Programming For Problem Solving

MALLA REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

(SPONSORED BY MALLA REDDY EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY) Permanently Affiliated
to JNTUH & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi
NBA Accredited Institution, An ISO 9001:2015 Certified, Approved by UK Accreditation Centre
Granted Status of 2(f) & 12(b) under UGC Act. 1956, Govt. of India.

PROGRAMMING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

COURSE FILE
B.Tech (CSE,IT,AI&ML,CS,DS) I Year – I Semester
R22 Regulation

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

(2022-2026)
Compiled by

1. S.Shirisha, Assistant Professor

2. N.Akhilandeshwari, Assistant Professor
3. V.Naveen Kumar, Assistant Professor
4. B.Pradeep Kumar, Assistant Professor

MALLA REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

(SPONSORED BY MALLA REDDY EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY)
Affiliated to JNTUH & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi
NAAC & NBA Accredited, ISO 9001:2015 Certified, Approved by UK Accreditation Centre
Granted Status of 2(f) & 12(b) under UGC Act 1956,Govt. of India.
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally, Post via kompally, Secunderabad – 500 100
www.mrits.ac.in
 Programming For Problem Solving

COURSE FILE SUBJECT:

PROGRAMMING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2022-2026.

REGULATION: R22

NAME OF THE FACULTY : S . S H I R I S H A

N.AKHILANDESHWARI
V.NAVEEN KUMAR
B. PRADEEP KUMAR

DEPARTMENT: CSE & IT

YEAR & SECTION: I Year-I SEM (CSE,CS,DS,AI&ML & IT)

SUBJECT CODE: CS103ES

 Programming For Problem Solving
R22 B.Tech. Syllabus JNTU Hyderabad

PROGRAMMING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

B.Tech. I Year I Sem. L T P C

3 0 0 3

Course Objectives:
● To learn the fundamentals of computers.
● To understand the various steps in program development.
● To learn the syntax and semantics of the C programming language.
● To learn the usage of structured programming approaches in solving problems.

Course Outcomes: The student will learn

● To write algorithms and to draw flowcharts for solving problems.
● To convert the algorithms/flowcharts to C programs.
● To code and test a given logic in the C programming language.
● To decompose a problem into functions and to develop modular reusable code.
● To use arrays, pointers, strings and structures to write C programs.
● Searching and sorting problems.

UNIT - I: Introduction to Programming

Compilers, compiling and executing a program.Representation of Algorithm - Algorithms for finding

roots of a quadratic equations, finding minimum and maximum numbers of a given set, finding if a
number is prime number Flowchart/Pseudocode with examples, Program design and structured
programming

Introduction to C Programming Language: variables (with data types and space requirements),
Syntax and Logical Errors in compilation, object and executable code, Operators, expressions and
precedence, Expression evaluation, Storage classes (auto, extern, static and register), type conversion,
The main method and command line arguments Bitwise operations: Bitwise AND, OR, XOR and NOT
operators Conditional Branching and Loops: Writing and evaluation of conditionals and consequent
branching with if, if-else, switch-case, ternary operator, goto, Iteration with for, while, do- while loops
I/O: Simple input and output with scanf and printf, formatted I/O, Introduction to stdin, stdout and stderr.
Command line arguments

UNIT - II: Arrays, Strings, Structures and Pointers:

Arrays: one and two dimensional arrays, creating, accessing and manipulating elements of arrays
Strings: Introduction to strings, handling strings as array of characters, basic string functions available
in C (strlen, strcat, strcpy, strstr etc.), arrays of strings
Structures: Defining structures, initializing structures, unions, Array of structures
 Programming For Problem Solving
Pointers: Idea of pointers, Defining pointers, Pointers to Arrays and Structures, Use of Pointers in self-
referential structures, usage of self referential structures in linked list (no implementation) Enumeration
data type

UNIT - III: Preprocessor and File handling in C:

Preprocessor: Commonly used Preprocessor commands like include, define, undef, if, ifdef, ifndef
Files: Text and Binary files, Creating and Reading and writing text and binary files, Appending data to
existing files, Writing and reading structures using binary files, Random access using fseek, ftell and
rewind functions.

UNIT - IV: Function and Dynamic Memory Allocation:

Functions: Designing structured programs, Declaring a function, Signature of a function, Parameters

and return type of a function, passing parameters to functions, call by value, Passing arrays to functions,
passing pointers to functions, idea of call by reference, Some C standard functions and libraries

Recursion: Simple programs, such as Finding Factorial, Fibonacci series etc., Limitations of Recursive
functions Dynamic memory allocation: Allocating and freeing memory, Allocating memory for arrays of
different data types

UNIT - V: Searching and Sorting:

Basic searching in an array of elements (linear and binary search techniques), Basic algorithms to sort
array of elements (Bubble, Insertion and Selection sort algorithms), Basic concept of order of complexity
through the example programs

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Jeri R. Hanly and Elliot B.Koffman, Problem solving and Program Design in C 7th Edition,
Pearson
2. B.A. Forouzan and R.F. Gilberg C Programming and Data Structures, Cengage Learning, (3rd
Edition)

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie, The C Programming Language, Prentice Hall of
India
2. E. Balagurusamy, Computer fundamentals and C, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill
3. Yashavant Kanetkar, Let Us C, 18th Edition, BPB
4. R.G. Dromey, How to solve it by Computer, Pearson (16th Impression)
5. Programming in C, Stephen G. Kochan, Fourth Edition, Pearson Education.
6. Herbert Schildt, C: The Complete Reference, Mc Graw Hill, 4th Edition
7. Byron Gottfried, Schaum’s Outline of Programming with C, McGraw-Hill
 Programming For Problem Solving

UNIT -1
COMPUTER :

It is a high speed electronic device that accepts and stores input data and instructions, processes
the data and produces the desired output.

Input Output
(raw data / Instructions) (Information i.e. processed
data)

Characteristics of computers
 Speed: the computer process data at an extremely fast rate, at millions of instructions
per second.

 Reliability: computer provide very high speed accompanied by an equally high level of
reliability.

 Accuracy: the level of accuracy depends on the instrucations and the type of processor
used in the computer

 Storage capacity: computers are capable of storing enormous amounts of data that can
be located and retrieved very quickly

 Resource sharing: In organizations computers can be connected to each other to from a

n/w

COMPUTER SYSTEMS
* It is made up of 2 major components

* They are : 1) Hardware

2) Software

Computer Hardware :
 These are the physical components of a computer
 It consists of 5 Parts
1) Input Devices 2) Output Devices 3) CPU 4) Primary Storage 5) Secondary Storage
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Block diagram of a Computer

ALU CU

Input Output
Devices Devices
Primary Memory

Input Devices Secondary Memory

 These are used to enter data and programs into the computer
 These are for man to machine communication
 egs: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch screen, audio input.

Output Devices
 These are used to get the desired output from the computer
 These are for machine to man communication
 egs: Printer, Monitor, Speakers
 If the output is shown on monitor then it is called “Soft copy”
 If the output is printed on a paper using printer then it is called “hard copy”
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 It is responsible for processing the instructions
 It consists of 3 parts
1) ALU – Arithmetic & Logic Unit
2) CU- Control Unit
3) Memory
 ALU performs arithmetic operations like addition,subtraction,multiplication,division and
logical operations like comparisons among data
 CU is responsible for movement of data inside the system
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 Memory is used for storage of data and programs. It is divided into 2 parts.
1) Primary Memory/ Main Memory
2) Secondary Memory/ Auxilary Memory
1) Primary Memory
 It is also called main memory
 Data is stored temporarily i.e. data gets erased when computer is turned off
 Eg: RAM
2) Secondary Memory
 It is also called as auxilary memory
 Data is stored permanently so that user can reuse the data even after power loss.
 Eg: Hard disk, CD, DVD, Floppy etc.
Operating System
 It acts as an interface between the user and the hardware
 It makes the system to operate in an efficient manner
 Egs: MS DOS, Windows, UNIX, LINUX, etc.
System Support
 They provide some utilities and other operating services
 eg: Sort utilities, disk formatting utilities, Security monitors

COMPUTER LANGUAGES
 Computer programming languages are used to give instructions to the computer in a
language which computer understands
 Computer languages are classified into 3 types
1) Machine languages
2) Symbolic languages
3) High level languages
1) Machine languages
 Computer is a machine and since its memory can store only 1‟s and 0‟s, instructions must
be given to the computer in streams of 1‟s and 0‟s i.e. binary code.
 These are easily understandable by the machine
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 Programs written in binary code can be directly fed to computer for execution and it is
known as machine language.
Advantage :
 Execution is very fast since there is no need of conversion
Disadvantage :
 Writing and reading programs in machine language is very difficult
 Machine instructions are difficult to remember
2) Symbolic Languages
 It is also called as assembly language
 An assembly program contains “Mnemonics”
 “Mnemonic” means information can be memorized easily and is generally in the form of
abbreviations.
Advantage :
 Easy to read and write programs in assembly language when compared to machine
language
 Mnemonics are easy to remember
Disadvantage :
 Assembly programs are machine dependent
 Execution is slow since it needs conversion into machine language
 “Assembler” is used to convert assembly language program into machine language.

Assembler
Assembly language program Machine Language
code
3) High level languages
 A set of languages which are very close to our native languages are called “ high-level
languages”.
 High level languages have control structures, I/O facilities, hardware independence
 eg: FORTRAN, COBOL, PASCAL, C, C++ etc..
Advantage :
 Machine independence i.e. programs are “Portable” i.e. programs can be moved from one
system to another
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 Easy to learn and understand

 Takes less time to write programs
Disadvantage :
 High level language programs needs a translator for conversion into machine language
 „Compilers‟ (or) „Interpreters‟ are used for converting high level language program into
machine language..

Compiler /
High level language program Interpreter Machine Language code

 Compiler converts entire statements in the program at a time.

 Interpreter converts one statement at a time.
CREATING AND RUNNING PROGRAMS
 Program consists of set of instructions written in a programming language
 The job of a programmer is to write and test the program.
 There are 4 steps for converting a „C‟ program into machine language.
1) Writing and editing the program
2) Compiling the program
3) Linking the program
4) Executing the program
1) Writing and editing the program
 „Text editors‟ are used to write programs.
 Users can enter, change and store character data using text editors
 Special text editor is often included with a compiler
 After writing the program, the file is saved to disk. It is known as „source file‟
 This file is input to the compiler

C file

#include<stdio.h>
Programmer Text Editor Source file main ( )
{
-----
-----
-----
}
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2) Compiling the program

 “Compiler” is a software that translates the source file into machine language
 The „C‟ compiler is actually 2 separate programs
a) Preprocessor
b) Translator
A) Preprocessor
 It reads the source code and prepares it for the translator
 It scans for special instructions known as „preprocessor‟ commands which start with „ #‟
symbol
 These commands tell the preprocessor to look for special code libraries and make
substitutions
 The result of preprocessing is called „translation‟ unit

Preprocessor
Source File translation unit
B) Translator
 It does the actual work of converting the program into machine language
 It reads the translation unit and results in „object module‟ i.e., code in machine language
 But it is not yet executable because it does not have the „C‟ and other functions included.

Translator
Translation unit Object Module .obj file
00110 100
10101 010
3) Linking programs
 „Linker‟ assembles input /output functions, mathematical library functions and some of
the functions that are part of source program into final executable program
 It is called as executable file that it is ready for execution .exe file
1011001100
Linker 110111011
Object file executable file 1100101010
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4) Executing Programs
 „Loader‟ is the software that gets the program that is ready for execution into the
memory
 When everything is loaded, the program takes control and the „Runner‟ begins its
execution.
 In the process of execution, the program reads the data from the user, processes the data
and prepares the output

SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT METHOD

 Software is collection of programs
 Programming is a problem solving task / activity
 Programmers use the software development method for solving problems
 It consists of the following 6 phases
1) Requirements
2) Analysis
3) Design
4) Coding
5) Testing
6) Maintenance
1) Requirements
 Information about the problem must be stated clearly and unambiguously
 Programming For Problem Solving

 Main objective of this phase is to eliminate unimportant aspects and identify the root
problem
2) Analysis
 It involves identifying the problem inputs, outputs, that the program must produce
 It also determines the required format in which results should be displayed

3) Design
 It involves designing algorithms, flowcharts (or) GUI‟s (Graphical User Interfaces)
 Designing the „algorithm‟ is to develop a list of steps called algorithm to solve the
problem and then verify that the algorithm solves the problem intended.
 “Top – down design” is followed i.e. list the major steps (or) sub problems that need to
be solved
 “Flow charts” are used to get the pictorial representation of the algorithm.
 Algorithm for a programming problem consists of at least the following sub problems
1. Get the data
2. Perform the computations
3. Display the results

4) Coding / Implementation
 This step involves writing algorithm as a program by selecting any one of the high – level
languages that is suitable for the problem.
 Each step of the algorithm is converted into one (or) more statements in a programming
language.
5) Testing
 Checking / verifying whether the completed program works as desired is called “
Testing”
 Running the program several times using different sets of data verifies whether a program
works correctly for every situation provided in the algorithm.
 After testing, the program must be free from the following errors.
a) Syntax errors
 Programming For Problem Solving

b) Logical errors
c) Run-time errors
6) Maintenance
 It involves modifying a program to remove previously undetected errors and to keep
it up-to-date as government regulations (or) company polices change.
 Many organizations maintains a program for some period of time i.e. 5 years

System
requirements

Analysis

Design

Coding

Testing

 This is called „waterfall‟ model Maintenance

 It is necessary to go back to the previous phase to rework it

APPLYING THE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT METHOD
1) Problem requirement
 Finding the roots of a quadratic equation, ax2+bx+c
 There will be 2 roots for such quadratic equation
2) Analysis
Input : a,b,c values
Output: r1, r2 values

b  b 2  4ac
Procedure : r1 
2a
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b  b 2  4ac
r2 
2a
3) Design
Algorithm
1. start
2. Read a,b,c values
3. Compute d = b2  4ac
4. if d > 0 then
a) r1 =  b+ sqrt (d)/(2*a)
b) r2 =  b  sqrt(d)/ (2*a)

5. otherwise if d = 0 then
a) compute r1 = -b/2a
r2=-b/2a
b) print r1,r2 values
6. otherwise if d < 0 then print roots are imaginary
7. Stop
4. Implementation
# include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
# include<math.h>
main ( )
{
float a,b,c,r1,r2,d;
clrscr ( );
printf (“enter a,b,c values”);
scanf (“ %f %f %f”, &a, &b, &c);
d= b*b – 4*a*c;
if (d>0)
{
 Programming For Problem Solving

r1 = -b+sqrt (d) / (2*a);

r2 = -b-sqrt (d) / (2*a);
printf (“Roots are real and are %f %f”, r1, r2);
}
else if (d= =0)
{
r1 = -b/(2*a);
r2 = -b/(2*a);
printf (“Roots are equal and are %f %f”, r1, r2);
}
else
printf(“Roots are imaginary”);
getch ( );
}
5) Testing
Case 1: Enter a,b,c values : 1 4 3
r1 = -1
r2 = -3
Case 2: Enter a,b,c values : 1 2 1
r1 = -1
r2 = -1
Case 3: Enter a,b,c values : 1 1 4
Roots are imaginary

ALGORITHM:
 It is a step – by – step procedure for solving a problem
 If algorithm is written in English like sentences then it is called as „PSEUDO CODE‟
Properties of an Algorithm
An algorithm must posses the following 5 properties. They are
1. Input
2. Output
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3. Finiteness
4. Definiteness
5. Effectiveness
1. Input : An algorithm must have zero (or) more number of inputs
2. Output: Algorithm must produce one (or) more number of outputs
3. Finiteness : An algorithm must terminate in countable number of steps
4. Definiteness: Each step of the algorithm must be stated clearly
5. Effectiveness: Each step of the algorithm must be easily convertible into program
statements
Example
Algorithm for finding the average of 3 numbers
1. start
2. Read 3 numbers a,b,c
3. Compute sum = a+b+c
4. compute avg = sum/3
5. Print avg value
6. Stop
FLOW CHART
Diagramatic representation of an algorithm is called flow chart
Advantages of flow chart
 It is very easy to understand because the reader follows the process quickly from the
flowchart instead of going through the text.

