Construction Related Theory for Exercise 4.7.

186
Draughtsman Civil - Global positioning systems

Introduction of GPS System

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain EPS co-ordinate system
• describe geographic latitude and longtitude
• GPS equipment.

Introduction What is GPS?

Where am I? Where am I going? Where are you? What is The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based
the best way to get there? When will I get there? GPS navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites
technology can answer all these qustions. GPS satellite placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defence that
can show you exact position on the earth any time, in any continuously transmit coded information, which makes it
weather, where you are! GPS technology has made an possible to precisely identify locations on earth by
impact on navigation and positioning needs with the use measuring the distance from the satellites. The satellites
of satellites and ground stations the ability to track aircrafts, transmit very low power specially coded radio signals that
cars, cell phones, boats and even individuals hasbecome can be processed in a GPS receiver, enabling the receiver
a reality. to compute positions, velocity and time thus allowing
anyone with a GPS satellite signals are used to compute
System of satellites,computers, and receivers that is able positions in three dimensions and the time offset in the

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to determine the latitude and longitude of a receiver on receiver clock. The system was designed so that receiveres
earth by claculating the time difference for signals from did not require atomic clocks, and so could be made small
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The Global Positioning System to reach the receiver.

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and inexpensively.
System (GPS) is a worldwide ratio-navigation system
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formed from a constellation of 24 satellites and their ground The GPS system consists of three pieces. There are the
stations. GPS uses thes “Man-made stars” as reference satellites that transmit the position information, there are
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points to calculate positions accurate to a matter of meters. the ground stations that are used tocontrol the satellites
In fact, with advanced forms of GPS you can make and update the infomation, and finally there is the receiver
measurements to better than a cetimeter. In a sense it’s that you purchased. It is the receiver that collects data
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like giving every square meter on the planet a unique from the satellites and computes its location anywhere in
address. GPS receivers have been miniaturized to just a the world based on iformation it gets from the satellites.
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few integrated circuits and so are becoming very There is a popular misconception to the satellites but this
economical. And that makes the technology accessible is not true, it only receives data.
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economical. And that makes the technology accessible

tovirtually everyone. Navigation in three dimensions is the After the second world war, it became obvious that we
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primary function of GPS. Navigation receivers are made needed a solution to the problem of rapid and accurate
for aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, and for hand carrying absolute positioning. Over the next couple of decades, a
by individuals. Precise positioning is possible using GPS number of projects and experiments were run. In the
receivers at reference locations provideing directions and early1970’s, a bold experiment was proposed. A network
relative positioning data for remote receivers. Surveying, of satellites, postioned thousands of miles above the earth,
geodetic control, and plate tectonic studies are examples. could provide rapid, accurate and absolute positioning
Time and frequency dissemination, based on the precise anywhere. This vision became known as the Global
clocks on board the SVs and controlled by the monitor Positioning System or GPS.
stations, is anouther use for GPS. Astronomical
observatories, telecommunications facilities, and laboratory How accurate is GPS?
standards can be set toprecise time signals or controlled
to accurate frequencise by special pupose GPS receivers. This is probably the most frequently asked questionposed
by new and potential GPS users. In practice, we have to
Definition trun this question around and ask, “How much accuracy
do you need?” For example, for a hikere in the woods or a
For thousands of yers, navigators have looked to the sky soldier in the field, a position within about 10 meters (30
for direction. Today, celestial navigation has simply feet) would usually be considered accurate enough. For a
switched from using natural objects to human-created ship in coastal waters, accuracy on the order of about 5
satellites. A constellation of satellites, called the Global meters (15 feet) is generally desirable. For geodetic land
Positioning System, and hand-held receivers allow for very surveying, however, accuracy requirements are 1
accurate navigation. centimeter (0.4 inches) or less. GPS can be used to achieve
all these accuacies. For each required level of accuracy,
receiver characteristics and the measurement techniques
209
employed are different. Accuracy also depends on satellite 3 Click on “My Location”: Some GPS use touch
configuration, nearby topography, distribution of buildings screens, others have keypads, and some have scroll
and trees, and even time to day. wheels and buttons. Click on the button labeled with a
compass, navigational arrow, or crosshairs to show your
Advantages of GPS current location.
• Your location is sometimes stored under the heading
GPS has three advantages
“Where am I?” “Favorite Locations” or “Current”.
i GPS may be used to identify or define the geographical • iphone users can see their current location using
co-ordinates associated with satellite imager. GPS is the bulit-in Compass App. Make sure you “Allow
also used to reduce the distorsions and to improve the Location Services” for the compass under “Settings”
accuracy of these images positional. GPS receivers “Compass”.
can be used to collect accurate geographical
4 Choose your destination address: Using the search
coordinates at these locations.
bar found at the top of your GPS, type in the address
ii GPS can be used in the ground to get satellite images. you want to reach. Many touch screen GPS’s let you
When a particular satellite image has a region of choose a location by holding your finger on the location
unusual or unrecognised reflectivity the coordinates of in the map.
that region can be loaded into GPS reciver.
• Some GPS’s will prompt you with a button labeled
iii GPS has developed into cost effective tool for updating “Get Directions”. Choose this if there is no search
GIS or computer aided design system. The GPS is an bar to input an address.
excellant device user can, generally see the sky and
• If you know the exact latitude and longitude of your
is able to get close to the objects to be mapped.
trip, use these; they will give you themost accurate
location possible.

