example of half-duplex systems.
• Fig below represents the concept of half-duplex communication.
3) Full-Duplex:
• In Full-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, at the same time
• The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
• One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network
• Fig below represents the concept of full-duplex communication.
Introduction to Network
• Here we are going to study about computer networks.
• A computer network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

➢ Network Criteria:
• A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important
of these are performance, reliability, and security.
1. Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including Transit and
response time.
✓ Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another.
✓ Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
• The performance of a network depends upon number of users, type of transmission
medium, capabilities of hardware, efficiency of software.

2. Reliability: Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a
link to recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness in catastrophe.

3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage.
➢ Network Topologies:
• Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements (links, nodes) in
a computer network.
• The various types of network topologies are:
1) Point to Point Topology:
• Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the
sender and receiver.
• It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender
and the other one is the receiver.
• Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.
• Fig below denotes the concept of point to point topology.
2) Mesh Topology:
• In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular
channel as shown below.
• Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are
known as links.
• In a mesh network, each device needs to connect directly to every other device.
• So, if there are N devices, then:
✓Each device must connect to (N - 1) others.
✓Therefore, each device needs (N - 1) ports.

• If N = 6 devices, then each device needs 5 ports and total ports required in the
whole network = 6 devices x 5 ports = 30 ports.
• The total number of actual physical links between devices is given when we
connect each pair of devices with one dedicated link as
❖Advantages:
• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Mesh Topology is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among
the devices through dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.

❖ Disadvantages:
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.
3) Star Topology:
• In a star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
• This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node.
• The hub is of two types: Passive and Active.
• Fig below shows the star topology:
❖ Advantages:
• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of
ports required is N.
• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

❖ Disadvantages:
• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
4) Bus Topology:
• Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable.
• It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
• In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols such as TDMA, Pure
Aloha, CDMA, and Slotted Aloha are used to manage access to the shared
communication medium.
• A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable.
❖ Advantages:
• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to
10 Mbps.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.
❖ Disadvantages:
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network and to avoid this,
various protocols are used.
5) Ring Topology:
• In Ring Topology, each device (computer, printer, etc.) is connected to exactly two other
devices, forming a circle (ring).
• The data flows in a circle, from one device to the next, until it reaches the destination.
• Here, repeaters (small devices) are used to boost the signal and prevent data loss.
• This is because if there are many devices (example: 100 devices), the data has to
travel through many devices (up to 99) to reach the last one.

• Normally, data moves in only one direction — this is called unidirectional.

• Devices use a method called Token Passing.
• A “token” is a small permission signal that circulates around the ring.
• Only the device that has the token can send data — this prevents collisions.
❖Advantages:
• The data transmission is high-speed.
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
• It is less costly than a star topology.

❖ Disadvantages:
• The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 Types of Networks
• The network is divided into three primary categories: LAN, MAN, WAN as shown below.

❖ LAN (Local-Area Network):

• LAN is usually Privately owned and Links devices in single office, building or campus.
• LAN size is limited to few kilometers.
• LANs are designed to allow resources (i.e. hardware or software) to be shared between
PCs and workstations.
• LAN will use a single transmission media.
• The most common LAN Topologies are Ring, bus, star.
Note: The router is required if we want to connect LAN to the Internet.
For basic LAN i.e., sharing files between the systems, router is not needed.

Note: The role of switch is that it sends data only to the correct device.
❖MAN (Metropolitan-Area Network):
• A MAN is designed to extend over an entire city.
• It may be single network such as cable television network, or it may be a means of
connecting number of LANs in to a larger networks.
• A MAN be wholly owned and operated by a private company, or it may be a Service
provider by Public company such as a local telephone company.
❖WAN (Wide-Area Network):
• WAN provides long-transmission of data, voice, image and video information over large
geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent or even the whole world.
• It connects multiple LANs together.

