AC Fundamentals
Alternating Current (AC)
Alternating current (AC) is a type of electrical current that changes periodically both in
direction and magnitude, at regular intervals of time. In contrast to DC (Direct Current),
where the flow of electric charge is constant, AC flows back and forth.
Sinusoidal Voltage and Current
A sinusoidal waveform is the most common type of AC waveform.
It follows a sine function:
v(t)=Vm sin(ωt+ϕ)
i(t)=Im sin(ωt+θ)
where:
o Vm, Im: maximum (peak) values
o ω=2πf: angular frequency
o t: time
o ϕ,θ: phase angles
Key Definitions
Term Definition
Amplitude The maximum value (positive or negative) of a waveform. Often denoted as Vm
Term Definition
or Im.
Cycle One complete set of values from start to end (e.g., 0° to 360° or 0 to 2π).
Time Period The time taken to complete one full cycle of the waveform. Measured in seconds
(T) (s).
Frequency
The number of cycles completed per second. Measured in hertz (Hz).
(f)
The angle through which the waveform has passed from zero position. Measured in
Phase
radians
Phase difference between any two waveforms is the angular displacement, by
Phase
which the two waveforms reach their maximum or zero values, in the same
Difference
direction, during a period of one cycle. Measured in radians
Single-phase and Three-phase Electrical Power Supplies
1. Single-phase Power Supply
Definition: A single-phase power supply uses only one alternating voltage. The
voltage varies sinusoidally and completes one cycle every period.
Voltage waveform: Typically 230V, 50Hz.
Structure: Two wires – one live (phase) and one neutral.
Applications
Household appliances (lights, fans, TVs)
Residential homes
Small offices
Small motors and pumps (below ~2 HP)
2. Three-phase Power Supply
Definition: A three-phase power supply delivers power through three alternating
voltages, each 120° out of phase with the others.
Voltage waveform: Typically 400V (line voltage), 50Hz.
Structure: Four wires – three phases (R, Y, B) and one neutral (sometimes five with
earth).
Applications
Industrial machines and motors
Large buildings and commercial establishments
Data centers and high-load HVAC systems
Electrical transmission and distribution networks
Differences: Single-phase vs. Three-phase
Feature Single-phase Three-phase
Number of wires 2 (Phase + Neutral) 3 or 4 (3 Phases + Neutral)
Voltage levels Lower (e.g., 230V) Higher (e.g., 400V line voltage)
Power capacity Limited – Suitable for light loads High – Suitable for heavy machinery
Current flow Pulsating More constant (smooth)
Efficiency Less efficient More efficient
Motor performance Not self-starting (in most cases) Self-starting, smoother operation
Cost Cheaper setup Higher initial cost, but economical for industry
Application Homes, small offices Industries, large buildings
Advantages of Three-phase over Single-phase
Delivers more power with less conductor material.
Motors run smoother, more efficiently, and with higher torque.
Balanced loads reduce vibration and wear on equipment.
Can carry more load over long distances.
