UNIT 3

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
CONCEPTS
 Evolution of Computers
The need for a device to do calculations along with growth in commerce
and other human activities explain the evolution of computers.
1. Sand tables – In ancient times sand table was used to perform
calculations. A sand table consists of 3 grooves in the sand with a
maximum of 10 pebbles in each groove.
2. Abacus – An abacus emerged 5000 years ago and consists of sliding
beads in 2 parts- upper and lower. Addition and subtraction can be
performed by positioning the beads.
3. Napier Bones –in 1614, John Napier, a mathematician developed the
Napier Bones which enabled multiplication in a fast manner.
4. Slide rule – the invention of logarithms lead to the development of
slide rule in 1620. It was based on the principle that actual distance
from starting point of the rule is directly proportional to the log of the
numbers printed on the rule
5. Pascaline – Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented the first
automatic calculator that had a complex arrangement of wheels, gears
and windows for displaying numbers
6. Stepped Reckoner – this machine was the 1st mass produced
calculating device was designed to perform multiplication by repeated
additions.
 Evolution of Computers
7. Punch card system – in 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented a
power loom with automatic card reader. This idea of using punched
cards to communicate with machines was an important step in the
development of computers.
8. Difference Engine – in 1822 Charles Babbage devised this calculating
machine to generate mathematical tables and solve differential
equations
9. Analytical Engine – Also developed by Charles Babbage, this was the
1st general purpose programmable computer.
10. Hollerith’s Tabulator – Herman Hollerith invented the punched card
tabulating machine to process data collected in United States census.
His company was later named IBM( International Business Machines)
11. Other development – in 1904, Sir John Ambrose Fleming developed
the 1st vacuum tube. In 1938, Claude Shannon recognized the
connection between electronic circuits and Boolean Algebra.
12. Some of the early computers developed were MARK 1(1937-44) by
IBM capable of performing addition, subtraction, multiplication and
table reference, ENIAC, UNIVAC.
 Generation of Computers
A major technological development that fundamentally changed the way
computers operate resulting in smaller, cheaper, more powerful, more efficient
and reliable devices characterize each generation of computers.
1. First Generation (1940-56) Vacuum Tubes –
a. These computers were based on vacuum tube technology
b. Vacuum tubes were used for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory
c. Input was based on punch cards and output was in the form of printouts
d. These computers were very large and required a lot of space for
installation
e. Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they generated large
amount of heat.
f. Non-portable and very slow
g. They lacked in versatility and speed
h. Expensive and consumed large amount of electricity
i. Unreliable and frequent hardware failure
j. Difficult to program since machine language was used
k. Examples –ENIAC and UNIVAC
 Generation of Computers
2. Second Generation (1956-63) – Transistors
a. These computers were based on transistor technology
b. Since transistor is a small device, the physical size of the
computer was greatly reduced
c. Computational time was reduced to microseconds from
milliseconds
d. More reliable and less prone to hardware failure
e. More portable and generated less amount of heat
f. Assembly language was used to program computers
g. Second generation computers still required air
conditioning
h. Magnetic cores was used as primary memory and
magnetic disk as secondary memory
i. Examples – PDP-8, IBM 1401 and IBM 7090
 Generation of Computers
3. Third Generation (1964- early 1970’s) – Integrated Circuits
a. These computers were based on Integrated circuit technology
where many components such as transistors and resistors are
fabricated on a single chip.