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Setup and use of GPS equipment
GPS, or Global Positioning System, Devices are
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ubiquitous these days. They are on our phones, in our location: The GPS will give you directions at every
turn you need to take. Don’t worry if you miss a turn-
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cars, and attached to many of our favorite apps. Today,
We can use our GPS to get directions and find new places most GPS will auto-correct and give you a new route
to eat and play, but learning how to use them can seem to get back on track.
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complicated thanks to the variety of different GPS styles. • If you are struggling to keep up, check your GPS’s
Luckily, all GPS devices are pretty simple to use. setting and make the “Trun Warning Frequency”
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Using simple GPS equipment setting longer - giving you more time to hear the
next direction.
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1 Buy a smart phone or car GPS to get directions

and your location: The GPS market is flooded with Using GPS for research and exploration
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different devices, option and features. Unless you plan

or using your GPS in the wilderness or for research 1 Learn to read latitude and longitude coordinates:
experiments, however, your smart phone or a car GPS latitude and longitude are represented by numbers,
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can provide directions and your location quickly and known as degrees, which measures your distance from
easily. Most have touch screens and come with a tow “zero lines” Longitude measures your distance East
rechargeable battery. or West of the prime meridian, and latitude mesure
your distance North or South of the equator. This is the
• Smart phones: Most smart phones come pre-
most accurate system of measurement for your GPS.
loaded with a “Maps” or “Directions” app that uses
GPS. If you do not have one, search and download • An examples (guess where it is), is 37° 26’46.9”N,
an app, like Google Maps, from your app store to 122°09’ 57.0”W.
use for GPS.
• Sometimes direction is noted by positive or negative
• GPS devices: These are small, rectangular devices numbers. North and East are considered positive.
that specialize in driving directions and finding The previous example could be written as: 37° 26’
restaurants, airports, and other points of interest. 46.0”,-122° 09” 57.0”
Examples include Tom Tom, Garmin and Magellan
• If there is no notation, know that the latitude always
etc.
comes first.
2 Open the “Map”: This is the basic screen for GPS. It
2 Mark you current location as a waypoint: Waypoint
shows a location, usually with your current location at
are saved in the GPS to be viewed later, allowing you
the centre, and all of the roads and major landmarks
to take notes, draw maps, and keep information on the
nearby.
landscape easily. On your GPS click “Save
location”,”And to Favourites,” or “Mark Waypoint”.

210 Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.186
 • Complex scientific GPS systems often let you mark 3 Get into the open: GPS needs a clear view of the sky
specific waypoints-artifacts, streams rock to accurately communicate with the satelite’s, so move
formations, etc. away from overhangs or tall trees and head outside if
you have issues. Generally, if you can see the sky, the
• The more points you save into your GPS, the more
GPS can as well.
accurate your map of the area when you get home.
• Tunnels, caves, and basements may all keep your
3 Set waypoints in advance if there are no
GPS from communicating to satellites and working
addresses: Plug in the longitude/latitude coordinates
successffully.
of water sources, compgrounds, or ranger stations
under “Get Directions” or “Find Location” then save them 4 Initialize your GPS when yo buy it: Most GPS
by clicking “And to Favourites”. You can now access it devices are built in Asia, and are used to
anytime. communicating with satellites over that area. Initializing
your GPS acquaints it with your local area. To initialize
• “Add to Favourites” might be labeled by a star or
a GPS, go to “Settings” and click “Initialize”. Follow
flag as well.
your GPS’s manual if you have any problems finding
• Click “Saved Locations” or “Favourite Locations” to the GPS’s manual if you have any problems finding
see your waypoints anytime. You can click on them the setting, and know that this may take up to 20
to get directions from anywhere in the world. minutes.
4 Plug your GPS into your computer to download • Turn your GPS off and restart it if you are having
the data: Most complex GPS systems come with problems.
software that lets you save your data onto your
• Make sure you have a clear view of the sky.
computer. The program will import your waypoints and
use them to make a map of the area you were in, • You may need to reset your GPS the first time you
complete with elevation data and any notes you made buy it by clearing the memory. Refer to the manual

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on your GPS. for instructions.
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• If you are mapping a specific area, make as many 5 Use “Satellite Lock” before you head out: This is
waypoints as you can for an accurte map. The more especially useful when hiking. In the parking lot, find
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data the program has, the better the final product. your GPS’s satellite lock setting and have it get to
work - it usually takes several minutes.
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Troubleshooting your GPS

• Signs that you have a bad signal are changing
directions, jittery locations, or error messages.
1 Download the latest map updates if your directions
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are incorrect: If you are using a phone this will heppen 6 Know that GP’S are not replacements for maps
automatically, but some GPS devices need to be and compasses: Because and GPS can run out of
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manually updated. This will give you the latest battery, lose signal, or break, you should never rely on
information, topography, and directions. it completely to get around. While useful, you need to
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be prepared in case you cannot use it for some reason.