• Example: Your home Wi-Fi = LAN (local). Connecting your home to Google servers in
USA = WAN (global).
The OSI model
• An ISO(International Standard Organization) standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication
between different systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying
hardware and software standards.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows communication between all types of computer systems.
• It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the
process of moving information across a network
• An understanding of the fundamentals of the OSI model provides a solid basis for
exploring data communications.
• Fig on next slide denotes OSI model.
1) Physical Layer:
• The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a
physical medium.
• It handles the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium.
• Takes care of physical connections — like cables, plugs, wireless signals.
• Deals with signals (electric, light, or radio signals) used to send data.
• Decides how fast data moves (transmission rate in bits per second).
• Controls how devices connect to the cable or wireless network.
• The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
2) Data Link Layer:
• The data link layer takes the raw bit stream from the physical layer and makes it
reliable for the upper layers.
• It ensures the data reaches the correct destination without errors.
• Its main functions are:
(i) Framing: It breaks long data into smaller parts called frames. This helps in
sending data neatly and in order.
(ii) Physical Addressing: It adds address information (called MAC address) to each
frame. This ensures the data goes to the correct device in the network.
(iii) Error control: It checks for errors in the data. If data gets damaged or lost, it
requests for re-sending to make communication reliable.
(iv) Access control: When many devices share the same connection (like in LAN),
it controls who can send data and when. This prevents collisions.
3) Network Layer:
• The Network Layer helps data travel from the sender to the receiver, even if they are in
different networks.
• Its main job are:
(i) Logical addressing: It gives each computer or device an IP address.
This helps data know where to go and who sent it.
(ii) Routing: If the data has to go through many networks, the network layer finds the best
path to the destination.

4) Transport Layer:
• The Transport Layer makes sure the entire message goes from one application (process) on
one computer to the correct application on another computer—safely and in order.
• Its main functions are:
Note on Ports:
• In the world of networking, a port is just a number used to identify specific processes or
applications running on a device.
• The port numbers ranges from 0 to 65,535.
• These are logical (virtual) ports, just numbers used in software.
• They are not hardware like USB ports or LAN ports.
5) Session Layer:
• The session layer manages the conversation (or session) between two
computers.
• It performs two operations:
(i) Dialog control: It controls who can talk and when.
(ii) Synchronization: It adds checkpoints during data transfer.
• So, if something goes wrong, it can restart from the last checkpoint instead of starting over.
➢Example:
• The session layer helps resume the movie from where it paused (checkpoint).
• It also ensures that both the streaming server and your device stay in sync during
the session.
6) Presentation Layer:
• This layer makes sure that the data is in a format both the sender and receiver can
understand. It acts like a translator between the two.
• Its main functions are:
7) Application Layer:
• This is the topmost layer of the OSI model.
• It is the layer that is closest to the user (you or your software).
• It provides services that allow users to interact with the network.
• Its key functions are-
•
Note on Encapsulation:
• In OSI model, encapsulation is done by the various layers.
• Encapsulation means extra information is added by a particular layer to the data received
by it so that it can be properly transmitted and understood at the receiver.
 TCP / IP model
• TCP stands for Transmission control protocol and IP stands for Internet protocol.
• The OSI model is the theoretical one which is good for understanding the concepts about
computer networking.
• But the TCP / IP is the model which is actually implemented in all the internet systems.
Note: This model is developed by U.S. Department of Defense.
• Fig below shows the TCP / IP model.
1) Application Layer:
• The Application Layer is the top layer of the TCP/IP model and the one closest to the user.
• This is where all the apps you use like web browsers, email clients, or file sharing tools
connect to the network.
• It acts like a bridge between your software (like Chrome, Gmail, or WhatsApp) and the
lower layers of the network that actually send and receive data.
• It supports different protocols like HTTP (for websites), FTP (for file transfers), SMTP (for
emails), and DNS (for finding website addresses).
• It also manages things like data formatting, so both sender and receiver understand the
data, encryption to keep data safe, and session management to keep track of ongoing
connections.
2) Transport Layer:
• The Transport Layer is responsible for making sure that data is sent reliably and in the
correct order between devices.
• It checks that the data you send like a message, file, or video arrives safely and completely.
• This layer uses two main protocols: TCP and UDP (User datagram protocol), depending
on whether the communication needs to be reliable or faster.
• TCP is used in situation such as reliability is more important (e.g., email) while UDP is
used where speed is more important (e.g., video streaming, online games).
3) Internet Layer:
• This is used for finding the best path for data to travel across different networks so it can
reach the right destination.
• It works like a traffic controller, helping data packets move from one network to another
until they reach the correct device.
• This layer uses the Internet Protocol (IP) to give every device a unique IP address, which
helps identify where data should go.
• The main job of this layer is routing i.e., deciding the best way for data to travel.
• It also takes care of packet forwarding (moving data from one point to
another), fragmentation (breaking large data into smaller parts), and addressing.
4) Network Interface Layer:
• The Network Access Layer is the bottom layer of the TCP/IP model.
• It deals with the actual physical connection between devices on the same local network like
computers connected by cables or communicating through Wi-Fi.
• This layer makes sure that data can travel over the hardware, such as wires, switches, or
wireless signals.
• It also handles important tasks like using MAC addresses to identify devices,
creating frames (the format used to send data over the physical link), and checking for
basic errors during transmission.
 Addressing in TCP / IP
• Four types of addresses are used in TCP / IP. These are as shown below.
1) Specific address:
• In email, the specific address is the email ID (e.g., abc@gmail.com)
• In WhatsApp: Specific address is your WhatsApp number.
• In Zoom: It might be the meeting ID
2) Port address:
• It is used to identify app/service inside a device.
• Example: Port 80 → HTTP (Web browsing) , Port 443→ HTTPS (Secure browsing) etc.