b. These reduced computational time from microseconds to
nanoseconds
c. Easily portable and more reliable than 2nd generation
computers
d. Consumed less power and generated less heat
e. Since hardware rarely failed, maintenance cost was low
f. Use of high level programming language
g. Interaction was through keyboard and monitors, interface
was through an operating system
h. Commercial production became easier and cheaper
i. Examples – NCR 395 and B6500
 Generation of Computers
4. Fourth Generation (Early 1970’s- till date) –
Microprocessors
a. Fourth generation of computers were based on
microprocessors (circuits containing millions of
transistors )
b. These computers were smaller and cheaper than ever
before
c. Portable and quite reliable
d. These machines generate negligible amount of heat, they
do not require air conditioning
e. GUI and pointing devices enable users to learn computer
quickly
f. Interconnection of computers leads to better
communication and sharing
g. Examples – Apple II, Altair 8800 and CRAY-1
 Generation of Computers
2. Fifth Generation (Present and beyond) – Artificial
Intelligence
a. The objective of creating fifth generation computers was
to create a human like computer capable of reasoning
and reaching a decision through “what-if-then”analysis.
b. Fifth generation computers use “mega chips” or super
large scale integrated chips
c. Parallel processing is possible where several instructions
are executed at one time
d. Artificial intelligence refers to a series of related
technology that tries to simulate human behaviour like
thinking, speaking and reasoning. AI consists of natural
language processing (NLP), speech recognition, vision
recognition and robotics
 Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified according to purpose, data
handling and functionality.
Classification

Purpose Data
Functionality
Handling

General Analog Micro Mini Mainframe Super

Specific Digital Desktop

Hybrid Laptop

Hand-held
 Classification of Computers
1. Classification according to purpose :
a. General-purpose computers – these computers
can be used for applications ranging from scientific
to business purpose applications. These are used in
schools and homes. These computers can store
numerous programs but lack in speed and
efficiency
b. Specific purpose computers – designed to handle a
specific task . A set of instructions is built into the
machine making them less versatile. These
computers are used for airline reservations,
satellite tracking and traffic control.
 Classification of Computers
2. Classification according to type of data handling techniques :
a. Analog Computers – A computing machine that operates on
data in the form of continuously variable physical quantities is
known as analog computer. They measure continuous
physical magnitudes like temperature, pressure, voltage.
Analog computers are used for scientific and engineering
purpose, however accuracy is low
b. Digital Computers – Operates on information in digital form.
Such computers process data (audio, video, text) into digital
value (0’s & 1’s). Digital computers can convert analog data to
digital data and vice versa. These are faster and more
accurate
c. Hybrid Computers – these computers use analog components
for computation and digital memories are used for storage.
Such computers are used in scientific applications, fields of
engineering and industrial control processes.
 Classification of Computers
3. Classification according to functionality :
a. Micro Computers – A micro computer is a small, low cost digital
computer , which usually consists of a microprocessor, a storage
unit, an input channel and an output channel. Micro computers
include :
• Desktop Computer – also called personal computer, it is intended
for use by an individual. It consists of a system unit, monitor,
keyboard, hard disk and other peripheral devices. Eg- Dell, HP
• Laptop- it is a portable computer that resembles a notebook. They
have all the features of a desktop. They are lightweight and do not
need external power supply
• Hand-held computer – such as PDA is a portable computer that
can be stored in a pocket. A PDA uses an electronic stylus for input.
These are also called palmtops. They have no disk drive, but use
small cards to store programs and data. They have limited memory
and are less powerful than desktops. Eg- Franklin e book Man
 Classification of Computers
b. Mini Computers – it is a small digital computer able to process and
store less data than mainframe but more than a microcomputer. It is
designed to meet the computing needs of several people
simultaneously in a small or medium sized business. Ex – PDP, IBM
8000 series
c. Mainframes – it is a high performance computer made for intensive
computing. It consists of a high end processor and other peripherals
for supporting large volumes of data processing, online transaction
processing and data storage and retrieval. Mainframes allow users to
maintain large information storage at a centralized location to access
from different computer sin different locations. Ex- IBM ES000
d. Super Computers – these are special purpose machines designed to
maximize number of FLOPS( floating point operations per second). A
super computer has the highest processing speed for solving
engineering and scientific problems. It contains a number of
processors that operate in parallel and are the fastest, costliest and
most powerful computers available today
 Applications of Computers
1. Science - high speed and accuracy of a computer allows scientists to
analyze and test data. They are used to study how earthquakes affects
buildings, pollution affects weather pattern, get information about
space and solar systems, satellite based applications etc
2. Education – computer aided education and training make learning
more interactive
3. Medicine and health care – it is used by doctors to diagnose illness to
monitoring a patient’s status during complex surgeries. By using
imaging techniques like CT scans and MRI scans, doctors are able to
look into a human body for detailed study.