• Find the “About” button, usually located in “Settings.”
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• Scroll down to see Map Information. If this is more Getting the most out of your GPS
than 6 months old, you will need to update.
1 Find shops,restaurants, andevents near you: Most
• Plug your GPS into an internet-enables computer
GPS devices can find much more than addresses these
using the cord that came with the unit.
days. Try searching “Indian Food”, “Post Offices”, “Gas,
• Perform an internet search for “your GPS + Map “Rock climbing gyms”, or whatever else you are
Update” follow the onscreen instructions. interested in and see what pops up. This can be
incredibly useful when you are in a new city, or if you
2 Know that GPS uses satellites to locate you: There
just feel like finding the closest burrito shop.
are over 25 satellites orbiting earth that receive signals
from your GPS and use those signals to determine • Apps and Interneet enabled GPS (like those found
your latitude and longitude. Developed by the army, on phones) will always have this feature.
GPS can accurately tell your location anywhere in the
• Many portable GPS devices have a section labeled
world by several feet - as long as the signal can reach
“Nearby Loctions” of “Find Locations” that list
the satellites.
businesses within a short radius of your current
• Cell phone GPS uses cell towers and internet location.
signals to find y our location , so they won’t work in
the wilderness.

Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.186 211
2 Have fun Geocaching: Geocaching is when people 4 Find a lost phone: Because smart phones are
hide objects in the world with GPS coordinates. It is a constantly hooked up to a GPS, You can use them to
global community that prides itself on sharing and find lost or stolen phones if you act quickly. Download
exploration, and can be a great way to see the outdoors. a tracking app on for your phone and sync it with your
To Geocache, buy a GPS and sign up for one of the computer to always keep tabs on your phone’s location.
many internet-based services and forums.
• Use “Find my iPhone”, going to the Find my iPhone
3 Track your workouts: Most modern GPS devices and Website and inputting your Apple user name.
apps can be turned on while you run or bike, and store
the information on your speed, elevation, and distance
for later. You will need a specific app like NikeFit,
MapMyRun, or AppleHealth to get the most out of this
feature.

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212 Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.186
Construction Related Theory for Exercise 4.7.187
Draughtsman Civil - Global positioning systems

Satellite and Convensional Geodetic system

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• what is satellite System?
• define Geodetic System.

The satellites of the Global Positioning System (GPS) The Global Postioning System (GPS). A satellite-
offer an important new geodetic resource making possible based ... In geodesy: shape and rotation of the Earth,
a highly accurate portable radio geodetic system. A terrestrial reference frame. In solid Earth ... GPS
concept called SERIES (Satellite Emission Radio positioning: A simple principle. Principle of GPS
Interferometric Earth Surveying) makes use of GPS radio positioning:- Satellite 1 sends a signal at time Ground
transissions without any satellite modifications. By receiver receives it signal at time t r. - The range ...
employing the technique of very long baseline interferometry
(VLBI) and its calibration methods, 0.5 to 3 cm three The effectiveness of global positioning sysem electronic
dimensional baseline accuracy can be achieved over navigation ...
distances of 2 to 200 km respectively, with only 2 hours of
on- site data acquision. The use of quasar referenced ARIES Global Positioning System (GPS) is a worldwide radio-
Mobile VLBI to establish a sparse fundamental control navigation system that consists of a constellation of
grid will provide a basis for making SERIES GPS twenty-four satellites located in six orbits, an. ... The
measurements traceable to the time-invarint quasar position in the X, Y, and Z dimensions along with time are

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directions. Using four SERIES stations deployed at converted in the receiver to calculate geodetic latitude,
longitude and height above the ellipsoid.
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previously established ARIES sited, allows the GPS
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satellite apparent positions to be determined. These
apparent positions then serve as calibrations for other The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar
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SERIES stations at unknown locations to determine their GPS, is a space-based radionavigationsystem owned by
positions in a manner traceable to the quasars. Because the United State government and operated by the United
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this proposed radio interferometric configuration States Air Force. It is a global navigation satellite system
accomplishes its signal detection by cross-correlation, that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS
there is no dependence upon knowledge of the GPS receiver anywhere on or near the...
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transmitted waveforms which might be encrypted. Since

GPS radio signal strength are105 Stronger than quasar Satellites in orbit: 31
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signals, a great reduction in telecommunications

sophistication is possible which will result in an order of Orbital height: 20, 180 km (12,540 mi)
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magnitude less cost for a SERIES GPS station compared

to a quasar based mobile VLBI system. The virtually all- Total satellites: 33
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weather capability of SERIES offers cost-effective geodetic

monitoring with applications to crustal dynamics and Accuracy: 5 meters
earthquake research.
World Geodetic System -
Satellite Systems (GNSS) such as Global Positioning
The World Geodetic System (WGS) is a standard for
System (GPS), cellular network infrastructure or on the
use in cartography, geodesy, and navigation including GPS.
integration ... GPS receivers Convert space vehicles (SV)
It comprises a standard coordinate system for the Earth,
signals into position, velocity, and time estimates.
a standard spheroidal reference surface for raw altitude
Currently some geodetic type receivers are available on
data, and a gravitational equipotential surface (the geoid)
the market tracking GPS and Glonass satellites ...
that defines the nominal sea level.
System (GPS) operation and application are the
Global Positioning System Overview -
computational developments that have led to accu- rate
user positioning. This information discusses some of
Global Positioning System (GPS) Overview. ... Four GPS
these developments from a historical perspective. The
satellite signals are used to compute positions in three
developmental odyssey begins with the events leading to
dimensions and the time offset in the receiver clock. ...
initial GPS operation. Early developments insatellite ...
Geodetic Coordinates. ECEF XYZ to Geodetic Coordinate
Conversion. Geodetic to ECEF XYZ Coordinate
Conversion; Latitude and longitude are usually ...

