MATH 144

Calculus for the Physical Sciences I

 MATH 144
Calculus for the Physical Sciences I

Vincent Bouchard
University of Alberta

November 9, 2020
 v

These are notes for MATH 144 offered at the University of Alberta.
Preface

These notes are not meant to be complete lectures notes for MATH 144.
Rather, they are structured to accompany the lectures offered at the University
of Alberta.
Each lecture in the course corresponds to a subsection in the notes. Further,
each subsection is structured as follows:
• A brief summary of the content of the section;
• The learning objectives of the section;
• The instructional videos, which should be watched before the live lecture;

• A summary section of the key concepts covered in the section;

• A reference to further readings in the CLP calculus textbooks.
The idea is that you should watch the videos, review the key concepts, and
complete the pre-class quiz on eClass before the associated lecture. The live
lecture will then be devoted mostly to examples and problem solving. The
resulting in-class notes, which will accompany this document by providing
many solved examples, will be posted on eClass.
Let us now delve into the beauty and depth of calculus!

vi
Contents

Preface vi

1 Review 1
1.1 Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Analytic geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 A preview of calculus 8
2.1 A preview of differential and integral calculus from kinematics . 8
2.2 Tangent lines and derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 Limits 12
3.1 An informal definition of limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 The formal definition of limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Infinite limits and vertical asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.4 How to evaluate limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.6 Limits at infinity and horizontal asymptotes . . . . . . . . 19

4 Differentiation 21
4.1 The derivative of a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Differentiation rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4 Derivatives of trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.5 Chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.6 Implict differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.7 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.8 Exponentials and logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.9 Inverse trigonometric functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

5 Integration 36
5.1 Antiderivatives and indefinite integrals . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2 Area, displacement and Riemann sums . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.3 Definite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

vii
CONTENTS viii

5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.5 Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.6 Areas between curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6 Functions and curves 48

6.1 The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.2 The Mean Value Theorem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.3 Maxima and minima. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.4 Curve sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

7 Applications of differentiation 55
7.1 Related rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7.2 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.3 Linear approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.4 Taylor polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.5 Newton’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter 1

Review

In this section we review things that every calculus student should know (but
is afraid to ask).

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Perform algebraic manipulations such as factorization, simplification, ra-
tionalization and completion of the square.
• Determine and state the domain and range of basic functions (root, ra-
tional) using interval notation.
• Determine whether a curve in the plane represents the graph of a function
using the vertical line test.

• Determine whether a function is rational, algebraic, or trigonometric.

• Sketch the graphs of lines, parabolas, the basic trigonometric functions,
and functions involving absolute values.
• Sketch the graphs of circles, ellipses, and hyperbolas.

• Solve simple equations (linear, quadratic, and trigonometric), and simple

inequalities (including inequalities involving absolute values).
• Determine the equation of a line using the slope-intercept form and the
point-slope form.

• Convert degrees into radians and vice versa.

• Recall the definition of all trigonometric ratios and use them to determine
all trigonometric ratios from a given trigonometric ratio.
• Recall the trigonometric ratios of special angles on the unit circle.

• Determine the angle corresponding to a given trigonometric ratio.

1
CHAPTER 1. REVIEW 2

1.1 Algebra
1.1.1 Things to know
√
b2 −4ac
• If ax2 + bx + c = 0, the roots are x = −b± 2a ; the sum of the roots
is −b/a; the product of the roots is c/a.
1
• x−r = .
xr
• xr xs = xr+s .
√
• x√1/n = n x, for n integer. If n is even, then x must be non-negative and
n
x denotes the non-negative root of x.
s
• (xr ) = xr·s , assuming that x ≥ 0. Note that care must be taken if x is
negative. For instance, (x2 )1/2 6= x if x < 0; rather, (x2 )1/2 = |x|.
• Finally, avoid common mistakes: remember that, in general,
√ √ √
x + y 6= x + y,
1 1 1
6= + ,
x+y x y
(x + y)2 6= x2 + y 2 .