3) IP address:
• It is used across networks (internet).
• It helps locate the devices across cities or countries.
4) MAC address:
• It is used within your LAN only.
• Helps devices on the same LAN (e.g., your laptop and Wi-Fi router) communicate.
• Example: 3A:45:BC:23:FA:10
• The MAC address is 6 bytes long and uses 12 hexadecimal digits.
• The MAC address is assigned by the device manufacturer, specifically the manufacturer
of the Network Interface Card (NIC) or network hardware (e.g., Ethernet card, Wi-Fi
chip).
• Note: “The MAC address is permanently assigned by the manufacturer to the hardware,
but it can be temporarily changed (spoofed) through software for specific use cases like
privacy or testing.”
 Protocols used in TCP / IP
• Various protocols used are as follows:
• At the network layer or more accurately, the internetwork layer, the TCP/IP uses
Internetworking protocol (IP).
• IP in turn uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP and IGMP.
(i) IP:
• IP sends data in chunks called datagrams (or packets).
• Each packet can take a different path to reach the destination.
• Thus, packets arrive in any sequence at the receiver.
• IP just sends the data, it doesn’t care about the order or whether some packets get lost.

(ii) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):

• ARP helps a computer find out the physical address (MAC address) of another device
when it only knows the IP address.
(iii) Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP):
• RARP helps a device learn its own IP address when it only knows its MAC address (like
after being powered on for the first time).

(iv) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):

• ICMP sends error messages or status reports between computers and routers.
• The ping command uses ICMP to check if another computer is reachable.

(v) Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)

• IGMP is used to send one message to many people (multicasting).
• At the transport layer various protocols are used. These are explained below.
(i) TCP:
• It is reliable, but not fast.
• It is used in browsing (HTTP/HTTPS), email, file transfer (FTP).

(ii) UDP:
• It is fast, but not reliable.
• It is used in live video/audio streaming, online games.

(iii) Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP):

• It provides support for newer applications such as voice over the Internet.
• It takes multiple routes to ensure faster and more reliable delivery.
• It can deliver multiple messages at the same time (multi-streaming).
• It keeps track of everything, like TCP, but in more advanced way.
• At the application layer or more accurately many protocols are defined. These protocols are:
(i) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP):
• It is used to send emails from one computer to another over internet.

(ii) File Transfer Protocol (FTP):

• It is used to upload or download files between computers.
• Example: A web developer uses FTP to upload website files from their local computer to
the web hosting server.

(iii) Domain Name System (DNS):

• It translates domain names (like www.google.com) into IP addresses (like 142.250.195.68),
which computers use to communicate.
• When we type www.google.com in our browser, DNS converts that name into the actual IP
address so that our computer can connect to Google’s server.
(iv) HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP):
• HTTP is the protocol used to access and transfer web pages on the internet.
• Example: When we open a website (like https://www.wikipedia.org) in our browser, HTTP
is the protocol that:
• Sends a request to the web server asking for the page.
• The server responds with the web page content (HTML, images, etc.).
• Our browser displays the page for us.
 Transmission media in computer networks
• The different types of transmission media are as follows.
1) Guided media:
• It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
• Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical
links.
• Its main features are high speed and security.
• It is mostly used for comparatively shorter distances.
• There are 3 major types of guided media and they are:
a) Twisted Pair Cable
• It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires twisted about each other.
• Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath.
• They are the most widely used Transmission Media.
• It is as shown in below fig.
b) Co-axial cable:
• Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
• The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges).
• Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
c) Fiber optic cable:

• Fiber Optic works on the properties of light. When light ray hits at critical angle it tends to
refracts at 90 degree.
• This property has been used in fiber optic. The core of fiber optic cable is made of high
quality glass or plastic.
• Fiber Optic provides the highest mode of speed. It comes in two modes; one is single mode
fiber and second is multimode fiber.
• Single mode fiber can carry a single ray of light whereas multimode is capable of carrying
multiple beams of light.