4. Engineering/ Architecture/ Manufacturing – architects and engineers
use computers in designing and drawings in 3 dimensions. Customized
robotic arms are used to perform hazardous jobs. Computers help in
coordinating entire manufacturing process
5. Entertainment – they are used to control image and sound. Special
effects, animations and colorful graphics are possible because of
computers
 Applications of Computers
6. Communication – e-mails, messages and reports can be passed from
one person to another with the aid of computer and telephone line.
This saves time, avoids wastage of paper and messages can be saved,
replied, forwarded or deleted.
7. Business Applications – Computers are used for real time
applications(sales counter) that require immediate response, in
business forecasting, to pay bills, banking and data storage and in
businesses to aid in management. Businesses use networking of
computers to share data and information. Use of e-mail and internet
has changed ways of doing business.
8. Publishing – In desktop publishing, computer and a laser printer can
perform the publishing job.
9. Banking – in banking and finance, computers are extensively used.
ATM services 24 hours to deposit or withdraw cash. Inter-branch
transactions are made possible by computer networks.
Components of Computers
 Components of Computers
A computer system has the following components :
1. Central Processing Unit( CPU):
a. Also known as processor, it is the brain of the computer system that
processes data (input) and converts it into meaningful data (output).
b. CPU works with data in the discrete form 0’s and 1’s.
c. It is the administrative section of the computer that co-ordinates the
operations and supervises instruction
d. It issues commands to all parts of the computer
e. It controls sequence of operations as per stored instructions
f. It stores data as well as instructions
g. It performs data processing and sends result to output unit.
h. The CPU has 3 parts –
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – this unit performs arithmetic and logical
operations on the available data . The required data is transferred
from the memory unit to the ALU, operation is performed and result is
returned to memory
 Components of Computers
• Control unit – this unit checks the correctness of the sequence of
instructions. It fetches program instructions from the memory,
interprets them and ensures correct execution of the program. It also
controls input/output devices and overall functioning of other parts of
computer.
• Registers – these are special purpose, high speed temporary memory
units to store data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of
calculations. Registers are the CPU’s working memory
2. Input unit – it accepts instructions and data from the user with the
help of input devices such as keyboard, mouse etc. The input unit
converts data into the form that the computer can understand.
3. Output unit – it accepts outputs produced by the computer, converts
them into user understandable form and supplies output to the user
with the help of output devices such as printer, monitor etc
4. Storage unit – it stores the input through input unit and results
produced by the computer before supplying them to the output unit.
2 types of memory are – primary and secondary
 Components of Computers
Primary memory also called main memory is part of the computer that
holds instructions and data currently being processed by the CPU,
intermediate results and recently processed data. Primary memory is
expensive and has limited storage capacity .
Due to limited size of primary memory, a computer employs secondary
memory. It supplies stored information to other units of the computer
when required. It is less expensive and has higher storage. Eg- hard disks
 Software
Software is an organized collection of data and instructions. It is
responsible for controlling, integrating and managing the hardware
components of a computer system for accomplishing specific tasks.
 Software
1. System software – it consists of several programs which are directly
responsible for controlling, integrating and managing individual
hardware components. It acts as an interface between the hardware
and software applications .
a. System Management Software – it is responsible for accurate
functioning of the system and manages the processor, controls
input/output, storage and provides support services as the computer
executes programs. Some examples are :
• Operating system – it is the first layer of software that is loaded into
the computer memory when the computer starts up. It is responsible
for disk access, memory management, task scheduling and user
interfaces. Eg. Windows, Linux
• Device drivers – it is a system program which is responsible for proper
functioning of the device attached to the computer. Whenever a new
device like printer, monitor or mouse is added to the computer, the
device driver must be installed before the device can be used.