 It is the best way of representing the sequence of steps in an algorithm

 It gives a clear idea about the problem

 Various symbols are used for representing different operations

 Arrows are used for connecting the symbols and show the flow of execution
 Programming For Problem Solving

Symbols used in flowchart:

Name Symbol Purpose

Terminal Start /stop/begin/end

oval
Input / output Input/output of data

Parallelogram
Process Any processing to be
performed can be represented

Rectangle
Decision box Decision operations that
determine which of the
alternative paths to be
Diamond followed
Connector Used to connect different
parts of flowchart
Circle
Flow Joins 2 symbols and also
represents flow of execution
Arrows
Pre defined process Modules (or)subroutines
specified else where

Double sided rectangle

Page connector Used to connect flowchart in
2 different pages

Pentagon
For loop symbol Shows initialization,
condition and incrementation
of loop variable.
Hexagon
Document Shows the data that is ready
for printout

Printout
 Programming For Problem Solving

Example
Flowchart for finding the average of 3 numbers

Start

Read 3 Numbers a,b,c

Compute sum a+b+c

Compute avg sum/3

Print avg value

Stop

Importance of ‟C‟ Language

1. It is a robust language, whose rich set of built-in functions and operations can be used to
write any complex program
2. It is a middle level language because the „C‟ compiler combines the capabilities of an
assembly language with the features of a high-level language and therefore it is well suited for
writing both system software and business packages.
3. „C‟ Programs are efficient and fast
4. C is highly portable, that is „C‟ programs written on one computer can be run on another with
little (or) no modification.
5. „C‟ Language is well suited for structured programming, thus requiring the user to think of a
problem in terms of function modules (or) blocks.
6. „C‟ program has the ability to extend itself.
 Programming For Problem Solving

 It was named „C‟ because it is an offspring of BCPL (Basic Combined Programming

Language) which was popularly called „B‟ language.
General form of a „C‟ program
/* documentation section */
preprocessor directives
global declaration
main ( )
{
local declaration
executable statements
}
returntype function name (argument list)
{
local declaration
executable statements
}

Example:
/* Author : Ramu
Aim : Program for finding circumference of circle*/
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#define PI 3.1415
main ( )
{
float c, r;
clrscr ( );
printf (“enter radius of circle”);
scanf (“%f”, &r);
c = 2 * PI * r;
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printf (“Circumference = %f”, c);

getch ( );
}

„C‟ LANGUAGE ELEMENTS

„C‟ program contains several elements which are present in structure of „C‟ program. They are
1) Comment lines
2) Preprocessor directives
3) Variable declaration & data types
4) Executable statements
1. Comment lines
 In „C‟, comment lines are placed in “ /* */”
 Single line and multiple lines are enclosed in /* and */
 Comment lines are ignored by the compiler
 The documentation section is enclosed in comment lines
 Documentation section consists of a set of comment lines giving the name of the
program, the author and other details, which the programmer would like to use later.

2. Preprocessor directives
 It consists of a) link section
b) Definition Section
 The link section provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from the system
library
eg : #include < stdio.h>
 The definition section defines all symbolic constants
eg : #define PI 3.1415
 Preprocessor directive must start with „#‟ (hash) symbol.
3. Variable declaration & data types
Variable
 It is the name given to a memory location that may be used to store a data value
 A variable may take different values at different times during execution
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 A variable name may be chosen by the programmer in a meaningful way so as to reflect

its function (or) nature in the program
Eg: sum, avg , total etc.
Rules for naming a variable
1) They must begin with a letter
2) The length of the variable must not exceed 31 characters in ANSI standard. But first eight
characters are treated as significant by many compilers
3) Upper and lowercase characters are different
Eg: total, TOTAL, Total are 3 different variables
4) The variable name should not be a keyword
5) White space is not allowed
Data Types
 Data type specifies the set of values and the type of data that can be stored in a variable.
 They allow the programmer to select the type appropriate to the needs of application.
Types :
1) Primary data types
2) Derived data types

1. Primary data types

„C‟ compilers support 4 fundamental data types
They are
1) integer
2) character
3) Floating – point
4) Double precision floating point
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PRIMRARY DATA TYPES

Integral Type

Integer
character
Signed Unsigned
signed char
int unsigned int
short int unsigned short int unsigned char
long int unsigned long int

Floating point type

float double long double

1. Integral data type

 Integral data types are used to store whole numbers and characters
 It is further classified into
a) integer data type
b) character data type
a) Integer data type
 This data type is used to store whole numbers
 It has 3 classes of integer storage namely, short int, int and long int in both signed and
unsigned forms

Integer Data type

Type size (in bytes) Range Control string
Short int (or) 1 -128 to 127 %h
signed short int
Unsigned short int 1 0 to 255 % uh
int (or) signed int 2 -32768 to 32767 % d or %i
unsigned int 2 0 to 65535 %u
Long int (or) 4 -2147483648 to %ld
signed long int 2147483647
Unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295 %lu
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b) character data type

 This data type is used to store characters
 These characters are internally stored as integers
 Each character has an equivalent ASCII value
eg: „A‟ has ASCII value 65

Character data type

Type Size (in bytes) Range Control string
Char (or) signed 1 - 128 to +127 %c
char
Unsigned char 1 0 to 255 %c

2. Floating – point Data types

 It is used to store real numbers (i.e., decimal point numbers).
 For 6 digits of accuracy, „float‟ is used.
 For 12 digits of accuracy, „double' is used.
 For more than 12 digits of accuracy, „long double‟ is used..

Floating point data type

Type Size (in bytes) Range Control string
float 4 3.4 E – 38 to 3.4 E + 38 %f
double 8 1.7 E – 308 to 1.7 E +308 %lf
long double 10 3.4 E – 4932 to 1.1 E +4932 %Lf
Variable declaration
Syntax:
Datatype v1,v2,… vn;
Where v1, v2,...vn are names of variables
eg: int sum;
float a,b;
 Variable can be declared in 2 ways
1. local declaration
2. global declaration
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 „local declaration‟ is declaring a variable inside the main block and its value is available
within that block
 „global declaration‟ is declaring a variable outside the main block and its value is available
through out the program.
 Eg :
int a, b; /* global declaration*/
main ( )
{
int c; /* local declaration*/
- - -
}

EXECUTABLE STATEMENTS:
 A „C‟ program contains executable statements
 The „C‟ compiler translates the executable statements into machine language
 The machine language versions of these statements are executed by the compiler when a
user runs program
Types
1) Input – output statements
2) Assignment statements
1. Input – output statements
 Storing a value into memory is called „ input operation‟.
 After executing the computations, the results are stored in memory and the results can be
displayed to the user by „output operation‟
 All input / output operations in „C‟ are performed using input / output functions
 The most common I/O functions are supplied as part of the „C‟ standard I/O library
through the preprocessor directive # include<stdio.h>
 Most commonly used I/O functions are
a) printf ( )
b) scanf ( )
a) printf ( ) function:
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Syntax:
printf(“format string”, print list);
e.g.: printf (“average of 3 numbers = %f”,avg);
* The printf ( ) function displays the value of its format string after substituting the
values of the expressions in the print list.
* It also replaces the escape sequences such as „\n‟ by their meanings.
b) scanf ( ) function
Syntax:
scanf (“format string”, input list);
e.g.: scanf (“%d %f”, &a, &b);
 The scanf ( ) function copies into memory data typed at the keyboard by the program user
during program execution.
 The input list must be preceded by ampersand ( &)

2) Assignment statements
 The assignment statements stores a value (or) a computational result in a variable and is
used to perform most arithmetic operations in a program.
 Syntax: variable=expression
 e.g.:
1. c = a+b;
2. avg = sum/3;
3. r1 = (b*b – 4 * a*c);
 The variable before the assignment operator is assigned the value of the expression after
it.
 The previous value of variable is destroyed
EXPRESSIONS
 Def: An expression is a combination of operators and operands which reduces to a single
value
 An operand is a data item on which an operation is performed.
 An operator indicates an operation to be performed on data
 Programming For Problem Solving

eg; z = 3+2*1
z=5
Types Expression

Primary Postfix prefix unary binary ternary

1. Primary expressions
The operand in the primary expression can be a name, a constant or any parenthesized expression
E.g.: c = a+ (5*b);
2. Postfix expressions:
The operator will be after the operands in a postfix expression
Eg:
ab+
3. Prefix expressions
The operator is before the operand in a prefix expression.
Eg:
+ab

4. unary expression:
It contains one operator and one operand
eg: a++, --b
5. Binary expression
It contains 2 operands and one operator
Eg: a+b, c-d
6. Ternary expression
It contains 3 operands and one operator
Eg ; Exp1? Exp2 :Exp3
If Exp1 is true ,Exp2 is executed. otherwise Exp3 is executed.
 Programming For Problem Solving

OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS

 Operator performs an operation on data
 Operators are classified into
1. Arithmetic operators.
2. Relational operators.
3. Logical operators.
4. Assignment operators.
5. Increment and decrement operators.
6. Bitwise operators.
7. Conditional operators.
8. Special operators.
1). Arithmetic operator
 These operators are used for numerical calculations (or) to perform arithmetic operations
like addition, subtraction etc.

Operator Description Example a =20, b=10 output

+ Addition a+b 20+10 30
- Subtraction a-b 20-10 10
* Multiplication a*b 20*10 200
/ Division a/b 20/10 2 (quotient)
% Modular division a%b 20%10 0 (remainder)

 Program:
main ( )
{
int a= 20, b = 10; Output
printf (“ %d”, a+b); 30

printf (“ %d”, a-b); 10

200
2
0
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (“ %d”, a*b);

printf (“ %d”, a/b);
printf (“ %d”, a%b);
}
2).Relational operators :
 These are used for comparing two expressions.

Operator Description Examble a =10, b=20 output

< less than a<b 10<20 1
<= less than (or) a<=b 10< = 20 1
equal to
> greater than a>b 10>20 0
>= greater than (or) a>=b 10> =20 0
equal to
== equal to a= =b 10 = = 20 0
!= not equal to a! = b 10 ! =20 1

 The output of a relational expression is either true (1) (or) false (0)
 Program
main ( )
{
int a= 10, b = 20; Output
printf (“ %d”, a<b); 1
printf (“ %d”, a<=b); 1
printf (“ %d”, a>b); 0
printf (“ %d”, a>=b); 0
printf (“ %d”, a = =b); 0
printf (“ %d”, a ! =b); 1

} 1
1

3. Logical Operators
 These are used to combine 2 (or) more expressions logically
 Programming For Problem Solving

 They are logical AND (&&) logical OR ( || ) and logical NOT (!)
Logical AND ( && )
exp1 exp2 exp1&&exp2
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Logical OR( || )
exp1 exp2 exp1||exp2
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Logical NOT (!)

exp !(exp)
T F
F T

Operator Description Example a =10, b=20,c=30 output

&& logical AND (a>b) && (a<c) (10>20) & & (10<30) 0
|| logical OR (a>b) | | (a<c) (10>20) ||(10<30) 1
! logical NOT ! (a>b) ! (10>20) 1

Program:
main ( )
{
int a= 10, b = 20, c= 30;
Output
printf (“ %d”, (a>b) && (a<c)); 0
printf (“ %d”, (a>b) | | (a<c)); 1
1
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (“ %d”, ! (a>b));

}
4. Assignment operators
 It is used to assign a value to a variable
Types
1) simple assignment 2)compound assignment

Operator Description Example

= Simple a=10
assignment
+ =, - =, Compound a+=10  a=a+10
* =, / =, %= assignment a-=10  a=a-10

Program:
main ( )
{ int a= 10,; Output
printf (“ %d”, a); 10

printf (“ %d”, a+ =10); 20

}
5. Increment and decrement operator:
a) Increment operator (++):
 It is used to increment the value of a variable by 1
 2 types : i) pre increment
ii) post increment
 increment operator is placed before the operand in preincrement and the value is first
incremented and then operation is performed on it.
eg: z = ++a; a= a+1
z=a

 increment operator is placed after the operand in post increment and the value is
incremented after the operation is performed
eg: z = a++; z=a
a= a+1
Program main ( )
{
int a= 10, z;
z= a++;
Output
Output printf (“z= %d”, z); z=10
z=11
 Programming For Problem Solving

main ( )
{
int a= 10, z;
z= ++a ;
printf (“z= %d”, z);
printf (“ a=%d”, a);
}

b) Decrement operator : (- -)
 It is used to decrement the values of a variable by 1
2 types : i) pre decrement
ii) post decrement
 decrement operator is placed before the operand in predecrement and the value is first
decremented and then operation is performed on it.
eg: z = - - a; a= a-1
z=a

 decrement operator is placed after the operand in post decrement and the value is
decremented after the operation is performed
eg: z = a--; z=a
a= a-1