213
Is GPS accurate? What kind of signal does a GPS use?

Certain atmospheric factors and other sources can affect Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation
the accuracy of GPS receivers. Garmin GPS receivers message at 50 bits per second on the microwave carrier
are typically accurate to within 10 meters. Accuracy is frequency of approx 1600 MHz. FM radio, for comparison,
even better on the water. Some Garmin GPS receiver is broadcast at between 87.5 and 108.0 MHz and Wi-Fi
accuracy is improved with WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation networks operate at around 5000 MHz and 2400 MHz More
System). precisely, all satellites broadcast at 1575.42 ...

What does the accuracy of a GPS mean? What is the accuracy of GPS devices?

User Range Error (URE) vs. User Accuacy. To calculate The United State government currently claims 4 meter
its position, a GPS device measures its distance (range) RMS (7.8 meter 95% Confidence Interval) horizontal
form multiple GPS satellites. URE is a measure of ranging accuracy for civilian (SPS) GPS. Vertical accuracy is
accuracy. User accuracy refers to how close the device’s worse. Mind you, that’s the minimum. Some devices/
calculated position is from the truth, expressed as radius. locations reliably (95% of the time or better) can get 3
Dec 5, 2017 meter accuracy.

What can affect the accuracy of a GPS? Geodetic Coordinates

Accuracy depends on a wide variety of factors coming Roger Foster

together at a particular location and time. They include
distortion of GPS signals as they travel through the Coordinate System Analysis Team (CSAT)
ionospere and errors in the position (ephemeris data)

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transmitted by GPS satellites. In order to discuss geodetic coordinates, we must first
discuss the three axes. (See Figure 1) The Z-axis is the
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Why do GPS receivers need to receive signals from four rotational axis of the ellipsoid. The X-axis lies in the
satellites?
ish equatorial plane and intersects the prime meridian. The Y-
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axis also lies in the equatorial plane and is 90 degrees

The GPS receiver also knows the exact position in the from the X-axis. (Please note that all of the axes extend
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sky of the satellites, at the moment they sent their signals. completely through the ellipsoid, but only half of each axis
So given the travel time of the GPS signals from three is shown for illustrative purposese.)
satellites and their exact position in the sky, the GPS
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receiver can determine your position in three dimensions In the example in figure 1, we are determining the geodetic
- east, north and altitude. coordinates (longitude, latitude, and geodetic height) of a
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point on the earth surface near the border of Indian and

What causes errors in GPS? Pakistan. The light green colored line is perpendicular to
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the ellipsoid at the example point and therefore, does not

Multipath effects. GPS signals can also be affected by intersect the center of the ellipsoid. The darker green line
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multipath issues, where the radio signals reflect off is this projected onto the equatorial plane.
surrounding terrain; buildings, canyon walls, hard ground,
etc. These delayed signals cause measurement errors To measure the geodetic longitude, symbolized by the
that are different for each type of GPS signal due to its Greek letter lambda,λ,we would measure the angle from
dependency on the wavelength. the X-axis (or the Prime Meridian) to the dark green line
on the equatorial plane. The geodetic latitude, symbolized
Can GPS be used without internet? by the Greek letter phi, φ, would be the angle between
the two green lines.
The Maps app requires an internet connection to download
the Map information and imagery as you move along. The Figure 2 illustrates geodetic height, which is represented
GPS itself does not require an internet connection. The by a lower case letter “h”. Consider a line drawn from a
free Google Maps app can now download areas of interest point on the earth’s surface. The distance along that line
in advance of needing them. from the earth’s surface perpendicular to the ellipsoid
surface. The distance along that line from the earth’s
Can GPS be used to transmit data? surface to the ellipsoid is the geodetic height, also referred
to as the “height above the ellipsoid” (HaE). It is important
GPS receivers do not transmit any information they are
to note that geodetic height is not the same as height
built for receiving information. The encompassing device
above Mean Sea Level, and is not the same as orthometric
then uses said information depending on what the device
height (or height above the geoid). Geoids will be discussed
was built for. ‘Talking’ to’the satellites’ is not a necessary
in the next article.
part of GPS functionality.

214 Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.187
Figure 1 Figure 2

Geodetic coordinates are commonly derived from Global Geoids and Vetical Datums
Positioning System (GPS) receivers. A directive by the
Joint Chiefs (CJCS 3900.01B) urges the adoption of The next will discuss geoids and vertical datums.
geodetic coordinates, in particular, geodetic height, for use
in weapon systems, targeting and all geospatial information Fig 2
for DoD.

Fig 1

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Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.187 215
Construction Related Theory for Exercise 4.7.188
Draughtsman Civil - Global positioning systems

GPS co-ordinate system & components of the GPS system & Segments
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• explain GPS co-ordinate systems
• describe geographic latitude and longitude
• explain components of GPS system
• describe components of GPS receiver.