1.1.2 Review videos

The following review videos may be useful:

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huW3DPsY9VY
Figure 1.1.1 A review video on quadratic functions

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VT8E3HTWJpM
Figure 1.1.2 A review video on completing squares and zeros of quadratic
functions
CHAPTER 1. REVIEW 3

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ryzROWyVg0M
Figure 1.1.3 A review video on power functions

1.2 Functions
1.2.1 Things to know
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly one
element, called f (x), in a set E.
• Domain and range: The set D is called the domain of f , while the
range of f is the set of all possible values of f (x) as x varies through
the domain.
• Graph of a function: all points in the xy-plane such that y = f (x)
with x in the domain of f .
• Vertical line test: A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function
of x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
• Piecewise defined functions: Functions that are defined using differ-
ent formulae for different parts of their domains.
• Absolute value function: f (x) = |x| is defined by
(
x for x ≥ 0,
|x| = .
−x for x < 0.

• Increasing and decreasing functions: A function is increasing (resp.

decreasing) on some interval I if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) (resp. f (x1 ) > f (x2 ))
for all x1 , x2 ∈ I such that x1 < x2 (resp. x1 > x2 ).
• Odd and even functions: A function f such that f (x) = f (−x) is
even, while if f (x) = −f (−x) it is odd.
• Transformations of functions:
◦ Vertical shift: y = f (x) + k,
◦ Horizontal shift: y = f (x − k),
◦ Vertical stretch: y = cf (x),
◦ Horizontal stretch: y = f (x/c),
◦ Reflection about the x-axis: y = −f (x),
◦ Reflection about the y-axis: y = f (−x),
◦ Composition of functions: (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)). Note that the
domain of f ◦ g is the set of all x in the domain of g such that g(x)
is in the domain of f .
CHAPTER 1. REVIEW 4

• Types of functions:
◦ Linear function: f (x) = mx + b. Its graph is a line with slope m
and y-intercept b.
◦ Polynomial function: f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 .
The degree of f (x) is n. When n = 2, f (x) is called quadratic,
while it is called cubic if n = 3.
◦ Power function: f (x) = xa . If a is a positive integer, then f (x)
is a particular example of a polynomial function. If a = 1/n with n
a positive integer, then f (x) is a root function (for example,√ for
a = 1/2 it is the familiar square root function f (x) = x1/2 = x).
For a = −1, it is the reciprocal function f (x) = 1/x.
P (x)
◦ Rational function: f (x) = Q(x) where P (x) and Q(x) are poly-
nomial functions.
◦ Algebraic function: A function that can be constructed using
algebraic operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and taking roots) starting with a polynomial function. All
rational functions are clearly algebraic.

1.2.2 Review videos

The following review videos may be useful:

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=onmTUoOu8sE
Figure 1.2.1 A review video on functions

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y0cqY8Zf6AQ
Figure 1.2.2 A review video on transformations of functions
CHAPTER 1. REVIEW 5

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=90I1XKJV8tI
Figure 1.2.3 A review video on composition of functions

1.3 Analytic geometry

1.3.1 Things to know
• Lines:
◦ Given two points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) in the xy-plane,

∆x =x2 − x1 is called the change in x, or the “run”,

∆y =y2 − y1 is called the change in y, or the “rise”.

If x1 6= x2 , the line passing through the points P1 and P2 is non-

vertical, and its slope is
y2 − y1 ∆y rise
m= = =
x2 − x1 ∆x run

◦ If P1 6= P2 but ∆y = 0 then m = 0 and the line is horizontal.

If P1 6= P2 but ∆x = 0 then the line is vertical, and its slope is
undefined. A vertical line is not the graph of a function, since it
does not pass the vertical line test.
◦ The equation of a line has the form y = mx + b, where m is the
slope and b is the y-intercept.
◦ Two lines y = m1 x + b1 and y = m2 x + b2 are parallel if m1 = m2 .
They are perpendicular if m1 = −1/m2 .
◦ To find the equation of the line with a given slope m = a passing
through a point P (x1 , y1 ), we can use the point-slope formula:

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).

We expand and gather terms to get an equation of the form y =

mx + b.
◦ To find the equation of the line passing through two points P1 (x1 , y1 )
and P2 (x2 , y2 ), we first determine that the slope of the line is
y2 − y1
m= ,
x2 − x1
and then substitute into the point-slope formula to get
y2 − y1
y − y1 = (x − x1 ).
x2 − x1
We expand and gather terms to get an equation of the form y =
mx + b.
CHAPTER 1. REVIEW 6

◦ The distance between two points P1 (x1 , y1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 ) is

p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

• Triangles: The area of a triangle is A = 21 bh, where b is the base and h

the height.
• Circles:

◦ The equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and radius r is

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 .