Program:
main ( ) main ( )

{ {

int a= 10, z; int a= 10, z;

z= --a; z= a--;
Output
printf (“z= %d”, z);
Output printf (“z= %d”, z); z=10
z=9
printf (“ a=%d”, a); printf (“a=%d”, a); a=9
a =9
} }
 Programming For Problem Solving

6. Bitwise Operator
Unlike other operators, bitwise operators operate on bits (i.e. on binary values of on operand)

Operator Description

& Bitwise AND

| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise XOR
<< Left shift
>> Right shift
~ One‟s complement

Bitwise OR Bitwise XOR

Bitwise AND
a b a|b a b a ^b
a b a &b
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1

eg: let a= 12, b=10

a&b a|b

8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
a =12 1 1 0 0 a =12 1 1 0 0
b =10 1 0 1 0 b =10 1 0 1 0
a &b 1 0 0 0 a|b 1 1 1 0
a&b = 8 a | b = 14

8 4 2 1
 Programming For Problem Solving

a =12 1 1 0 0 a^b
b =10 1 0 1 0
a ^b 0 1 1 0

a^b=6

Program
main ( )
{
int a= 12, b = 10; Output
printf (“ %d”, a&b); 8

printf (“ %d”, a| b); 14

printf (“ %d”, a ^ b); 6

Left Shift
 If the value of a variable is left shifted one time, then its value gets doubled
 eg: a = 10 then a<<1 = 20

32 16 8 4 2 1
a=10
1 0 1 0

a<<1 1 0 1 0 0 Fill it with zero

a<<1 = 20
Right shift
If the value of a variable is right shifted one time, then its value becomes half the original value
 eg: a = 10 then a>>1 = 5
8 4 2 1
a=10
1 0 1 0
 Programming For Problem Solving

a>>1 0 Discard it
1 0 1

a>>1 = 5
Ones complement
 It converts all ones to zeros and zeros to ones
 Eg: a = 5 then ~a=2 [only if 4 bits are considered]
8 4 2 1
a=5
1 0 1

~a
0 1 0

~a = 2
Program
main ( ) Output
40
{
5
int a= 20, b = 10,c=10;
11
printf (“ %d”, a<<1);
printf (“ %d”, b>>1);
printf (“ %d”, ~c);
}
Signed
1‟s complement = - [ give no +1]
Eg : ~10 = - [10+1] = -11
~-10 = - [-10+1] = 9
unsigned
1‟s complement = [65535 – given no]
7. Conditional operator (? :)
 It is also called ternary operator
 Syntax:
exp1 ? exp2 : exp3
 if exp1 is true exp2 is evaluated, otherwise exp3 is evaluated
 Programming For Problem Solving

 it can also be represented in if – else form

if (exp1)
exp2;
else
exp3;
Program
main ( )
{ int z;
z = (5>3) ? 1:0; Output
printf (“%d”,z); 1

}
8) Special operations
Some of the special operations are comma, ampersand(&), size of operators.
a) Comma: ( , )
It is used as separator for variables
eg; a=10, b=20
b) Address:(&)
It is used to get the address of a variables.
c) Size of ( ) ;
It is used to get the size of a data type of a variable in bytes.
Program:
main ( )
{
int a=10;
float b=20 ;
printf (“ a= %d b=%f”, a,b );
printf (“ Address of a =%u “ , &a ) ;
printf (“ Address of b =%u” ,&b ) ;
printf (“Size of a = %d ” , sizeof (a) ) ;
printf ( “Size of b = %d ”, sizeof (b) ) ;
} a b
10 20.00
 Programming For Problem Solving

Out Put :
a=10 b=20.00 1234 5678
Address of a =1 2 3 4
Address of b = 5 6 7 8 Only for this example

Size of a = 2 bytes
Size of b = 4 bytes

EXPRESSION EVALUATION, PRECEDENCE AND ASSOCIATIVITY

 Expressions are evaluated by the „C‟ compiler based on precedence and associativity
rules.
 If an expression contains different priority operators then precedence rules are
considered.


Eg: C = 30 - 10 * 2

20
2

10
3

Here, 10*2 is evaluated first since „*‟ has more priority than „-„ and „=‟
 If an expression contains same priority then assoiciativity rules are considered i.e. left
right (or right to left)
eg: z= a*b/c
z = 40 * 20 / 10 Here „*‟ and „/‟ have same priority so, left to
right associativity is
considered

800
2
z
80
3
 Programming For Problem Solving

Eg: x =5 *4 + 8/2 x = 5 * 4 + 8 / 2

1 2

x = 24
Parenthesis has highest priority and comma has least priority among operators
Type Conversions
Converting one data type into another is the concept of type conversion
2 types
1. Implicit type conversion
2. Explicit type conversion
 Implicit type conversion is automatically done by the compiler by converting smaller data
type into a larger data type.
Eg: int i,x;
float f;
double d;
long int l;
x = l / i + x - f - d

long float

long float

float
`
Float

Double
 Programming For Problem Solving

int double

Here, the above expression finally evaluates to a‟double‟ value

Explicit type conversion is done by the user by using (type) operator
Eg: int a,c;
float b;
c = (int) a + b

int float
float
int
Here, the resultant of „a+b‟ is converted into „int‟ explicitty and then assigned to „c‟
Program:
main ( )
{
Output
printf (“%d”, 5/2); 2
printf (“%f”, 5.5/2); 2.75
printf (“%f”, (float) 5/2); 2.5
}
STORAGE CLASSES
There are 4 storage classes (or) storage class specifiers supported in „C‟ They are:
1) auto
2) extern
3) static
4) register
1. automatic variables / Local variables.
 Keyword : auto
 These are also called local variables
 Scope
o Scope of a local variable is available within the block in which they are declared.
 Programming For Problem Solving

o These variables are declared inside a block

 Default value: garbage value
eg:
main ( )
{
auto int i=1;
{
auto int i=2;
{
auto int i=3; Output
printf (“%d”,i) 3
} 2
printf(“%d”, i); 1
}
printf(“%d”, i);
}
2. global Variables / external variables
 Keyword : extern
 These variables are declared outside the block and so they are also called global variables
 Scope:
Scope of a global variable is available throughout the program.
 Default value: zero

eg:
extern int i =1; /* this „i‟ is available throughout program */
main ( )
{
int i = 3; /* this „i' available only in main */
printf (“%d”, i);
fun ( );
} Output
3
1
 Programming For Problem Solving

fun ( )
{
printf (“%d”, i);
}
3) Static variables
 Keyword : static
 Scope
Scope of a static variable is that it retains its value throughout the program and in
between function calls.
 Static variables are initialized only once.
o Default value: zero
eg:
main ( ) main ( )
{ {
inc ( ); inc ( );
inc ( ); inc ( );
inc ( ); inc ( );
} }
inc ( ) inc ( )
{ {
static int i =1; auto int i=1;
printf (“%d”, i); printf (“%d”, i);
i++; i++;
} }
Output Output
1 2 3 1 1 1

4. Register variables
 Keyword : register
 Register variable values are stored in CPU registers rather than in memory where
normal variables are stored.
 Registers are temporary storage units in CPU
 They allow faster access time for register variables than normal variables
eg:
 Programming For Problem Solving

main ( )
{
register int i;
for (i=1; i< =5; i++)
printf (”%d ”,i);
}
Output
1 2 3 4 5
Scope rules
 Scope rules relate to the accessibility, period of existence and boundary of usage of
variables.
1) Scope rules related to statement Blocks :
 Block is set of statement enclosed in curly braces
 Variables declared in a block are accessible and usable within that block and doesnot
exist outside it
eg: main ( )
{
{
„i' is available within this
int i = 1;
block only
printf (“%d”,i);
}
{
int j=2; „j' is available within this

printf(“%d”,j); block only

}
}
output
1 2
 Even if the variables are redeclared in their respective blocks and with the same name,
they are considered differently
main ( )
 Programming For Problem Solving

{
{
/* Both i‟s are declared in different
int i = 1;
blocks so, they are treated differently
printf (“%d”,i);
even though they have same name */
}
{
int i =2;
printf (“%d”,i);
}
}
Output
1 2
 redeclaration of variables within the blocks bearing the same names as those in the outer
block masks the outer block variables while executing the inner blocks.
eg:
main ( )
{
int i = 1;
/* inner block variable dominates
{
outer block variable with same name
int i = 2;
*/
printf (“%d”,i);
}
}
Output : 2
 Variables declared outside the inner blocks are accessible to the nested blocks, provided
these variable are not declared within the inner block
main ( )
{
int i = 1;
/* „i‟ is available within the inner
{
block also */
int j = 2;
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (“%d”,j);
printf (“%d”,i);
}
}
Output
2 1
2. Scope rules related to functions
 Function is a self contained block that performs a particular task.
 Variables declared within the function body are called local variables
 These variables only exist inside the specific function that creates them. They are
unknown to other functions and to the main functions also
 The existence of local variables ends when the function completes its specific task and
returns to the calling point.
eg:
main ( )
{
int a=10, b = 20;
printf (“before swapping a=%d, b=%d”, a,b);
swap (a,b);
printf (“after swapping a=%d, b=%d”, a,b);
}
swap (int a, int b)
{
int c;
c=a;
a=b;
b=c;
}
Output:
Before swapping a=10, b=20
After swapping a = 10, b=20
 Programming For Problem Solving

 Variables declared outside the function body are called global variables.
 These variables are accessible by any of the functions

eg:
include<stdio.h>
int a=10, b = 20;
main()
{
printf (“before swapping a=%d, b=%d”, a,b);
swap ( );
printf (“after swapping a=%d, b=%d”, a,b);
}
swap ( )
{
int c;
c=a;
a=b;
b=c;
}
Output
Before swapping a = 10, b =20
After swapping a = 20, b = 10

CONTROL STATEMENTS :
Decision statements :
These are used to make a decision among the alternative paths
They are
1. simple – if statement
2. if – else statement
 Programming For Problem Solving

3. nested – if else statement

4. else – if ladder
5. switch statement

1. Simple – if statement
 „if‟ keyword is used to execute a set of statements when the logical condition is true
Syntax :
if (condition)
{
Statement (s)
}

Flow chart
True False
Cond
ition?

Statement (s)

Program /* checking whether a number is greater than 50 */

main ( )
{
int a;
printf (“enter a number”);
scanf (“%d”, &a);
if (a>50)
printf (“%d is greater than 50”, a);
}
 Programming For Problem Solving

Output
1) enter a number 60 2) enter a number 20
60 is greater than 50 no output.

2. if else statement
 If –else statement takes care of true as well as false conditions
 „true block‟ is executed when the condition is true and „false block‟ (or) „else block‟ is
executed when the condition is false.
Syntax:
if (condition)
{
True block statement(s)
}
else

{
False block statement(s)
}

Flow chart
True False
Cond
ition?

True block False block

statement(s) statement (s)

Program
/* checking for even (or) odd number */
main ( )
{
int n;
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (“enter a number”);

scanf (“%d”, &n);
if (n%2 ==0)
printf (“%d is even number”, n);
else
printf( “%d is odd number”, n);
}
Output
1) enter a number 10 2) enter a number 5
10 is even number 5 is odd number
3. Nested if - else statemen
 A „nested if‟ is an if statement that is the object of either if (or) an else
 „if‟ is placed inside another if (or) else
Syntax:
if (condition1)
{
if (condition2)
stmt1;
else
stmt2;
}
else
{
if (condition3)
stmt3;
else
stmt4;
}
 Programming For Problem Solving

Flow chart
True Cond False
ition1

True Condi False True Cond False

tion2 ition3

Stmt1 Stmt2 Stmt3 Stmt4

Program /* largest of 3 numbers */

main ( )
{
int a,b,c;
printf (“enter 3 numbers”);
scanf (“%d%d%d”, &a, &b, &c);
if (a>b)
{ if (a>c)
printf (“%d is largest”, a);
else
printf (“%d is largest”, c);
}
else
{
 Programming For Problem Solving

if (b>c)
printf (“%d is largest”, b);
else
printf (“%d is largest”, c);
}
}
Output
enter 3 numbers = 10 20 30
30 is largest

4. Else – if ladder
 This is the most general way of writing a multi-way decision
Syntax
if (condition1)
stmt1;
else if (condition2)
stmt2;
-----
-----
else if (condition n)
stmtn;
else
stmt x;
flow chart

True Condi False

tion1?

True Condi False

tion2?
Stmt1
------
Stmt2
Condit
ion n?
 Programming For Problem Solving

True False

Stmt n Stmt x

Program /* finding roots of quadratic equation */

#include <math.h>
main ( )
{
int a,b,c,d;
float r1, r2
printf (“enter a,b,c values”);
scanf (“%d%d%d”, &a, &b, &c);
d= b*b – 4*a*c ;
if (d>0)
{
r1 = (-b+sqrt(d)) / (2*a);
r2 = (-b-sqrt(d)) / (2*a);
printf (“root1 = %f, root2 == %f”, r1, r2);
}
else if (d= = 0)
{
r1 = -b / (2*a);
r2 = -b/ (2*a);
printf (“root1 = %f, root2 = %f”, r1, r2);
}
else
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf ("roots are imaginary”);

}
Output
1) enter a,b, c values : 1 4 3
Root 1 = -1
Root 2 = -3
2) enter a,b, c values : 1 2 1
Root 1 = -1
Root 2 = -1
3) enter a,b, c values : 1 2 3
roots are imaginary
5. Switch statement
 It is used to select one among multiple decisions
 „switch‟ successively tests a value against a list of integer (or) character constant.
 When a match is found, the statement (or) statements associated with that value are
executed.
Syntax
switch (expression)
{
case value1 : stmt1;
break;
case value2 : stmt2;
break;
------
default : stmt – x;
}
 Programming For Problem Solving

Flow chart

Switch
(expressi
on)

Exp =value1 Stmt1

| Exp =value2
Stmt2

default Stmt-x

Program
main ( )
{
int n;
printf (“enter a number”);
 Programming For Problem Solving

scanf (“%d”, &n);

switch (n)
{
case 0 : printf (“zero”)
break;
case 1 : printf („one”);
break;
default : printf („wrong choice”);
}
}

Output
enter a number
1
one
Loop control statements
 These are used to repeat set of statements
 They are
1) for loop
2) while loop
3) do-while loop
1) for loop
Syntax
for (initialization ; condition ; increment / decrement)
{
body of the loop
}
Flow chart

False
Initialization Increment/
condition decrement

True

Body of the loop

 Programming For Problem Solving

 for statement contains 3 parts

i) initialization is usually an assignment statement that is used to set the loop control
variable
ii) The condition is a relational expression that determines when the loop will exit.
iii) The increment/decrement part defines how the loop control variable will change each
time loop is repeated.
iv) loop continues to execute as long as the condition is true.
v) Once the condition is false, program continues with the next statement after for loop.
Program
main( )
{ Output
int k; 1

for (k = 1; k<=s; k++) 2

{ 3

printf (”%d”,k); 4

} 5

}
2) while loop
Syntax
while (condition)
{
body of the loop
}
 Programming For Problem Solving

Flow chart
initialization

Is False
expression?