Introduction A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system

that enables every location on the earth to be specified by
Satellites orbit around the earth or travel in the planet a set of numbers or letters, or symbols. The coordinates
system of the sun. 1 They are generally observed from the are often chosen such that one of the numbers represents
earth. To describe the orbits of the statellites (positions verticalpostion, and two or three of the numbers represent
and velocities), suitable coordinate and time systems have horizontal position. A common choice of coordinates is
to be defined. Before starting a GPS surveys, decide which latitude, longitude and elevation.
co-ordinate system to use.
Geographic latitude and longitude Fig 2
History
The “latitude (abbrevation: lat.,ϕ, or phi) of a point on the
In 1884, the United states hosted the Internation Meridian Earth’s surface is the angle between the equatorial plane

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Conference and twenty-five nations attended. Twenty-two and the straight line that passes through that point and
of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal
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Observatory in Greenwich, England, as the zero-reference points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of
line. The Dominican Republic voted against the motion, the Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator
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while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted and to each other. The north pole is 90° N; the south pole
Greenwich Mean Time inplace of local determinations by is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designaed the equator,
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the Paris Observatory in 1911. the fundamental plane of all geographic coordinate
systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and
GPS Coordinate system Southern Hemispheres.
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GPS measurements are referenced to the 1984 World

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Geodetic System reference ellipsoid, known as WGS84.

However, for most survey tasks, results in terms of WGS84
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have little value. It is better to display and store results in

terms of a local coordinate system. Before you start a
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survey, choose a coordinate system. Depending on the

requirements of the survey, you can choose to give the
results in the national coordinate system, a local
coordinate grid system, or as local geodetic coordinates.

Geographic coordinate system Fig 1

The “longitude” (abbreviation: Long., I, or lambda) of a point

on the Earth’s surface is the angle east or west from a
reference meridian to another meridian that passes through
that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses (often
improperly called great circles), which converge at the north
and south poles. The meridian of the British Royal
Observatory in Greenwich, a little east of London, England,
is the International Prime Meridian although some
orgnizations - such as the French Institut Geographique
National - continue to use other meridians for internal
purposes. The Prime Meridian determines the prper Eastern
and Western Hemisphers, although maps often divide these
hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World
on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is
both 180° W and 180° E. This is not be conflated with the

216
International Data line, which diverges from it in several Example: N47° 37.216’ W122° 19.75’.
places for political reasons including between far eastern
The north/south and east/west position remains
Russia and the far western Aleutian Islands Fig 3.
unchanged. The difference is that the seconds part of
the location is converted to a decimal by dividing the
seconds by 60.
• UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator): This military
deriver grid system is not tied to latitude and longitude.
It divides the map into a square grid with the grid lines
all 1,000 meters apart. Most topo maps have UTM grid
lines printed on them. The system is metric-based and
requires no conversion of minutes and seconds.
Example 10T 0550368 5274319.

Here, “10T” identifies the map zone, “0550368” is the east/

west or “easting” number, while “5274319” is the north/
The combination of these two components specifies the south or “northing” number.
position of any location on the surface of the Earth, without
consideration of altitude or depth. The grid thus formed by Your GPS reciver can automatically display whichever of
latitude and longitude is known as the “graticule”. The zero/ these coordinate systems you select. It can also convert
zero point os this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea coordinates form one system to another. This is helpful if
about 625 km (390 mi) south of Tema, Ghana Fig 4. you’re given coordinates for a location in one system
(e.g.,UTM) but want to actually navigate in another
(e.g.,DDM).

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Components of the GPS system

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There are 3 min components to the GPS system. These
components are known as Segments, as follows Fig 5.
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1 Space Segment - the satellites, also known as space

vehicles of SVs
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2 Control Segment - ground stations run by the DOD

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3 User Segment - all users and their GPS receivers

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Reading coordinates Vocabulary / Definitations

GPS : Golbal Positioning System

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To simplify map navigation, a system of coordinates is

used. Coordinates diveide the map into a grid and identiry Satellite : An object launched specifically to orbit
a particular locationa by listing its relative position north/ Receiver : A device that accepts (recives) incoming
south and east / west. To choose a coordinate system, signals and converts them to a usable
simply go to the Preferences screed. The most common form.
coordinate systems used in GPS navigation are: Orbit : The path an object in space follows as it
circles the Earth.
• DMS (Degrees/Minutes/Seconds): This is the
standard way of listing latitue and longitude.
Example: N47° 37’ 12” W122° 19’ 45”.
In this example, N47°37’ 12” indicates that the north/
south position is 47 degrees, 37 minutes and 12
seconds north of the equator; while W122° 19’ 45”
places the east/west position at 122 degrees, 19
minutes and 45 seconds west of the Prime Meridian
(at Greenwich, England)
• DDM (Degree/Decimal/Minutes): A decimal of DMS,
DDM is used by geocachers and other GPS
enthusiasts. These coordinates look like this:

Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.188 217
Trilateration : Postion determined by intersecting the same track over any point on earth approximately once
distances. every 24 hours. One orbit takes a little less than 12 hours.
Triangulation : The location of an unknown point by the There are six orbital planes, with nominally four stallites
formation of a triangle. per orbital plane. The lanes are equially spaced 60 degrees
apart inclined at about 55 degrees to the equator. The
Each segments is described in the following sections configuration was optimized to provide the best coverage
between about 75 degrees north latitude and 75 degrees
1 Space segment Fig 6 south latitude. This constellation provides the user with
between five and eight satellites visible from most any
The space segment consists of the GPS staellites. point on earth at any time.
Much of the GPS literature reers to the satellites as “space
vehicles” or simply, SV’s. The arrangement of GPS The satellite orbits are approximately 2,200 kilometers
satellites in space is called their constellation. The (12,000 miles) above the earth surface. The satellites travel
minimum constellation to meet the objecives of the DOD at about 12,000 km/hour (7,000 miles per hour). Each
is 24 operational satellites. satellite is solar powered with battery backup, and contains
radio receivers and transmitters, one or more atomic
The orbit altitude wa selected so that each satellite repeats clocks, small thrusters used for course corrections, special
entennas, and, of course, computer equipment. The
antennas on the satellites are designed to allow GPS
signals to be received anywhere from the earth’s surface
to about 5,00 km (3,000 miles) into space. This “service
volume” not only meets all civilian needs, but also provides
the military with satellite tracking and missile guidance
capabilities.

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bl I The first GS satellite was deployed in February 1978. By
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1994, a total of 24 operational satellites were inplace.
Replacements and upgraded satellites have been launched
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on a regular basis. As of early 2001, a total of 43 satellites

had been launched, and the operational constellation
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consists of 28 satellites. The number of satellites reported

in various books, articles and internet resources varies
considerably, reflecting the data that the work was prepared.
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GPS satellites
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Four classes (generatons): blocks I, II, IIA, IIR and IIF

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Block I (Fig.8)
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• 11 satellites launched between 1978 and 1985 on Atlas

Frockets.
• Life expectancy = 4.5 years, actual mean life = 7.1
years.
• Signal entirely accessible to civilian users
• Last block I satellite died on February 28, 1994

218 Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.188
Block II (Fig.9) 3 User segment

• Possiblility to degrade the signal for civilian users The user segment consists of all the users of the GPS
signals. This includes both civilian and military users. It is
• 1 satellite ~ 25million dollars
• Life expectancy = 10 years
• 5 m3, 2 tons, solar panels, boosters
New launches on a regular basis

Monitored and controlled from the ground

Fig 9

important to note that GPS receivers do not send any

signals back to the GPS satellites. Therefore, it is not
possible to track the position of a receiver using GPS
satellites. The satellites merely transmit their signals blindly
throughout the service volume. In this way, the number of
potential users at any one time is unlimited, and there is

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2 Control segment not interference between users.
bl I
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The control segment consists of a master control station As opposed to the space and control segments, which
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in colorado springs, colorado with five monitor stations are maintained by the US government, the user segment
and three control up link stations located throughout the is served by many commercial companies who
world. Monitor stations track all GPS satellites in view manufacture and sell GPS receiver hardware, software and
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and collect ranging information from the satellite services. Anyone in the world can make and market GPS
broadcasts. The monitor stations send information they reciver equipment. There are no licences, user fees, or
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collect from each of the satellite back to the master control any other restrictions. Allowing the private sector to design
station which computes extremely precise statellite orbits. and maufacture receiver equipment has resulted in a
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The information is then formated into updated navigation continual reduction in size.
message for each satellite. The updated information is
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transmitted to each satellite the control up link stations Components of GPS receiver
which also transmit and receive satellite control and
The components of a GPS receiver are:
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monitoring signals.

The monitor stations recive all satellite signals from which i Antennas with preamplifier
they determine the pseudo range to all visible satellites ii RF section with signal identification and signa
and transmit the ranged data along with local meteorological processing
data via data link to the master control station. From these
data the master control station precomputes satellite iii Microprocessor for receiver control data sampling,
ephemerides and the behaviour of the satellite clocks and data processing.
formulates the navigation data. The message data are iv Precision oscillator
transmitted to the ground antennas and up linked via S-
band to the satellites in view. Because of the global v Power supply
distribution of the up load antennas at least three contacts vi User interface, command & display panel
per day can be realized between the control segment and
each particular satellite. Memory data storage
The antenna detects the electromagnetic waves arriving
The US Military operates the control segment. There are from the satellites converts the wave energy into electric
five control stations around the world, four unmanned current amplifies the signal strength and hand over to the
stations near the equator and one Master Control Station signals over the receivers electronics. GPS signal structure
in Colorado, as shown on the following Fig 10. requires that all GPS antennas must be circularly polarized.
The antennas have to be very sensitive because of the
rather weak satellite signal and the gain pattern must allow
signal reception from all elevations and azimuths of the
visible hemisphere.
Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.188 219
GPS Segments
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• define GPS Segments.