 Software
• System utilities – these programs perform day to day tasks related to
the maintenance of the computer. Most common functions of system
utilities include data backups, data recovery, virus protection and disk
management.
b. System development programs - it consists of system software
associated with the development of computer programs.
1. Programming languages – A programming language consists of a
series of commands which are used in software development. 3
categories of programming language are machine language, assembly
language and high level language
2. Language translators – Computers understand only one language
consisting of 0’s and 1’s called machine language. Language translators
help in converting high level programming languages to machine
language. Language translators are divided into 3 categories :
• Compiler – A compiler translates the source code into object code. The
compiler translates the entire piece of source code into machine code
Eg- C compiler
 Software
• Interpreter – it analyses and executes the source code line by line
manner, without looking at the entire code.
• Assembler – assembly language is symbolic representation of machine
code. An assembler translates assembly language program into
machine code.
3. Linker – A typical software consists of thousands of lines of code. The
code is divided into logical groups and stored for easy debugging and
maintenance. A linker is a system program that links together all these
modules to form a single executable program
4. Loader – it is responsible for loading and relocation of the executable
program in the main memory.
 Software
2. Application Software – application software is used by a general user to
accomplish a specific task. Application software is used for a variety of
purposes :
a. As a business tool
b. To assist with graphics and multimedia projects
c. To support home, personal and education activities
d. To facilitate communication
e. Entertainment industry
Examples : Word processors – Microsoft Word
Spreadsheets – Microsoft Excel
Database Management – Oracle
Presentation tools – Microsoft PowerPoint
Web browser software – Google chrome
 Software
Software terminologies :
1. Open source software – Open source software is something which you
can modify according to your needs, share with others without
licensing violations. When we say open source, source code of
software is available publicly which allows you to edit it and distribute
it. Example – Android by Google
2. Freeware – the term freeware is commonly used for copyrighted
software that is given away for free by its owner. Although it is
available for free, the owner retains the copyright which means the
user does not have the right to modify anything in the software.
Freeware software permits redistribution but not modification.
Example- Google Chrome, Skype
3. Proprietary software – also called closed source software, is owned
exclusively by a single company. Its use, modification or redistribution
is prohibited so that the user cannot use it freely. Example – Microsoft
Windows
Working of a keyboard
 Working of a keyboard
1. A keyboard consists of a series of switches connected to a small
keyboard microprocessor.
2. This microprocessor monitors the state of each switch.
3. When the user presses a key, it causes a change in the amount of
current flowing in the circuit associated with that key.
4. The keyboard microprocessor detects this change in the current flow.
The processor can tell when a key is pressed or released.
5. The circuit carries a signal to the microprocessor known as scan code
of the key and this scan code is sent to the operating system.
6. A copy of this code is also stored in the memory of the keyboard.
7. When the operating system reads the scan code, it informs the same
to the keyboard and scan code stored in the memory of the keyboard
is erased
8. If one continues to hold down a key, then processor determines that
the user wants to send that character repeatedly to the computer.
Working of a Laser Printer
 Working of a Laser printer
1. A laser printer is a fast printer that provides the highest quality text
and images.
2. The core component of a laser printer is the photoreceptor drum.
3. A rotating mirror inside the printer causes a beam of laser to sweep
across the photoreceptor drum
4. This laser beam charges the drum positively.
5. The laser beam draws images on this light sensitive drum
6. The drum is then coated with black powder called toner. The toner is
negatively charged so it clings to the positive areas of the drum.
7. As the drum rotates, paper is fed into the printer via a pressure roller
8. The pressure roller transfers the toner onto the paper.
 Computer Network
A computer network is a collection of two or more computers, which are
connected together to share information and resources.
The 3 primary categories of network are :
1. Local area network – it is a computer network that covers a small
geographical area such as an office, home or building. Computers are
connected through a communication medium such as twisted pair cable
or coaxial cable. LAN offers a bandwidth of 10-100Mbps and provides
higher security.