True

Body of the loop

Incr/ dec

 Intialization is done before the loop

 Loop continues as long as the condition is true
 Incrementation and decrementation part is done within the loop

Program
main( )
{
int k; Output
k = 1; 1
while (k< = 5) 2
{
printf (”%d”,k); 3
k++; 4
}
} 5
3) do-while loop
Syntax
Initialization
do
{
body of the loop
 Programming For Problem Solving

inc/ dec
} while (condition);

Flow chart
initialization

Body of the loop

Incr/ dec

True Is
expression?

Program
main( )
{ Output
int k; 1

k = 1; 2

do 3

{ 4

printf (”%d”,k); 5

k++;
} while (k <= 5);
}
Nested for loops
 Programming For Problem Solving

 In nested for loops one (or) more for statements are included in the body of the loop
 The number of iterations in this type of structure will be equal to number of iterations in
the outer loop multiplied by the number of iterations in the inner loop

Program
main( )
{
int i,j; Output
for (i=1; i<=2; i++) 1
{ 2
for (j=1;j<=2; j++)
{ 2
printf (”%d”, i*j); 4
}
} 3
} 6
Execution i*j
i=1 j=1 1
j=2 2
i=2 j=1 2
j=2 4
i=3 j=1 3
j=2 6
Other related statements
1) break
2) continue
3) goto
1) break
 It is a keyword used to terminate the loop (or) exit from the block
 The control jumps to next statement after the loop (or) block
 „break is used with for, while, do-while and switch statement
 When break is used in nested loops then only the innermost loop is terminated
Syntax
{ Stmt1;
Stmt2;
 Programming For Problem Solving

break;
Stmt3;
Stmt4;
}

Program
main( )
{ int i; Output
for (i=1; i<=5; i++) 1

{ 2

printf (”%d”, i); 3

if (i= =3)
break;
}
}

2) continue
 It is a keyword used for continuing the next iteration of the loop
 It skips the statements after the continue statement
 It is used with for, while and do-while
Syntax
{
Stmt1;
Stmt2;
continue;
Stmt3;
Stmt4;
}
Program
main( ) Output
1
{
3
int i;
4
5
 Programming For Problem Solving

for (i=1; i<=5; i++)

{
if (i= =2)
continue,
printf(“%d”, i)
}
}

3) goto
 It is used to after the normal sequence of program execution by transferring the control to
some other part of program

Syntax Forward jump backward jump

goto label; label :stmt
---- ----
---- ----
---- ----
label : stmt goto label;

Program
main( ) Output
Hello
{
you
printf(‟Hello”);
goto l1;
printf(”How are”);
l1: printf(”you”);
}
Command line arguments :
 An executable program that performs a specific task for operating system is called as
command
 These commands are issued from the prompt of operating system.
 Some arguments are to be associated with the commands and hence these are called “
command” line arguments. They are
 Programming For Problem Solving

1) argc ----- argument count

2) argv ----- argument vector
argc : it contains the total number of arguments passed from command prompt
argv : it is a pointer to an array of character strings which contains names of arguments. Each
word is an argument
for eg :
c: |> sample. Exe hello how are you
arguments
Here, argc = 5
argv[0] = sample.exe argv[3] = are
argv[1] = hello argv[4] = you
main ( )
argv [2] = how
{
Program
clrscr ( );
Program for calling a function using pointer to function
display ( );
Program
getch( );
main ( )
}
{
display ( )
int (*p) ( );
{
clrscr ( );
printf (“Hello”);
p = display;
}
*(p) ( );
getch ( );
}
display ( )
{
printf(“Hello”);
}
Output
Hello
 Programming For Problem Solving

ARRAYS
 Array: An array is a group of related data items that share a common name
(or) Homogenous collection of data items that share a common name.
 A particular value in an array is identified using its “index number” or “subscript”
Advantage
 The ability to use a single name to represent a collection of items and to refer to an item
by specifying the item number enables the user to develop concise and efficient programs
Declaring for declaring array
Syntax : for declaring array:

datatype array_name [size];

Eg:
1. float height [50]
This declares „height‟ to be an array containing 50 float elements
2. int group[10]
 This declares the „group‟ as an array to contain a maximum of 10 integer constants
 Individual elements are identified using “ array subscripts”
 While complete set of values are referred to as an array, individual values are called
“elements”
Eg: To represent a set of 5 numbers by an array, it can be declared as follows
int a[5];
 Then computer reserves 5 storage locations each of 2 bytes.
a[0]
a[1]
a[2]
a[3]
a[4]

 First element is identified by subscript „zero‟ i.e., a[0] represents first element of the
array.
 If there are „n‟ elements in array then subscripts range from 0 to n-1
 Programming For Problem Solving

Initialization
To store values into an array it can be done as follows.
a[0] = 10; 10 a[0]
a[1] = 20; 20 a[1]
a[2] = 30; 30 a[2]
a[3] = 40; 40 a[3]
a[4] = 50; 50 a[4]

An array can also be initialized at the time of declaration as follows

int a[5] = { 10,20,30,40,50};
Types of arrays
Arrays are broadly classified into 3 types. They are
1) one – dimensional arrays
2) two – dimensional arrays
3) Multi – dimensional arrays

1. one – dimensional arrays

Syntax: datatype array name [size];
Eg: int a[5];
Initialization;
An array can be initialized in 2 ways.
a) compile time initialization
b) Runtime initialization
Program for compile time initialization and sequential access using for loop
main ( ) storing
{
Int a=
a[0] 10
10, z;
a[1] 20
z= a++;
a[2] 30
printf
a[3] 40
(“z= %d”, z);
printf
(“a=%d”, a);
}
 Programming For Problem Solving

{ a[4] 50
int a[5] = {10,20,30,40,50};
int i;
clrscr ( );
printf (“elements of the array are”);
for ( i=0; i<5; i++)
printf (“%d, a[i]);
getch ( );
}
accessing
Output: Elements of the array are
{
10 20 30 40 50
Int a=
Program for runtime initialization and sequential access using for loop
10, z;
main ( )
z= a++;
{
printf
int a[5],i;
(“z= %d”, z);
clrscr ( );
printf
printf (“enter 5 elements”);
(“a=%d”, a);
for ( i=0; i<5; i++)
} Storing / assigning values to element of an
scanf(”%d”, &a[i]);
array
printf(“elements of the array are”);
for (i=0; i<5; i++)
Accessing the elements of the aray
printf(”%d ”, a[i]);
getch ( );
}
output
enter 5 elements 10 20 30 40 50
elements of the array are : 10 20 30 40 50
Note :
 The output of compile time initialized program will not change during different runs of the
program
 Programming For Problem Solving

 The output of run time initialized program will change for different runs because user is
given a chance of accepting different values during execution.
2. Two – dimensional arrays
 These are used in situations where a table of values have to be stored (or) in matrices
applications
 Syntax :
datatype array_ name [rowsize] [column size];
 Eg: int a[5] [5];
 No of elements in array = rowsize *columnsize = 5*5 = 25
Initialization :
Program for compile time initialization and sequential access using nested for loop
main ( )
{
int a[3][3] = {10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,90}; a[0] [0] a[0] [1] a[0] [2]
int i,j; 10 20 30
clrscr ( );
a[1] [0] a[1] [1] a[1] [2]
printf (“elements of the array are”);
40 50 60
for ( i=0; i<3; i++)
a[2] [0] a[2] [1] a[2] [2]
{
70 80 90
for (j=0;j<3; j++)
{
printf(“%d \t”, a[i] [j]);
}
printf(“\n”);
}
getch ( );
}
output
elements of the array are:
10 20 30
40 50 60
 Programming For Problem Solving

70 80 90
Program for runtime initialization and sequential access using nested for loop
main ( )
{
int a[3][3] ,i,j;
clrscr ( );
printf (“enter elements of array”);
for ( i=0; i<3; i++)
{
for (j=0;j<3; j++)
{
scanf(“%d ”, &a[i] [j]); a[0] [0] a[0] [1] a[0] [2]
} 10 20 30
} a[1] [0] a[1] [1] a[1] [2]
printf(“elements of the array are”); 40 50 60
for ( i=0; i<3; i++) a[2] [0] a[2] [1] a[2] [2]
{ 70 80 90
for (j=0;j<3; j++)
{
printf(“%d\t ”, a[i] [j]);
}
printf(“\n”)
}
getch( );
}
output
Enter elements of array : 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Elements of the array are
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
 Programming For Problem Solving

3. Multi –dimensional arrays

 „C‟ allows arrays of 3 (or) more dimensions
 The exact limit is determined by compiler
Syntax:
 datatype arrayname [size1] [size2] ----- [sizen];
 eg: for 3 – dimensional array:
int a[3] [3] [3];
 No of elements = 3*3*3 = 27 elements
Program
main ( )
{
int a[2][2] [2] = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8};
int i,j,k;
clrscr ( );
printf (“elements of the array are”);
for ( i=0; i<2; i++)
{
for (j=0;j<2; j++)
{
for (k=0;k<2; k++)
{
printf(“%d ”, a[i] [j] [k]);
}
}
}
getch( );
}
Output : Elements of the array are :
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 Programming For Problem Solving

Arrays of pointers: (to strings)

 It is an array whose elements are pointers to the base address of the string
 It is declared and initialized as follows
char *a[ ] = {“one”, “two”, “three”};
Here, a[0] is a pointer to the base address of the string “one”
a[1] is a pointer to the base address of the string “two”
a[2] is a pointer to the base address of the string “three”

o n e \0 t w o \0 t h r e e \0

1234 1238 1242

a [0] 1234
a [1] 1238
a [2] 1242 Array of pointers

Advantage :
 Unlink the two dimensional array of characters. In (array of strings), in array of pointers
to strings there is no fixed memory size for storage.
 The strings occupy only as many bytes as required hence, there is no wastage of space.
Program
main ( )
{
char *a[5] = {“one”, “two”, “three”, “four”, “five”};
int i;
clrscr ( );
printf ( “the strings are”)
for (i=0; i<5; i++)
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (“%s”, a[i]);

getch ( );
}
Output
The strings are : one two three four five

STRINGS
Strings basics:
String : array of characters (or) collection of characters is called a string
Declaration :
char stringname [size];
eg: char a[50]; string of length 50 characters
Initialization
a) using single character constant:
char a[10] = { „H‟, „e‟, „l‟, „l‟, „o‟ ,„\0‟}
„H‟ „e‟ „l‟ „l‟ „o‟ „\0‟
b) using string constants :
char a[10] = “Hello”:;
„H‟ „e‟ „l‟ „l‟ „o‟ „\0‟
„\0‟ is called null character.
It marks the end of the string
„\0‟ is automatically placed by the compiler if a string constant is given as input.
User must take care of placing „\0‟ at the end if single character constants are given.
Accessing:
 There is a control string “%s” used for accessing the string till it encounters „\0‟
Program
main ( )
{
char a[10] = “Hello”;
clrscr ( );
printf ( “ given string is %s”,a)
 Programming For Problem Solving

getch ( );
}
I/o functions
Output : Given string is Hello
Input and output for strings

program : using printf ( ) and scanf ( ) for reading & Input

writing strings. Output
main ( ) scanf ( ) printf ( )
{ gets ( ) puts ( )

char a[30];
printf(“enter your name”);
scanf ( “%s”,a);
printf (“your name is %s”,a);
getch ( );
}
Output
1. Enter your name : Ramu 2. Enter your name : Ram kumar
Your name is Ramu Your name is Ram
Note :
1. „&‟ is not used for accepting string because name of the string itself specifies the base
address of the string
2. space is not accepted as a character by scanf( )
3. „\0‟ is automatically placed by the compiler at the end.

Program : Using gets ( ) and puts ( ) for reading and writing strings.
main ( )
{
char a[30];
printf ( “enter your name”);
gets (a);
printf(“Your name is”);
 Programming For Problem Solving

puts (a);
}
Out put
1. Enter your Name : Ramu 2) Enter your name : Ram kumar
Your name is Ramu Your name is Ram kumar
Note : Space is also accepted as a character by gets ( )
String Library functions
 There are some predefined functions designed for handling strings which are available in
the library “string.h”
They are :
1) strlen ( ) 6. strcmp ( )
2) strcpy ( ) 7. strncmp ( )
3) strncpy ( ) 8. strrev ( )
4) strcat ( ) 9.strstr()
5) strncat ( )
1). strlen ( )
 This function gives the length of the string i.e. the number of characters in a
string.
Syntax:
int strlen (string name)
program
#include <string.h>
main ( )
{
char a[30] = “Hello”;
int l;
l = strlen (a);
printf (“length of the string = %d”, l);
getch ( );
}
Output
 Programming For Problem Solving

length of the string = 5

Note : “\0” will not be counted as a character.
2). strcpy ( )
 This function is used for copying source string into destination string
 The length of the destination string must be greater than (or) equal to that of the source
string
Syntax: strcpy (Destination string, Source String);
Eg:
1) char a[50]; 2) char a[50];
strcpy (“Hello”,a); strcpy ( a,”hello”);
o/p: error o/p: a= “Hello”
program
#include <string.h>
main ( ) a
{
H E l l O \0
char a[50], b[50];
clrscr ( )
H E l l O \0
b
printf (“enter a source string”);
scanf(“%s”, a);
strcpy ( b,a);
printf (“copied string = %s”,b);
getch ( );
}

Output
Enter a source string : Hello
Copied string = Hello
3) strncpy ( )
 This function is used for copying „n‟ characters of source string into destination string
 Programming For Problem Solving

 The length of the destination string must be greater than (or) equal to that of the source
string
Syntax:
strncpy (Destination string, Source String, n);

program
#include <string.h>
main ( )
a
{
H E l l o \o
char a[50], b[50];
clrscr ( ) b
H E l \o
printf (“enter a string”);
gets (a);
strncpy (b,a,3);
b[3] = „\0‟;
printf (“copied string = %s”,b);
getch ( );
}
Output
Enter a string : Hello
Copied string = Hel
s1
It is also used for extracting substrings; J a n 1 0 2 0 1 0 \0
Eg: char result[10], s1[15] = “Jan 10 2010”;
strncpy (result, &s1[4], 2);
result[2] = „\0‟ result
1 0 \o
o/p :Result = 10

4) strcat ( ):
 Programming For Problem Solving

 This is used for combining or concatenating two strings.