Various Segments: Table 1 gives a brief account of the function and of various

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segments along with input and output information.
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For better understanding of GPS, we normally consider
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three major segments viz. space segment, control segment
and User segment. Space segment deals with GPS
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satellites systems, control segment describes ground

based time and orbit control prediction and in User segment
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various types of existing GPS receiver and its application

is dealt (Fig.3).
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Table 1
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Segment Input Function Output

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Space Navigation message Generate and P-Code

Transmit code and C/A Code
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carrier phases and L1,L2 carrier

navigation message Navigation message

Control P-Code Observation Produce GPS time Navigation message

Time Predict ephemeris
manage space vehicles

User Code observation Carrier Navigation solution Position velocity

phase observation Navigation Surveying solution time
Message

GLONASS (Global Navigation & Surveying System) a Space segment:

similar system to GPS is being developed by former Soviet
Union and it is considered to be a valuable complementary Space segment will consist 21 GPS satellite with an addition
of 3 active spares. These satellites are placed in almost
system to GPS for future application. six circular orbits with an inclination of 55 degree. Orbital
height of these satellites is about 20,200 km corresponding
to about 26,600 km

220 Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.188
 3 Segments of GPS Fig 4

The Control Segment: This part consists of 5 worldwide

unmanned base-stations that monitor the satellites to track

their exact position in space, and to make sure that they
are operating correctly. The stations constantly monitor
the orbits of the satellites and use very precise radar to
check altitude, position and speed.

Let’s Fly - The Initial Segment

• GPS loaded and activated - Note you can review

the approch in the GPS (Garmin press FPL key)
- If approach is not activated before 2 nm of MAWP,

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approach mode will not become active timely.
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• Radios tuned to Approach/ Tower
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• Confirm CDI is set for GPS (not VLOC) !
The Space Segment: This part consists of satellites,
• Reduce power to approach setting manufactured by Rockwell International, which are
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• Cross over IAF at 2,000 feet - segment should launched into space by rockets, from Cape Canaveral,
Florida. They are about the size of a car, and weight about
• Trun magenta 19,000lbs. Each satellite is in orbit above the earth at an
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• Turn to track towards IF either (80 / 260 degrees) altitude of 11,000 nautical miles (12,660 miles), and Fig 4
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• Be sure to turn the OBS ring with each directional Takes 12 hours to orbit one time
change to match the couse as a reminder, although it
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won’t impact the CDI indication The User Segment: This part consists of user receivers
which are hand-held or, can be place in a vehicle. All GPS
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• Before IF begin turn inbound on 170° based on

receivers have an almanac programmed into their
• Turn anticipation computer, which tells them where each satellite is at any
• Intermediate segment should become active magenta given moment Fig 4.

Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.188 221
Construction Related Theory for Exercise 4.7.189
Draughtsman Civil - Global positioning systems

Principle of operation of GPS & surveying with GPS

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state principle of operation of GPS
• describe role of transit in GPS developmen
• explain surveying with GPS
• determine observation techniques of GPS
• describe realtime GPS survey
• state time measurement and timing.

Technical description (principle of operation of GPS) Here’s how GPS works in five logical steps

The principle behind GPS is the measurement of distance • The basis of GPS is “triangulation” from satellites.
(or “range”) between the receiver and the satellites. The
• To “triangulate”, a GPS receiver measures distance
satellites also tell us exactly where they are in their orbits
using the travel time of radio signals.
above the Earth. It works something like this - If we know
our exact distance from a satellite in space, we know we • To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate
are some where on the surface of an imaginary sphere timing, which it receives with some tricks.
with radius equal to the distance to the satellite radius. • Along with distance, you need to know exactly where
By measuring its distance from a second satellite, the the satellites are in spacce. High orbits and careful

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receiver knows it is also somewhere on the surface of a monitoring are the secret.
second sphere with radius equal to its distance from the
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• Finally you must correct for any delays the signal

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second satellite. Therefore, the receiver must be
somewhere along a circle which is formed from the experiences as it travels through the atmosphere.
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intersection of the two spheres. Measurement from a thrid

satellite introduces a thrid sphere. Now there are only two
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points which are consistent with being at the intersection

of all three spheres. One of these is usually impossible,
and the GPS receivers have mathematical methods of
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eliminating the impossible location Measurement from a

fourth satellite now resolves the ambiguity as to which of
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the two points is the location of the receiver. The fourth

satellite point also helps eliminate certain errors in the
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measured distance due to uncertainities in the GPS

receiver’s timing as well.
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Role of transit in GPS development

The transit system, also known as NAVSAT or NNSS (for

Navy Satellite System), was the first satellite navigation
system to be used operationally. The system was primarily
used by the US Navy to provide accurate location
information to its Polaris basllistic missile submarines,
and it was also used as a navigation system by the Navy’s
surface ships, as well as for hydrographic survey and
geodetic surverying. Transit provide continuous navigation
satellite serice from 1964, initially for Polaris submarines
and later for civilian use as well.

222
 Fig 3 Surveying with GPS

Initially developed for military use, GPS is now part of

everyday life; used in moblie phones, in-car navigation and
search and rescue equipment to mention just a few. But
there is a wide variety of equipment and techniques that
can be used for surveying.

GPS was rapidly adapted for surverying, as it can give a

position (Latitude, Longitude and Height) directly, without
the need to measure angles and distances between
intermediate points. Survey control could now be
established almost anywhere and it was only necessary
to have a clear view of the sky so the signal from the GPS
satellites could be received clearly.