2. Metropolitan area network – it is network of computers spread over a
larger geographical area such as a city. It connects different LAN’s
together to make one large network for the entire city. MAN may be
operated by one organization or be shared by several organizations in the
same city.
3. Wide area network – it extends over a large geographic area such as a
state or a country. These networks use telephone lines, satellite links to
connect. The internet is the largest WAN in the world. For example if a
company has offices in Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore, LAN’s of each of
these locations are connected to each other through WAN .
 Methods of data processing
Collection, manipulation, and processing collected data for the required use is
known as data processing. It is a technique normally performed by a computer;
the process includes retrieving, transforming, or classification of information.
The processing of data largely depends on the following :
1. The volume of data that need to be processed
2. The complexity of data processing operations
3. Capacity and inbuilt technology of respective computer system
4. Technical skills
5. Time constraints
Different methods of data processing.
• Single user programming
• Multiple programming
• Real-time processing
• On-line processing
• Time sharing processing
• Distributed processing
 Methods of data processing
1. Single User Programming
• It is usually done by a single person for his personal use. This
technique is suitable even for small offices.
2. Multiple Programming
• This technique provides facility to store and execute more than
one program in the Central Processing Unit (CPU) simultaneously.
Multiple programming technique increases the overall working
efficiency of the respective computer.
3. Real-time Processing
• This technique facilitates the user to have direct contact with the
computer system. This technique is also known as the direct
mode or the interactive mode technique and is developed
exclusively to perform one task. It is a sort of online processing,
which always remains under execution.
 Methods of data processing
4. On-line Processing
• This technique facilitates the entry and execution of data directly; so, it
does not store first and then process. This technique reduces the data
entry errors, as it validates data at various points and also ensures that
only corrected data is entered. This technique is widely used for online
applications.
5. Time-sharing Processing
• This is another form of online data processing that facilitates several
users to share the resources of an online computer system. This
technique is adopted when results are needed swiftly. As the name
suggests, this system is time based. Following are some of the major
advantages of time-sharing processing :
• Several users can be served simultaneously
• All the users have almost equal amount of processing time
• There is possibility of interaction with the running programs
 Methods of data processing
6. Distributed Processing
• This is a specialized data processing technique in which various
computers (which are located remotely) remain interconnected
with a single host computer making a network of computers.
• All these computer systems remain interconnected with a high
speed communication network. However, the central computer
system maintains the master data base and monitors accordingly.
 Computer Security
“A computer threat is any activity that leads to loss or corruption of data
or physical damage to the hardware. “
Types of threats :
1. Physical threats – this threat may result in loss or physical damage to
the computer systems. Physical threats maybe :
• Internal – this includes fire, water, unstable power supply, technical
failures such as problems in hardware/software
• External – this includes lightning, floods, earthquakes
• Human – this includes theft, illegal processing of data, spying,
destruction of hardware
2. Non-physical threats – also known as logical threats like virus, trojans,
worms, spyware, key loggers, adware, denial of service, unauthorised
access, phishing .
• Virus – Virus is a malicious software that is attached to another
program to execute an unwanted function on the user computer.
 Computer Security
• Trojans-Trojan is a virus that hides within a legitimate program to spread
itself across networks and devices
• Worms- worm is also a virus which can replicate itself without any human
interaction and does not attach itself to a software program in order to
cause damage.
• Spyware – Spyware is a general term for programs that secretly monitor
your activity on your computer to gather personal information such as
usernames, passwords, account numbers, files and other sensitive data.
• Denial-of-service- denial of service attack is often implemented by a
hacker as a means of denying a service that is normally available to a user
or organization.
• Unauthorized access- unauthorized access is when someone gains access
to a website, program, server or service someone else’s account using
someone else’s account.
• Phishing – phishing is an email fraud method in which legitimate looking
emails are sent out in order to gather personal and financial information.