 The length of the destination string must be greater than the source string
 The resultant concatenated string will be in the source string.
Syntax:
strcat (Destination String, Source string);
program
#include <string.h>
main()
{
char a[50] = “Hello”;
char b[20] = “Good Morning”;
clrscr ( );
strcat (a,b);
printf(“concatenated string = %s”, a);
getch ( );
}
Output
Concatenated string = Hello Good Morning
5) strncat ( ):
 This is used for combining or concatenating n characters of one string into another.
 The length of the destination string must be greater than the source string
 The resultant concatenated string will be in the source string.

Syntax:
strncat (Destination String, Source string,n);
program
#include <string.h>
main ( )
{
char a [30] = “Hello”;

char b [20] = “Good Morning”;

 Programming For Problem Solving

clrscr ( );
strncat (a,b,4);
a [9] = „\0‟;
printf(“concatenated string = %s”, a);
getch ( );
}

Output
Concatenated string = Hello Good.
String comparison
6) strcmp
 This function compares 2 strings
 It returns the ASCII difference of the first two non – matching characters in both the
strings.
Syntax
int strcmp (string1, string2);
If the difference is equal to zero string1 = string2
If the difference is positive string1> string2
If the difference is negative string1 <string2
eg:
1) char a[10]= “there”
char b[10] = “their” t h e r e \0

strcmp (a,b);
t h e i r \0
Output: string1 >string2
„r‟ > „i‟

2) char a[10]= “their”

char b[10] = “there” t h e i r \0

strcmp (a,b);
t h e r e \0
 Programming For Problem Solving

Output: string1 <string2

„i‟< „r‟
3) char a[10]= “there”
char b[10] = “there” t h e r e \0

strcmp (a,b);
Output: string1 =string2 t h e r e \0

4) char a[10]= “there”

char b[10] = “the” t h e r e \0

strcmp (a,b)
t h e \0
Output: string1 >string2
„r‟ > „\0‟
5) char a[10]= “the”
char b[10] = “there” t h e \0

strcmp (a,b);
t h e r e \0
Output: string1 <string2
„\0‟ < „r‟
Program
main ( )
{
char a[50] b [50];
int d;
clrscr( );
printf (“enter 2 strings”);
scanf (“%s %s”, a,b);
d = strcmp (a,b);
if (d==0)
printf(“%s is equal to %s”, a,b);
else if (d>0)
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf(“%s is greater than %s”,a,b);

else if (d<0)
printf(“%s is less than %s”, a,b);
getch ( );
}

7. strncmp ( )
 This function is used for comparing first „n‟ characters of 2 strings
Syntax :
strncmp ( string1, string2, n)
Eg: char a[10] = “the”;
char b[10] = “there”
strncmp (a,b,3);
Output : Both strings are equal
8. strrev( )
 The function is used for reversing a string
 The reversed string will be stored in the same string
Syntax : strrev (string)
Program
main ( )
{
char a[50] ;
clrscr( );
printf (“enter a string”);
gets (a);
strrev (a);
printf(“reversed string = %s”,a)
getch ( );
}
Output : enter a string Hello
 Programming For Problem Solving

Reverse string = olleH

9.strstr():
 It is used to search whether a substring is present in the main string or not.
 It returns pointer to first occurrence of s2 in s1
Syntax : strstr(mainsring,substring);
Program
void main()
{
char a[30],b[30];
char *found;

clrscr();

printf("Enter a string:\t");
gets(a);

printf("Enter the string to be searched for:\t");

gets(b);

found=strstr(a,b);

if(found)
printf("%s is found in %s in %d position",a,b,found-a);
else
printf("-1 since the string is not found");
getch();
}

Output:

Enter a string: how are you

Enter the string to be searched for: you
you is found in 8 position
 Programming For Problem Solving

STRUCTURES AND UNIONS

Introduction :
 Structure : It is a collection of different datatype variables, grouped together under a
single name. (or) It is heterogenous collection of data items that share a common name
Features of structure
1. It is possible to copy the contents of all structure elements of different datatypes to
another structure variable of its type using assignment operator
2. To handle complex datatypes, it is possible to create structure within another structure,
which is called nested structures.
3. It is possible to pass entire structure, individual elements of structure and address of
structure to a function
4. It is possible to create structure pointers
Declaration and initialization of structures.
General form of structure declaration
struct tagname
{
datatype member1;
datatype member2;
datatype member n;
};
Here, struct - keyword
tagname - specifies name of structure
member1, member2 - - specifies the data items that make up structure.
Eg:
struct book
{
int pages;
char author [30];
float price;
};
 Programming For Problem Solving

Structure variables
There are 3 ways of declaring structure variables

1) struct book
{
int pages;
char author[30];
float price;
}b;
2) struct
Note : Tagname can be ignored if the
{
variable is declared of the time of defining
int pages;
structure
char author[30];
float price;
}b;
3) struct book
{
int pages;
char author[30];
float price;
};
struct book b;
Initialization and accessing of structures
 The link between a member and a structure variable is established using member operator
(or) dot operator
 Initialization can be done in the following ways
1. struct book
{
int pages;
char author[30];
float price;
 Programming For Problem Solving

} b = {100, “balu”, 325.75};

2. struct book
{
int pages;
char author[30];
float price;
};
struct book b = {100, “balu”, 325.75};
3. using member operator
struct book
{
int pages;
char author[30];
float price;
};
struct book b;
b. pages = 100;
strcpy (b.author, “balu”);
b.price = 325.75;
4. using scanf ( )
struct book
{
int pages;
char author[30];
float price;
};
struct book b;
scanf (“%d”, &b.pages);
scanf (“%s”, b.author);
scanf (“%f”, &b. price);
main ( )
 Programming For Problem Solving

{
struct book b;
clrscr ( );
printf ( “enter no of pages, author, price of book”);
scanf (“%d%s%f”, &b.pages, b.author, &b.price);
printf(“ Details of book are”);
printf(“pages =%d, author = %s, price = %f”, b.pages, b.author, b.price);
getch();
}
Structure within structure (or) Nested structures
 Creating a structure inside another structure is called nested structure
 Consider the following example
struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[30];
float sal;
float da;
float hra;
float ea;
}e;
 This is structure defines eno, ename, sal and 3 kinds of allowances. All the items related
to allowances can be grouped together and declared under a sub – structure as shown
below.
stuct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[30];
float sal;

struct allowance
 Programming For Problem Solving

{
float da;
float hra;
float ea;
}a;
}e;
 The inner most member in a nested structure can be accessed by changing all the
concerned structure variables (from outer most to inner most) with the member using dot
operator
Eg :
e.eno; e.ename e.sal;
e.a.da; e.a.hra; e.a.ea;

Program
struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename[30];
float sal;
struct allowance
{
float da;
float hra;
float ea;
}a;
}e;
main ( )
{
clrscr ( );
printf(“enter eno, ename, salary”);
scanf (“%d%s%f”, &e.eno, e.ename, &e.sal);
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (“enter da, hra, ea, values”);

scanf (“%f%f%f‟‟, &e.a.da, &e.a.hra, &e.a.ea);
printf(“employee details are”)
printf (“number = %d”, e.eno);
printf (“name = %s”, e.ename);
printf(“salary = %f”, e.sal);
printf(“Dearness Allowance = %f”, e.a.da);
printf (“House Rent Allowance = %f”, e.a.hra);
printf(“City Allowance = %f”, e.a.ea);
getch ( )
}
Array of structures:
 The most common use of structure is array of structures
 To declare an array of structures, first the structure must be defined and then an array
variable of that type.
Eg: struct book b[10]; 10 elements in an array of structures of type „book‟
Program for accepting and printing details of 10 students

struct student
{
int sno;
char sname[30];
float marks;
};
main ( )
{
struct student s[10];
int i;
clrscr ( );
for (i=0; i<10; i++)
{
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf(“enter details of students%d”, i+1);

scanf (“%d%s%f”, & s[i]. sno, s[i]. sname, &s[i].marks);
}
for (i=0; i<10; i++)
{
printf (“the details of student %d are”, i+1);
printf (“Number = %d”, s[i]. sno);
printf (“name = %s”, s[i]. sname);
printf (“marks =%f”, s[i]. marks);
}
getch ( );
}
Pointer to structure:
 It holds the address of the entire structure .
 Mainly these are used to create complex data structures such as linked lists, trees, graphs
and so on.
 The members of the structure can be accessed using a special operator called arrow
operator ( ).
Declaration
struct tagname *ptr;
eg; struct student *s;
Accessing ;
ptr membername;
eg: ssno, ssname, smarks;
struct student
{
int sno;
char sname[30];
float marks;
};
main ( )
 Programming For Problem Solving

{
struct student s;
struct student *st;
clrscr ( );
printf(“enter sno, sname, marks”);
scanf (“%d%s%f”, & s.sno, s.sname, &s. marks);
st = &s;
printf (“details of the student are”);
printf (“Number = %d”, st sno);
printf (“name = %s”, stsname);
printf (“marks =%f”, st marks);
getch ( );
}

Union
Def : A union is a memory location that is shared by several variables of different data types.
Syntax:
union uniontag
{
datatype member 1;
datatype member 2;
----
----
datatype member n;
};
Eg:
union sample
{
int a;
float b;
 Programming For Problem Solving

char c;
};
Declaration of union variable
1) union sample
{
int a;
float b; 4bytes
char c; s
}s;
a
2) union b
{ c
int a;
float b;
char c;
}s;
3) union sample
{
int a;
float b;
char c;
};
union sample s;

 when a union is declared, the compiler automatically creates a variable large enough to
hold the largest variable type in the union.
 At any time only one variable can be referred.

Initialization and accessing

 To access a union member, the same syntax as that of the structure is used
 The dot operator is used for accessing members normally
 Programming For Problem Solving

 The arrow operator ( ) is used for accessing the members using pointer
program
union sample
{
int a;
float b;
char c;
}
main ( )
{
union sample s = {10, 20.5, „A‟};
clrscr( );
printf(“a=%d”,s.a);
printf(“b=%f”,s.b);
printf(“c=%c”,s.c);
getch ( );
}
Output
a = garbage value Only the variable that is stored at last will
b = garbage value retain its value

c=A

Differences between structures and Unions

Structure Union
1. Definition 1. Definition
Structure is heterogenous collection of data A union is a memory location that is shared by
items grouped together under a single name several variables of different datatypes.

2. syntax; 2. syntax;
struct tagname union tagname
{ {
 Programming For Problem Solving

datatype member1; datatype member1;

datatype member2; datatype member2;
----- -----
----- -----
----- -----
}; };
3. Eg: 3. Eg:
struct sample union sample
{ {
int a; int a;
float b; float b;
char c; char c;
}; };
4. Keyword : struct 4. Keyword : union
5. Memory allocation 5. Memory allocation
a 2 bytes
b 4 bytes 4 bytes
c 1 byte a
7 bytes b
c
6. Memory allocated is the sum of sizes of all 6. Memory allocated is the maximum size
the datatypes in structure allocated among all the datatypes in union
(Here, 7bytes) (Here, 4bytes)

7. Only one member will be residing in the

7. Memory is allocated for all the members of memory at any particular instance
the structure differently
 Programming For Problem Solving

Union of structures
 A structure can be nested inside a union and it is called union of structures
 It is also possible to create a union inside a structure
Program
struct x
{
int a;
float b;
};
union z
{
struct x s;
};
main ( )
{
union z u;
clrscr ( );
u.s.a = 10;
u.s.b = 30.5;
printf(“a=%d”, u.s.a);
printf(“b=%f”, u.s.b);
getch ( );
}
Output
a= 10
b = 30.5
Typedef ;
 „C‟ allows to define new datatype names using the „typedef‟ keyword
 Using „typedef‟, user will not actually create a new datatype but define a new name for
an existing type.
Syntax :
 Programming For Problem Solving

typedef datatype newname;

eg :
typedef int num; int a;
num a;
 This statement tells the compiler to recognize „num‟ as another name for „int‟.
 „num‟ is used to create another variable „a‟ .
 „num a‟declares „a‟ as a variable of type „int‟.
Program
main ( )
{
typedef int hours;
hours h;
clrscr ( );
printf(“enter hours”);
scanf (“%d”, &h);
printf(“Minutes =%d”, h*60);
printf(“Seconds = %d”, h*60*60);
getch ( );
}
Output : Enter hours =1
Minutes = 60
Seconds = 360
Example for typedefining a structure
typedef employee
{
int eno;
char ename[30];
float sal;
} emp;
main ( )
{
 Programming For Problem Solving

emp e = {10, “ramu”, 5000};

clrscr( );
printf(“number = %d”, e.eno);
printf(“name = %d”, e.ename);
printf(“salary = %d”, e.sal);
getch ( );
}
Bit Fields
 These are used to change the order of allocation of memory from bytes to bits
 A bit field is a set of adjacent bits whose size can be from 1 to 16 bits in length
 There are occasions where data items require much less than 16 bits of space. In such
cases memory will be wasted. Bit fields can pack several data items in a word of memory
Syntax
datatype name : bit – length;
 The datatype can be either int (or) unsigned int (or) signed int.
 Bit length specifies the number of bits
 The largest value that can be stored is 2n – 1, where „n‟ is bit length
NOTE :
1) Bit fields cannot be arrayed
2) scanf ( ) cannot be used to read values into bit fields
3) cannot use pointer to access the bit fields
4) Bit fields should be assigned values within the range of their size
Bit Length Range of values
1 0 to 1
2 0 to 3 (22-1)
3 0 to 7 (23-1)
n 0 to 2n-1
Eg:
1) struct pack
{
int count;
 Programming For Problem Solving

unsigned a : 2;
unsigned b : 3;
};
Here, count will be in 2 bytes. „a‟ and „b‟ will be packed into next 1 byte
2) struct pack
{
unsigned a : 2;
int count;
unsigned b : 3;
};
Here, „a‟ will be in 1 byte, „count‟ in 2 bytes and „b‟ in 1 bytes.
Note ;
1. Bit Fields are packed into words as they appear in the definition
2. All unsigned bit fields must be placed in order for effectively using the memory

Program
struct vehicle
{
unsigned type : 3; Note: Instead of 6 bytes only 1 byte of
memory
unsigned fuel : 2; will be allocated
unsigned model : 3;
};
main ( )
{
struct vehicle v;
v.type = 4;
v. fuel = 2;
v. model = 5;
printf (“type of vehicle =%d”, v.type);
printf (“fuel =%d”, v.fuel);
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (“model =%d”, v.model);

}
Enumerated Data type
 These are used by the programmers to create their own data types and define what values
the variables of these datatypes can hold.
Keyword : enum
Syntax :
enum tagname
{
identifier1, identifier2,…….,identifier n
};
eg :
enum week
{
mon,tue, wed, thu, fri, sat, sun
};
 Here, with identifier values are constant unsigned integers and start from 0.
 Mon refers 0, tue refers 1 and so on.