The first GPS instrument to be used for control surveying

was the Macrometer V-1000. This instrument has the
History
capability of determining a point’s precise co-ordinates
without relying on any of the special codes broadcast by
Development of the transit system began in 1958, and a
the GPS satellites and is therefore often referred to as a
prototype satellite, Transit 1A, was launched in september
codless receiver. For the past year, the TI 4100 GPS
1959. That satellite failed to reach orbit. A second satellite,
instrument has also been used for precise control surveys.
Transit B, was successfully launched on April 13, 1960,
by a Thor-Ablestar rocket. The first successful tests of

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Advantages of GPS surveys
the system were made in 1960, and the system entered
Naval service in 1964.
bl I
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• Three dimensional
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• Site intervisibility not needed
• Weather independent
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• Day or night operation

• Common reference system
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• Rapid data processing with quality control

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• High precision
• Less labour intensive/ cost effective
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• Very few skilled personnel needed

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GPS observation techniques and methods of GPS

surveying Fig 5

Because the X,Y,Zcoordinates of each satellite are known

(by computation), the coordinates of a ground point can
be determined by measuring the ranges to at leat three
satellites. In practice, the ranges to a minimum of four
satellites are meaured because of the measruing
techniques used. When only one receiver is used to range
to the satellites, a single or point position is determined.
This is why the use of a single receiver is called point
positioning. The accuracy of point positioning with GPS
The transit system was made obsolete by the Global averages ±10 meters, depending on a number of factors.
Positioning System(GPS), and ceased navigation service
in 1996. Improvements in electronics allowed the GPS Most surveyors are interested in a second technique called
system to effectively take several fixes at once, greatly differential positioning or translocation. When this method
reducing the complexity of deducting a position. The GPS is used, one satellite receiver is placed over a point whole
system uses many more satellites than were used with position is known while a second received is placced over
transit, allowing the system to be used continuously, while a point whole coordinates are to be determined. The
transit provided a fix only every hour or more. determined to centimeter accuracy (plus 2 ppm of the
distance between points) when sufficient data are observed.

Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.189 223
 ed
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Both the point positioning and translocation methods The base station takes GPS readings continuously and
involve measuring the ranges to a number of satellites calculates its “position” based on the GPS data. The
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over a series of intervals from 2 seconds to several minutes. computer then compares the receiver position based on
The point’s coordinates or difference in coordinates are the GPS data to the actual receiver location based on the
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then computed by standard resection techniques. accurate land survey. The difference between the GPS
calculated “position” and the real position of the receiver
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For projects requireing geodetic accuracy, National is the error in the GPS for that particular reading. Each
Geodetic Survey (NGS) must be contacted or NSRS reading is also time-stamped, so we know for what time of
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database must be accessed to determine points available day the errors are valid.
in the project area before the project begins.

Real time kinematic GPS surverys

Real time kinematic (RTK) refers to a stop-gas method

where the coordinates of points are available in real time
using a techique called differential GPS or DGPS.

The DGPS technique is based on using at least two GPS

recivers. One receiver is located at a fixed position which
has been accurately located using traditional land
surverying techniques. This receiver is known as the base
station, and also contains a computer. The remaining
receivers are roving, and are used for the surveying or
navigation activity. If accurate project coordinates are needed, an accurate
transformation needs to be done by including a sufficient
number of points whose coordinates are known in both
systems. This method is called Static Surveying, is used
for surveying project that requires high accuracy.

224 Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.189
The following figure illustrates the Real-times DGPS With GPS timing, precision of billionths of a second is
configuration. Note that only one satellite is shown. In now possible. A billionth of a second is called a nanosecond
reality, the base station must receive signals from all the (ns). Such precision has opened up all kinds of
satellites visible to the roving reciver. opportunities.

Fig 7 There are several types of GPS receivers used in time and
frequency metrology. The cost, size, and design of a GPS
timing receiver varies significantly from model to model,
but most share several common features. Most receivers
use the C/A code broadcast on the L1 frequency as their
time and frequency reference. Most can simultaneously
track from 8 to 12 satellites, and can provide time and
frequency signals derived from an average of all satellites
in view. Most provide time-of-day and data information in a
computer readable format.

At the hear of GPS is the timing accuracy available from

atomic clocks. Albert Einstein gave us the relationship
For the highest accuracy in a local area, setting up a
between space and time - the four dimensions of relativity.
base station and using DGPS is the best approach.
These four dimensions may be through of as latitude,
However, the US Government realized the benefit or setting
longitude, altitude and time, or in shorthand x, y, x and t.
up permanent DGPS base stations and raios transmitters,
GPS is the first engineering implementation of relativity
especially along coastal areas and around airports. The
and would not work without it. Fortunately, an understanding
installation of permanent DGPS base stations and making
of relativity is not necessary to gain an understanding of
the correction signals available for free or by subscription

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how GPS works. The relativistic terms are accounted for
is known as GPS Augmentation. Three augmentation
bl I in the design of the satellite clocks and in the receivers
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systems. Beacon, WAAS and LAAS have been developed

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that properly process the data.
by the US Government.
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Time measurement and timing in GPS

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We live in a four-dimensional world and the fourth

dimension is time. Without an accurate estimate of time,
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finding position as it is understood today is not possible.

The GPS delivers time, time interval and frequency they
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where in the world with precision and accuracy more than

adequate for many applications.
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Construction: Draughtsman Civil (NSQF Level-5) - R.T. for Exercise 4.7.189 225