Program :
main ( )
{
enum week {mon, tue, wed, thu, fri, sat, sun};
clrscr ( );
printf (“Monday = %d”, mon);
printf (“Thursday = %d”, thu);
printf (“Sunday = %d”, sun);
}
Output : Monday = 0
Thursday =3
Sunday =6
 Programming For Problem Solving

 enum identifiers can also be assigned initial value.

Program
main ( )
{
enum week {mon=1, tue, wed, thu, fri, sat, sun};
clrscr ( );
printf (“Monday = %d”, mon);
printf (“Thursday = %d”, thu);
printf (“Sunday = %d”, sun);
}
Output : Monday = 1
Thursday =4
Sunday =7
POINTERS

Pointer : Pointer is a variable that stores the address of another variable.

Features of Pointers
 Pointer saves the memory space
 Execution time with pointer is faster because data is manipulated with the address i.e.
direct access to memory location
 The memory is accessed efficiently with the pointer i.e. dynamically memory is allocated
and deallocated
 Pointers are used with data structures
Pointer declaration, initialization and accessing.
Consider the following statement :
int qty = 179;
The representation of the variable in memory is as follows

qty Variable

179 value

5000 Address
 Programming For Problem Solving

Declaring a pointer

int *p;

It means „p‟ is a pointer variable that holds the address of another integer variable.
Initialization of a pointer
 Address operator (&) is used to initialize a pointer variable.
Eg: int qty = 175;
int *p; Variable value Address
qty 175 5000
p= &qty;
p 5000 5048

Accessing a variable through its pointer

 To access the value of the variable, indirection operator (*) is used.
eg : int qty = 175, *p,n;

p = &qty;

n = *p;

„*‟ can be treated as value at address

 The 2 statements are equivalent to the following statement
p = &qty;
n = *p; n =qty
Program
main ( )
 Programming For Problem Solving

{
int x,y;
int *p; x y
10 25 10
clrscr ( );
x= 10; p 5000

p = &x;
y= *p;
printf (“Value of x = %d”, x);
printf (“x is stored at address %u”, &x);
printf (“Value of x using pointer = %d”, *p);
printf (“address of x using pointer = %u”, p);
printf (“value of x in y = %d”, y);
*p = 25;
printf (“now x = %d”, x)
getch ( );
}
Output
Value of x = 10
x is stored at address = 5000
Address of x using pointer = 10
Address of x using pointer = 5000
Value of x in y = 10
Now x = 25
Pointers and arrays
 Continuous memory locations are allocated for all the elements of the array by the
compiler
 The base address is the location of the first element (index 0) of the array.
Eg : int a [5] = {10, 20,30,40,50};
The five elements are stored as follows
Elements a[0] a[1] a[2] a[3] a[4]
Value 10 20 30 40 50
 Programming For Problem Solving

Address 1000 1002 1004 1006 1008

base address
a= &a[0]=1000
if „p‟ is declared as integer pointer, then the array „a‟ can be pointed by the following assignment

p = a;

(or) p = &a[0];

 Every value of „a‟ can be accessed by using p++ to move from one element to another.
When a pointer is incremented, its value is increased by the size of the datatype that it
points to. This length is called the “scale factor”
 The relationship between „p‟ and „a‟ is shown below
P = &a[0] = 1000
P+1 = &a[1] = 1002
P+2 = &a[2] = 1004
P+3 = &a[3] = 1006

P+4 = &a[4] = 1008

 Address of an element is calculated using its index and the scale factor of the datatype.
For eg:

Address of a[3] = base address + (3* scale factor of int)

= 1000 + (3*2)
= 1000 +6
= 1006

 instead of using array indexing, pointers can be used to access array elements.
 *(p+3) gives the value of a[3]
a[i] = *(p+i)
 Programming For Problem Solving

Program
main ( )
{
int a[5];
int *p,i;
clrscr ( );
printf (”Enter 5 lements”);
for (i=0; i<5; i++)
scanf (“%d”, &a[i]);
p = &a[0];
printf (“Elements of the array are”);
for (i=0; i<5; i++)
printf(“%d”, *(p+i));
getch( );
}
Output
Enter 5 elements : 10 20 30 40 50
Elements of the array are : 10 20 30 40 50
Array of pointers
 It is collection of addresses (or) collection of pointers
Declaration
datatype *pointername [size];
eg: int *p[5]; It represents an array of pointers that can hold 5 integer element addresses
p[0] p[1] p[2] p[3] p[4]

Initialization
„&‟ is used for initialization
Eg : int a[3] = {10,20,30};
int *p[3], i;
for (i=0; i<3; i++) (or) for (i=0; i<3,i++)
p[i] = &a[i];
 Programming For Problem Solving

p[i] = a+i;

Accessing
Indirection operator (*) is used for accessing
Eg: for (i=0, i<3; i++)
printf (”%d”, *p[i]);
Program
main ( )
{
int a[3] = {10,20,30};
int *p[3],i;
for (i=0; i<3; i++)
p[i] = &a[i];
printf (elements of the array are”)
for (i=0; i<3; i++)
printf (”%d \t”, *p[i]);
getch();
}
Output elements at the array are : 10 20 30
 Programming For Problem Solving

PREPROCESSOR COMMANDS & FILES

Preprocessor commands
 „preprocessor‟ is a program that processes the source code before it passes through the
compiler
 It operates under the control of preprocessor directives which begin with the symbol #
3 types
1) Macro substitution directives
2) File inclusion directives
3) compiler control directives
1) Macro substitution directives
 It replaces every occurence of the identifier by a predefined string.
Syntax for defining a macro
# define identifier string
Eg: #define PI 3.1415
#define f(x) x *x
#undef PI
Program Program
#define wait getch( ) #define wait getch( )
main ( ) main ( )
{ {
clrscr ( ); #undef wait;
printf (“Hello”); clrscr ( );
wait ; printf (“Hello”);
} wait ;
Output: }
Hello Output
Error since wait is undefined before using it
2. File inclusion directives:
 An external file containing functions (or) macro definitions can be included using
#include directive
 Programming For Problem Solving

Syntax
# include <filename> (or) #include “filename”
Eg:
#include <stdio.h>
Output
main ( )
Hello
{
printf (“hello”);
}
The definition of the function printf ( ) is present in <stdio.h>header file.
3. Compiler control directives
 C pre processor offers a feature known as conditional compilation, which can be used to
switch ON (or) OFF a particular line (or) group of lines in a program.
Eg: #if, #else, #endif etc.
#define LINE 1
main ( )
{ Output
#ifdef LINE This is line number one
printf (”this is line number one”);
#else
printf(„This is line number two”);
#endif
}

FILE :
Definition :It is collection of records (or) It is a place on hard disk where data is stored
permanently.
Types of Files: (1)Text file
(2)Binary File
1. Text File : It contains alphabets and numbers which are easily understood by human beings.
2. Binary file : It contains 1‟s and 0‟s which are easily understood by computers.
 Based on the data that is accessed, files are classified in to
 Programming For Problem Solving

(1) Sequential files

(2) Random access files
(1) Sequential files: Data is stored and retained in a sequential manner.
(2) Random access Files : Data is stored and retrieved in a random way.
Operations on files : 1. Naming the file
2. Opening the file
3. Reading from the file
4. Writing into the file
5. Closing the file
Syntax for opening and naming file.
1) FILE *File pointer;
Eg : FILE * fp;
2) File pointer = fopen (“File name”, “mode”);
Eg : fp = fopen (“sample.txt”, “w”);

FILE *fp;
fp = fopen (“sample.txt”, “w”);

Modes of the opening the file :

r - File is opened for reading
w - File is opened for writing
a - File is opened for appending (adding)
r+ - File is opened for both reading & writing
w+ - File is opened for both writing & reading
a+ - File is opened for appending & reading
rt - text file is opened for reading
wt - text file is opened for writing
at - text file is opened for appending
r+t - text file is opened for reading & writing
w+t - text file is opened for both writing & reading
 Programming For Problem Solving

a+t - text file is opened for both appending & reading

rb - binary file is opened for reading
wb - binary file is opened for writing
ab - binary file is opened for appending
r+b - binary file is opened for both reading & writing
w+b - binary file is opened for both writing & reading
a+b - binary file is opened for both appending & reading.
1) Write mode of opening the file
FILE *fp;
fp =fopen (“sample.txt”, “w”);
a) If the file does not exist then a new file will be created
b) If the file exists then old content gets erased & current content will be stored.
2. Read mode of opening the file:
FILE *fp
fp =fopen (“sample.txt”, “r”);
a) If the file does not exists, then fopen function returns NULL value.
b) If the file exists then data is read from the file successfullly
3. Append mode of opening a file
FILE *fp;
fp =fopen (“sample.txt”, “a”);
a) If the file doesn‟t exists, then a new file will be created.
b) If the file exists, the current content will be appended to the old content
Mode Exist Not exist
r Read fp = “NULL”
Current New file will be created
w
content

New file will be created

a Old content
Current content
 Programming For Problem Solving

I/O STREAMS:
Stream : flow of data
scanf( )
Keyboard Input stream „C‟
Program

printf()
Monitor Output stream

I/0 functions:

1) high level I/o

 These are easily understood by human beings
 Advantage: portability.
2) Low level I/o
 These are easily understood by computer
 Advantages. Execution time is less
 Disadvantage: Non protability
High level I/o Functions
1) fprintf ( ) - to write data into a file
2) fscanf ( ) - To read data from a file
3) putc ( )/ fputc() - to write a character into a file
4) getc ( ) /fgetc() - to read a character from a file
5) putw ( ) - To write a number into a file
6) getw ( ) - To read number from a file
7) fputs ( ) - To write a string into a file
8) fgets ( ) - To read a string from a file
9)fread() - To read an entire record from a file
 Programming For Problem Solving

10)fwrite() - To write an entire record into a file

fprint ( ) & fscanf ( ) functions

1) fprint ( )
Syntax : fprintf (file pointer, “ control string”, variable list)
Eg: FILE *fp;
fprintf (fp, “%d%c”, a,b);

2) fscanf ( )
Syntax : fscanf(file pointer, “control string”, & variable list);
Eg: FILE *fp;
fscanf (fp, “%d%c”, &a,&b);

Program for storing the details of an employee in a file and print the same

main ( )
{
FILE *fp;
int eno;
char ename [30];
float sal;
clrscr ( );
fp =fopen (“emp.txt”, “w”);
printf (“enter the details of eno, ename, sal”);
scanf (“%d%s%f”, &eno, ename, &sal);
fprintf (fp, “%d%s%f”, eno, ename, sal);
fclose (fp);
fp = fopen (“emp.txt”, “r”);
fscanf (fp, “%d%s%f”, &eno, ename, &sal);
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (“employee no: = %d”, eno);

printf (“employee name = %s”, ename);
printf (“salary = %f”, sal);
fclose (fp);
getch( );
}
Program for storing the details of 60 employers in a file and print the same
main ( )
{
FILE *fp;
int eno, i;
char ename [80];
float sal;
clrscr ( );
fp = fopen (“emp1. txt”, “w”);
for (i=1; i<60; i++)
{
printf (“enter the eno, ename, sal of emp%d”, i);
scanf (“%d%s%f”, &eno, ename, &sal);
fprintf (fp, “%d %s %f”, eno, ename, sal);
}
fclose (fp);
fp = fopen (“emp1.txt”, “r”);
for (i=1; i<60; i++)
{
fscanf(fp, “%d %s %f”, &eno, ename, &sal);
printf (“details of employee %d are \n”, i);
printf (“eno = %d, ename = %s, sal = %f”, eno, ename, sal);
}
fclose (fp);
getch ( );
 Programming For Problem Solving

putc( ) and getc( ) functions:

1) putc ( ): It is used for writing a character into a file
Syntax :
putc (char ch, FILE *fp);
Eg : FILE *fp;
char ch;
putc(ch, fp);
2) get c ( ) : It is used to read a character from file
Syntax :
char getc (FILE *fp);
Eg: FILE *fp;
char ch;
ch = getc(fp);

Keyboard getchar ( ) putc ( )

file

Monitor putchar ( ) getc ( )

Program :
main ( )
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
clrscr ( );
fp = fopen (“characters.txt”, “w”);
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (“enter text. press ctrl+z at the end”);

while ((ch = getchar ( ))! = EOF)
{
putc(ch, fp);
}
fclose (fp);
fp =open (“characters. txt”, “r”);
printf (“file content is \n”);
while ((ch = getc (fp))! = EOF)
{
putchar (ch);
}
fclose (fp);
getch ();
}
Output:
Enter text press ctrl+z at the end.
Hello how r u ^z
File Content is
Hello How r u
putw ( ) and getw ( ) functions:
1. putw( ) : It is used for writing a number into file.
Syntax: putw (int num, FILE *fp);
Eg: FILE *fp;
int num;
putw(num, fp);
2. getw ( ): It is used for reading a number from a file
Syntax :
int getw (FILE *fp);
Eg : FILE *fp;
int num;
 Programming For Problem Solving

num = getw(fp);
putw ( )
Keyboard scanf (“%d”)
File

Monitor printf (“%d”) getw ( )

Program for storing no‟s from 1 to 10 and print the same

main ( )
{
FILE *fp;
int i;
clrscr ( );
fp = fopen (“number. txt”, “w”);
for (i =1; i< = 10; i++)
{
putw (i, fp);
}
fclose (fp);
fp =fopen (“number. txt”, “r”);
printf (“file content is ”);
for (i =1; i< = 10; i++)
{
i= getw(fp);
printf (“%d”,i);
}
fclose (fp);
getch ( );
}
Program for copying the contents of one file into another file
main ( )
{
FILE *fp1, *fp2;
 Programming For Problem Solving

char ch;
clrscr ( );
fp1 = fopen (“file1.txt”, “w”);
printf (“enter text press ctrl+z at the end”);
while ((ch = getchar ( ))! = EOF)
{
putc(ch, fp1);
}
fclose (fp1);
fp1 =fopen (“file1. txt”, “r”);
fp2 =fopen (“file2. txt”, “w”);
while ((ch = getc (fp1))! = EOF)
{
putc(ch,fp2);
}
fclose (fp1);
fclose (fp2);
fp2 = fopen (“file2.txt”, “r”);
printf (“File2 contents are”);
while ((ch = getc(fp2))! = EOF)
putchar (ch);
fclose (fp2);
getch ();
}
Program for displaying the contents of a file
main ( )
{
FILE *fp;
char ch ;
clrscr ( );
fp = fopen (“file1.txt”,”r”);
 Programming For Problem Solving

if (fp = = NULL)
{
printf (“File does not exist”);
}
else
{
printf (“file content is”)
while ((ch = getc(fp))! = EOF)
putchar (ch);
}
fclose (fp);
getch ( );
}
Program to merge two files into a third file. (the contents of file1, file2 are placed in file3)
main ( )
{
FILE *fp1, *fp2, *fp3;
char ch;
clrscr ( );
fp1 = fopen (“file1.txt”, “w”);
printf (“enter text into file1”);
while ((ch = getchar ( ))! = EOF)
{
putc(ch, fp1);
}
fclose (fp1);
fp2 = fopen (“file2.txt”, “r”);
printf (“enter text into file2”);
while ((ch = getchar ( ))! = EOF)
putc(ch, fp2);
fclose (fp2);
 Programming For Problem Solving

fp1 =fopen (“file1. txt”, “r”);

fp2 =fopen (“file2. txt”, “r”);
fp3 =fopen (“file3. txt”, “w”);
while ((ch = getc (fp1))! = EOF)
putc(ch,fp3);
while ((ch = getc (fp2))! = EOF)
putc(ch,fp3);
fclose(fp1);
fclose (fp2);
fclose (fp3);
fp3 = fopen (“file3.tx”, “r”);
printf (“File3 contents is”);
while ((ch = getc(fp3))! = EOF)
purchar (ch);
fclose (fp3);
getch ();
}

fput c ( ) and fgetc ( ) functions :

1) fputc( ) : It is used for writing a character in to a file .
Syntax :
fputc (char ch, FILE *fp);
Eg : FILE *fp;
char ch;
fputc (ch.fp);
2. fgetc( ) : This is used for reading a character from a file
Syntax :
fputc (char ch, FILE *fp);
Eg : FILE *fp;
char ch;
 Programming For Problem Solving

ch = fgetc(fp);

fgets ( ) and fputs ( ) functions :

1) fgets ( ) : It is used for reading a string from a file
Syntax :
fgets (string variable, No. of characters, File pointer);
Eg : FILE *fp;
char str [30];
fgets (str,30,fp);
2) fputs ( ) : It is used for writing a string into a file
Syntax :
fputs (string variable, file pointer);
Eg : FILE *fp;
char str[30];
fputs (str,fp);
File
Keyboard gets ( ) fputs ( )

puts ( )
Monitor fgets ( )

Program :
main ( )
{
FILE *fp;
char str [30];
int i,n;
clrscr ( );
printf (“enter no of strings”);
scanf (“%d”, & n);
fp = fopen („strings.txt”, “w”);
for (i=1; i<=n; i++)
{
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (”enter string %d”,i);

gets (str);
fputs (str, fp);
}
fclose (fp);
fp = fopen (”strings.txt”, ”r”);
for (i=1; i<=n; i++)
{
fgets (str, 30, fp);
printf (”string %d =”, i);
puts (str);
}
fclose (fp);
getch ( );
}
fread ( ) and fwrite ( ) functions
1. fread ( ) : It is used for reading entire record at a time.
Syntax : fread( & structure variable, size of (structure variable), no of records, file pointer);
Eg : struct emp
{
int eno;
char ename [30];
float sal;
} e;
FILE *fp;
fread (&e, sizeof (e), 1, fp);
2. fwrite ( ) : It is used for writing an entire record at a time.
Syntax : fwrite( & structure variable , size of structure variable, no of records, file pointer);
Eg : struct emp
{
int eno:
 Programming For Problem Solving

char ename [30];

float sal;
} e;
FILE *fp;
fwrite (&e, sizeof(e), 1, fp);
program for storing the details of 60 students into a file and print the same using
fread ( ) and fwrite ( )
struct student
{
int sno;
char sname [30];
float marks;
};
main ( )
{
struct student s[60];
int i;
FILE *fp;
clrscr ( );
fp = fopen (“student1. txt”, “w”);
for (i=0; i<60; i++)
{
printf (“enter details of student %d”, i+1);
scanf (“%d%s%f”. &s[i].sno,s[i].sname, &s[i].marks);
fwrite (&s[i], sizeof (s[i]), 1, fp);
}
fclose (fp);
fp = fopen (“student1. txt”, “r”);
for (i=0; i<60; i++)
{
printf (“details of student %d are”, i+1);
 Programming For Problem Solving

fread (&s[i], sizeof (s[i]) ,1,fp);

printf(“student number = %d”, s[i]. sno.);
printf(“student name = %s”, s[i]. sname.);
printf(“marks = %f”, s[i]. marks);
}
fclose (fp)
getch( );
}
ERROR HANDLING IN FILES:-
 Some of the errors in files are
1. Trying to read beyond end of file
2. Device over flow
3. Trying to open an invalid file
4. Performing a invalid operation by opening a file in a different mode.

Functions for error handling.

1) ferror ( )
2) perror ( )
3) feof ( )
1. ferror ( )
It is used for detecting an error while performing read / write operations.
Syntax :
int ferror (file pointer);
eg : FILE *fp;
if (ferror (fp))
printf (“error has occurred”);
it returns zero if success and a non- zero otherwise.
2. perror ( )
It is used for printing an error.
Syntax :
perror (string variable);
 Programming For Problem Solving

Eg : FILE *fp;
char str[30] = ”Error is”;
perror (str);
O/P : Error is : error 0

Program :
main ( )
{
FILE *fp;
char str[30] = “error is”;
int i = 20;
clrscr ( );
fp = fopen (“sample. txt”, “r”);
if (fp = = NULL)
{
printf (“file doesnot exist”);
}
else
{
fprintf (fp, “%d”, i);
if (ferror (fp))
{
perror (str);
printf (“error since file is opened for reading only”);
}
fclose (fp);
getch ( );
}
O/P: Error is : Error1 compiler generated.
Error since file is opened for reading by us.
3. feof ( )
 Programming For Problem Solving

It is used for checking whether end of the file has been reached (or) not.
Syntax :
int feof ( file pointer);
Eg : FILE *fp;
if (feof (fp))
printf (“reached end of the file”);
If returns a non zero if success and zero otherwise.
Program:
main ( )
{
FILE *fp;
int i,n;
clrscr ( );
fp = fopen (“number. txt”, “w”);
for (i=0; i<=100;i= i+10)
{
putw (i, fp);
}
fclose (fp);
fp = fopen (“number. txt”, “r”);
printf (“file content is”);
for (i=0; i<=100; i++)
{
n = getw (fp);
if (feof (fp))
{
printf (“reached end of file”);
break;
}
else
{
 Programming For Problem Solving

printf (“%d”, n);

}
}
fclose (fp);
getch ( );
}
Outpute : File content is
10 20 30 40 50
60 70 80 90 100
Reached end of the file.

Other file functions

Random accessing of files
1. ftell ( )
2. rewind ( )
3. fseek ( )
1. ftell ( ) : It returns the current postion of the file pointer
Syntax : int n = ftell (file pointer)
Eg : FILE *fp;
int n;
_____
_____
_____
n = ftell (fp);
Note : ftell ( ) is used for counting the no of characters entered into a file.

2. rewind ( )
It makes the file pointer move to the beginning of the file.
Syntax: rewind (file pointer);
Eg : FILE *fp;
-----
 Programming For Problem Solving

-----
rewind (fp);
n = ftell (fp);
printf (“%d”, n);
o/p: 0 (always).
3. fseek ( )
It is used to make the file pointer point to a particular location in a file.
Syntax: fseek(file pointer,offset,position);
offset :
 The no of positions to be moved while reading or writing.
 If can be either negative (or) positive.
Positive - forward direction.
Negative – backward direction .
position :
 it can have 3 values.
0 – Beginning of the file
1 – Current position
2 – End of the file

Eg :
1. fseek (fp,0,2) - fp is moved 0 bytes forward from the end of the file.
2. fseek (fp, 0, 0) – fp is moved 0 bytes forward from beginning of the file
3. fseek (fp, m, 0) – fp is moved m bytes forward from the beginning of the file.
4. fseek (fp, -m, 2) – fp is moved m bytes backward from the end of the file.
Errors :
1. fseek (fp, -m, 0);
2. fseek(fp, +m, 2);
Write a program for printing some content in to the file and print the following ?
1. Number of characters entered into the file.
2. Reverse the characters entered into the file.
 Programming For Problem Solving

main ( )
{
FILE *fp;
char ch;
int n;
clrscr ( );
fp = fopen (“reverse. txt”, “w”);
printf (“enter text press ctrl+z of the end”);
while ((ch = getchar( ) ) ! EOF)
{
putc (ch, fp);
}
n = ftell (fp)
printf ( “No. of characters entered = %d”, n);
rewind (fp);
n = ftell (fp);
printf (“fp value after rewind = %d”,n);
fclose (fp);
fp = fopen (“reverse.txt”, “r”);
fseek (fp, -1, 2);
printf (“reversed content is”);
do
{
ch = getc (fp);
printf (“%c”, ch);
} while (!fseek (fp, -2, 1);
fclose (fp);
getch ( );
}
Output : Enter text press ctrl z at the end.
How are you ^z
 Programming For Problem Solving

No. of characters entered = 11

fp value after rewind =0
Reversed content is uoy era woh.
Programming For Problem Solving

UNIT-IV

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FUNCTIONS

Def : A function is a self contained block that carries out a specific well defined task.
Advantages
1. Reusability i.e. a function may be used by many other programs.
2. The length of the source program can be reduced.
3. It is easy to locate and isolate a faulty function.
4. It facilitates top-down modular programming.

Top down design and structure charts

 “Top down design” is a problem solving method in which a complex problem is solved
by breaking up into sub problems.
 It proceeds from the original problem at the top level to the sub problems at each lower
level
 “structure chart” is a documentation tool that shows the relationships among the sub
problems of a problem.

 The splitting of a problem into its related sub problems is analogous to the process of
refining an algorithm.
e.g. Performing arithmetic operations on 2 numbers
1. find sum
2. find difference
3. find product
4. find quotient

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Refined algorithm for 1st step

1.1 take 2 numbers a, b
1.2 sum, c = a + b
1.3 print sum

Structure chart

Types of functions
Functions are broadly classified into 2 types
They are
1) predefined functions
2) user defined functions
1) predefined (or) library functions
 These functions are already defined in the system libraries
 Programmer can reuse the existing code in the system libraries to write error free code.
 But to use the library functions, user must be aware of syntax of the function.

eg: 1) sqrt() function is available in math.h library and its usage is :

y= sqrt (x)
number must be positive
eg: y = sqrt (25)
then „y‟ = 5
2 printf ( ) function is available in stdio.h library

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3) clrscr ( ) function is available in conio.h library

Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<math.h>
main ( )
{
int x,y;
clrscr ( );
printf (“enter a positive number”);
scanf (“ %d”, &x)
y = sqrt(x);
printf(“squareroot = %d”, y);
getch();
}
Output
Enter a positive number 25
Squareroot = 5
2) user defined functions
These functions must be defined by the programmer (or) user
Programmer has to write the coding for such functions and test them properly before using them
The syntax of the function is also given by the user and therefore need not include any header
files.
Eg: main ( ), swap ( ), sum ( ) etc
Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
main ( )
{
int sum (int, int);
int a, b, c;

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clrscr ( );
printf (“enter 2 numbers”);
scanf (“ %d %d”, &a ,&b)
c = sum (a,b);
printf(“sum = %d”, c);
getch();
}
int sum (int a, int b)
{
int c;
c=a+b;
return c;
}

Output
Enter 2 numbers 10 20
Sum = 30
Communications Among functions
Functions communicate among themselves using arguments and return value.
Farm of „C‟ function
return-datatype function name (argument list)
{
local variable declarations;
executable statements(s);
return (expression);
}
eg: void mul (int x, int y)
{
int p;
p=x*y;
printf(“product = %d”,p);

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}
Return values and their types
 A function may (or) may not send back any value to the calling function
 If it does, it is done through the return statement
 A called function can only return one value per call
 The return types are void, int, float, char and double.
 If a function is not returning any value then its return type is „void‟
Function name
 A function must follow the same rules of formation as other variables name in „C‟
 A function name must not duplicate library routine names (or) predefined function
names.
Argument list
 The argument list contains valid variable names separated by commas
 The argument variables receive values from the calling function, thus providing a means
for data communication from the calling function to the called function.
Calling a function
 A function can be called by simply using the function name in a statement

Function definition
 When the compiler encounters a function call, the control is transferred to the function
definition.
 All the statements ,in the called function, are together called as function definition
Function header
 The first line in the function definition is called function header.
Actual parameter
 All the variables inside the function call are called actual parameters.
Formal parameters
 All the variables inside the function header are called formal parameters
Program
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

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main ( )
{
int mul (int, int); function prototype
int a,b,c;
clrscr( );
printf (“enter 2 numbers”);
scanf(“%d %d”, &a, &b);
c = mul (a,b); function call
printf(“product =%d”,c); Actual parameters
getch ( );
}
int mul (int a, int b) Formal parameters
{ function header
int c;
c = a *b; Function definition
return c;
}
Output
Enter 2 numbers: 10 20
Product = 200

Categories of functions:
 Depending on whether arguments are present (or) not and whether a value is returned
(or) not, functions are categorized into:
1) functions without arguments and without return values
2) functions without arguments and with return values
3) Functions with arguments and without return values
4) Functions with arguments and with return values.

1) functions without arguments and without return values

Calling function Analysis Called function

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main ( ) No arguments are passed fun ( )

{ {
--- ----
--- No values are sent back ----
fun ( ); }
}

eg:
main ( )
{
void sum ( );
clrscr ( );
sum ( );
getch ( );
}
void sum ( )
{
int a,b,c;
printf(“enter 2 numbers”); Output
Enter 2 numbers
scanf (“%d%d”, &a, &b);
10 20
c = a+b;
Sum=30
printf(“sum = %d”,c);
}

2) Functions without arguments and with return values

Calling function Analysis Called function

main ( ) No arguments are passed fun ( )
{ {
int c; ----
--- ----
c= fun ( ); return c;
values are sent back
-----
----- }
}

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eg:
main ( )
{
int sum ( );
int c;
clrscr ( );
c= sum ( );
printf(“sum = %d”,c);
getch ( );
}
int sum ( )
{
int a,b,c;
printf(“enter 2 numbers”); Output
enter 2 numbers
scanf (“%d%d”, &a, &b);
10 20
c = a+b;
Sum = 30
return c;
}
3) Functions with arguments and without return values

Calling function Analysis Called function

main ( ) Arguments are passed fun ( int a, int b)
{ {
--- ----
--- No values are sent back ----
fun ( a,b ); }
---
---
}

eg:
main ( )
{
void sum (int, int );
int a,b;

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clrscr ( );
printf(“enter 2 numbers”);
scanf(“%d%d”, &a,&b);
sum (a,b);
getch ( );
}
void sum ( int a, int b) Output
{ enter 2 numbers

int c; 10 20

c= a+b; sum = 30

printf (“sum=%d”, c);

}
4) Functions with arguments and with return values.

Calling function Analysis Called function

main ( ) Arguments are passed fun ( int a, int b)
{ {
int c; ----
--- ----
---
value are sent back
c= fun ( a,b ); return c;
--- }
---
}
eg:
main ( )
{
int sum ( int,int);
int a,b,c;
clrscr ( );
printf(“enter 2 numbers”);
scanf(“%d%d”, &a,&b);
c= sum (a,b);
printf (“sum=%d”, c);
getch ( );

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}
int sum ( int a, int b )
Output
{ enter 2 numbers
int c; 10 20
c= a+b; Sum = 30
return c;
}
Scope
 “scope” of a variable determines the part of the program where it is visible
2 types
1. local scope 2. global scope
1. local scope
 Local scope specifies that variables defined within the block are visible only in that block
and invisible outside the block.
2. global scope
 Global scope specifies that variables defined outside the block are visible upto end of the
program.
eg:
int c= 30; /* global area */
main ( )
{
int a = 10;
printf (“a=%d, c=%d” a,c);
fun ( );
} Local function area
fun ( )
{
printf (“c=%d”,c);
}
output
a =10, c = 30
c = 30

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Recursive Functions
 “recursion” is the process of defining something in terms of it self.
 “recursive function” is a function that calls itself again in the body of the function
Eg:
 A function fact ( ), which computes the factorial of an integer „N‟ ,which is the product of
all whole numbers from 1 to N
 When fact ( ) is called with an argument of 1 (or) 0, the function returns 1. otherwise, it
returns the product of n*fact (n-1), this happens until „n‟ equals 1.
Fact (5) =5* fact (4)
=5*4*3* fact (3)
=5*4*3*2* fact (2)
=5*4*3*2*1 fact (1)
=5*4*3*2*1
= 120.
main ( )
{
int n,f;
int fact (int);
clrscr ( );
printf (“enter a number”);
scanf (“%d”, &n);
f= fact (n);
printf (factorial value = %d”,f);
}
int fact (int n)
{
int f;
if ( ( n==1) || (n==0))
return 1;
else

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f= n*fact (n-1);
return f;
}
Output
Enter a number 5
Factorial value = 120
Preprocessor commands
 „preprocessor‟ is a program that processes the source code before it passes through the
compiler
 It operates under the control of preprocessor directives which begin with the symbol #
3 types
1) Macro substitution directives
2) File inclusion directives
3) compiler control directives
1) Macro substitution directives
 It replaces every occurence of the identifier by a predefined string.
Syntax for defining a macro
# define identifier string
Eg: #define PI 3.1415
#define f(x) x *x
#undef PI
Program Program
#define wait getch( ) #define wait getch( )
main ( ) main ( )
{ {
clrscr ( ); #undef wait;
printf (“Hello”); clrscr ( );
wait ; printf (“Hello”);
} wait ;
Output: }
Hello Output

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Error since wait is undefined before using it

2. File inclusion directives:
 An external file containing functions (or) macro definitions can be included using
#include directive
Syntax
# include <filename> (or) #include “filename”
Eg:
#include <stdio.h>
Output
main ( )
Hello
{
printf (“hello”);
}
The definition of the function printf ( ) is present in <stdio.h>header file.
3. Compiler control directives
 C pre processor offers a feature known as conditional compilation, which can be used to
switch ON (or) OFF a particular line (or) group of lines in a program.
Eg: #if, #else, #endif etc.
#define LINE 1
main ( )
{ Output
#ifdef LINE This is line number one
printf (”this is line number one”);
#else
printf(„This is line number two”);
#endif
}

Structure and functions

 There are 3 ways by which the values of structure can be transferred from one function to
another.
1) passing individual members as arguments to function

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 Each member is passed as an argument in the function call.

 They are collected independently in ordinary variables in function header.
Eg:
struct date
{
int day;
int mon;
int yr;
};
main ( )
{
struct date d= {02,01,2010};
clrscr ( );
display (d.day, d.mon, d.yr);
getch ( );
}
display (int a, int b, int c)
{
printf(“day = %d”, a);
printf(“month = %d”,b);
printf(“year = %d”,c);
}
2. Passing entire structure as an argument to function
 Name of the structure variable is given as argument in function call
 It is collected in another structure variable in function header
Disadvantage : A copy of the entire structure is created again wasting memory
Program
struct date
{
int day;
int mon;

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int yr;
};
main ( )
{
struct date d= {02,01,2010};
display (d);
getch ( );
}

display (struct date dt)

{
printf(“day = %d”, dt.day);
printf(“month = %d”,dt.mon);
printf(“Year = %d”,dt.yr);
}
3. Passing the address of structure as an argument to function
 The Address of the structure is passed as an argument to the function
 It is collected in a pointer to structure in function header
Advantages:
1. No wastage of memory as there is no need of creating a copy again
2. No need of returning the values back as the function can access indirectly the entire
structure and work on it.
Program
struct date
{
int day;
int mon;
int yr;
};
main ( )
{

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struct date d= {02,01,2010};

display (&d);
getch ( );
}
display (struct date *dt)
{
printf(“day = %d”, dtday);
printf(“month = %d”,dtmon);
printf(“Year = %d”,dt yr);
}

Pointers and functions;

pass by value: Here values are sent as arguments
void main()
{
void swap(int,int);
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf(“enter 2 numbers”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
printf(“Before swapping a=%d b=%d”,a,b);
swap(a,b);
printf(“after swapping a=%d, b=%d”,a,b);
getch();
}
void swap(int a,int b)
{
int t; all these statements is equivalent to
t=a; a = (a+b) – (b =a);
a=b; or
b=t; a = a + b;

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} b = a – b;
a = a – b;
o/p:
enter 2 numbers 10 20
Before swapping a=10 b=20
After swapping a=10 b=20

pass by reference: Here addresses are sent as arguments

void main()
{
void swap(int *,int *);
int a,b;
clrscr();
printf(“enter 2 numbers”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
printf(“Before swapping a=%d b=%d”,a,b);
swap(&a, &b);
printf(“after swapping a=%d, b=%d”,a,b);
getch();
}

void swap(int *a,int *b)

{
int t;
t=*a;
*a=*b; *a = (*a + *b) – (*b = * a);
*b=t;
}
o/p:
enter 2 numbers 10 20

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Before swapping a=10 b=20

After swapping a=20 b=10

Pointer to functions:
 It holds the base address of function definition in memory
Declaration
 datatype (*pointername) ( );
 The name of the function itself specifies the base address of the function. So,
initialization is done using function name.
 Eg: int (*p) ( );
p = display; if display ( ) is a function that is defined.
Program for calling a function using pointer to function
Program main ( )
main ( ) {
{ clrscr ( );
int (*p) ( ); display ( );
clrscr ( ); getch( );
p = display; }
*(p) ( ); display ( )
getch ( ); {
} printf (“Hello”);
display ( ) }
{
printf(“Hello”);
}
Output
Hello

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ALGORITHM

ALGORITHM:
 It is a step – by – step procedure for solving a problem
 If algorithm is written in English like sentences then it is called as „PSEUDO CODE‟
Properties of an Algorithm
An algorithm must posses the following 5 properties. They are
6. Input
7. Output
8. Finiteness
9. Definiteness
10. Effectiveness
6. Input : An algorithm must have zero (or) more number of inputs
7. Output: Algorithm must produce one (or) more number of outputs
8. Finiteness : An algorithm must terminate in countable number of steps
9. Definiteness: Each step of the algorithm must be stated clearly
10. Effectiveness: Each step of the algorithm must be easily convertible into program 1.
statements
1. Example
Algorithm for finding the average of 3 numbers
7. start
8. Read 3 numbers a,b,c
9. Compute sum = a+b+c
10. compute avg = sum/3
11. Print avg value
12. Stop
2. EXAMPLE: Finding the roots of a quadratic equation, ax2+bx+c
 There will be 2 roots for such quadratic equation
Input : a,b,c values
Output: r1, r2 values

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b  b 2  4ac
Procedure : r1 
2a

b  b 2  4ac
r2 
2a
Algorithm:
1. start
2. Read a,b,c values
3. Compute d = b2  4ac
4. if d > 0 then
a) r1 =  b+ sqrt (d)/(2*a)
b) r2 =  b  sqrt(d)/ (2*a)
5. otherwise if d = 0 then
a) compute r1 = -b/2a
r2=-b/2a
b) print r1,r2 values
6. otherwise if d < 0 then print roots are imaginary
7. Stop

3. EXAMPLE : To print the Fibonacci series of n terms as follows.

0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13, . . , n terms

ALGORITHM:
Step 1: start
Step 2: initialize the a=0, b=1
Step 3: read n
Step 4: if n== 1 print a go to step 7. else goto step 5
Step 5: if n== 2 print a, b go to step 7 else print a,b
Step 6: initialize i=3
Step 7: if i<= n do as follows. If not goto step 7
c=a+b
print c
a=b
b=c
increment i value
goto step 7
Step 8: stop

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4. EXAMPLE : To print a prime numbers up to 1 to n(i.e., with in the range from 1 to n)

ALGORITHM:
Step 1: start
Step 2: read n
Step 3: initialize i=1,c=0
Step 4:if i<=n goto step 5
If not goto step
10 Step 5: initialize j=1
Step 6: if j<=1 do as the follow. If no goto step 7
i)if i%j==0 increment c
ii) increment j
iii) goto Step 6
Step 7: if c== 2 print i
Step 8: increment i
Step 9: goto step 4
Step 10: stop

5.EXAMPLE : The total distance travelled by vehicle in 't' seconds is given by distance =
ut+1/2at2 where 'u' and 'a' are the initial velocity (m/sec.) and acceleration (m/sec2).

ALGORITHM:
Step 1:Start
Step2 : Read t ,dt
Step 3: Set i to 1
Step 4:Set k to dt
Step 5: Read u,a
Step 6: set s to u*k+0.5*d*k*k
Step 7: Write s
Step 8: If(k<=t) and i=1 then
Begin
go to step 6
Else
Begin
read j
if(j=0)
then Begin
Set I to 0
End
Else
Begin
Set I to 1
go to step 4
End
End
Step 9: Stop

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11. EXAMPLE :To perform the binary search operation

ALGORITHM:
Main Program:
Step 1: Start
Step 2:Read the value of n
Step 3:for i=1 to n increment in steps of 1
STEP 4 :Read the value of ith element into array
STEP5 : Read the element(x) to be search<--binary(a,n,x)
Step 6: if search equal to 0 goto step 7 otherwise goto step 8
Step 7: print unsuccessful search
Step 8: print successful search
Step 9: stop

Binary Search Function:

Step 1: start
Step 2: initialise low to 1 ,high to n, test to 0
Step 3: if low<= high repeat through steps 4 to 9 otherwise goto step 10
Step 4: assign (low+high)/2 to mid
Step 5: if m<k[mid] goto step 6 otherwise goto step 7
Step 6: assign mid-1 to high goto step 3
Step 7: if m>k[mid] goto step 8 otherwise goto step 9
Step 8: assign mid+1 to low
Step 9: return mid
Step 10: return 0
Step 11:stop

12. EXAMPLE : Write a c program for selection sort

ALGORITHM:
Step 1:Start
Step 2:Initiliaze the variables I,j,temp and arr[]
Step 4:Read the loop and check the condition. If the condition is true print the
array elements and increment the I value. Else goto step 4
Step 4:Read the loop and check the condition. If the condition true then
goto next loop.
Step 5:Read the loop and check the condition. If the condition true then
goto if condition

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Step 6:If the condition if(arr[i]>arr[j]) is true then do the following

steps temp=arr[i]
arr[i]=arr[j]
arr[j]=temp Step
7:increment the j value
Step 8:perform the loop operation for the displaying the sorted elements.
Step 9:print the sorted elements
Step 10:stop

13. EXAMPLE : Program that implements the bubble sort method

ALGORITHM:

Main Program:
1. start
2. read the value of n
3. for i= 1 to n increment in steps of 1
Read the value of ith element into array
4. call function to sort (bubble_sort(a,n))
5. for i= 1 to n increment in steps of 1
print the value of ith element in the array
5. stop

Bubble Sort Function:

1. start
2. initialise last to n
3. for i= 1 to n increment in steps of 1
begin
4. initialise ex to 0
5. for i= 1 to last-1 increment in steps of
1 begin
6. if k[i]>k[i+1] goto step 7 otherwise goto step 5
begin
7. assign k[i] to temp assign k[i+1]
to k[i] assign temp to
k[i+1] increment ex
by 1 end-if
end inner for loop
11. if ex!=0
assign last-1 to last
end for loop
12. stop

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