◦ The area of a circle is A = πr2 .

◦ The circumference of a circle is C = 2πr.
◦ The area of a sector of a circle is A = 21 θr2 where θ is the angle in
radians.
◦ The length of an arc is L = θr.
• Parabolas: A parabola is the graph of a function of the form y =
ax2 + bx + c.
• Ellipses: The equation of an ellipse with centre (h, k) is

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ = 1.
a2 b2

• Hyperbolas: The equation of a hyperbola with “centre” (h, k) is

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− = 1.
a2 b2

• Three-dimensional objects:
◦ The volume of a sphere of radius r is V = 43 πr3 .
◦ The surface area of a sphere is A = 4πr2 .
◦ The volume of a cylinder is V = πr2 h where r is the radius and h
the height.
◦ The volume of a right circular cone is V = 13 πr2 h.

1.4 Trigonometry
1.4.1 Things to know
• To convert angles between degrees and radians: 180o = π radians.

• A point (x, y) on the unit circle at angle θ with respect to the positive
side of the x-axis (positive angle meaning counterclockwise rotation) has
coordinates (x, y) = (cos θ, sin θ).
• Given a right triangle,
opposite adjacent
sin θ = , cos θ = .
hypotenuse hypotenuse
CHAPTER 1. REVIEW 7

• The four other trig functions can be obtained from sin θ and cos θ as:
sin θ cos θ 1 1
tan θ = , cot θ = , sec θ = , csc θ = .
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ

• Some useful trigonometric identities:

◦

sin2 A + cos2 A = 1, tan2 A + 1 = sec2 A,

1 + cot2 A = csc2 A.

Note that you only need to remember the first one, you can derive
the other two from it.
◦

sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B,

cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B.

sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A,

cos 2A = cos A − sin2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 A.
2

◦
1 1
sin2 A = (1 − cos 2A), cos2 A = (1 + cos 2A).
2 2

1.4.2 Review videos

The following review video may be useful:

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=weUyNxzA5LM
Figure 1.4.1 A review video on trigonometry
Chapter 2

A preview of calculus

2.1 A preview of differential and integral calcu-

lus from kinematics
We start with a preview of what differential and integral calculus is all about.
We start from the point of view of kinematics. We study how differential
calculus, and the notion of derivative, is intimately connected to the ideas of
rate of change and velocity. We then look at integral calculus, and the notion
of integral, and see how it relates to the ideas of area and distance. In both
cases, we realize that the notion of “limit” is key. Those are the foundations
of calculus, which we will study throughout this course.
We are deliberately imprecise in this section: the aim is simply to give an
overview of the foundational concepts of calculus, which we will develop more
rigorously during the semester.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain the difference between average and instantaneous velocity.
• Describe the limit process that arises in the computation of an instanta-
neous velocity.
• Describe and illustrate how to approximate the area under a curve using
approximating rectangles.
• Describe the limit process that arises in the computation of the area
under a curve.
• Relate the calculation of the area under a curve to the calculation of the
distance covered in kinematics.

8
CHAPTER 2. A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS 9

2.1.1 Instructional videos

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LzwagSBAUYY

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h3qphnxINIE

2.1.2 Key concepts

Concept 2.1.1 Derivative, rate of change and velocity. Given a function
f:
• The average rate of change of f over the interval [x1 , x2 ] is given by

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
.
x2 − x1

• The instantaneous rate of change of f at x = c is called the deriva-

df
tive of f at x = c and is denoted by f 0 (c) or dx . It is given by the
x=c
limit
f (x) − f (c)
f 0 (c) = lim .
x→c x−c
The limit here means that we take the average rate of change over an
interval [x, c] with c as close as possible to x.

• If the function f is the position function of an object, then its average

rate of change is the average velocity of the object over a time interval,
while its instantaneous rate of change is its instantaneous velocity.
Concept 2.1.2 Integral, distance and area. Let v(t) be the velocity
function of an object, and assume that it is always positive (for simplicity):
• The distance covered by the object between t1 and t2 can be obtained by
calculating the area under the graph of v(t) between t = t1 and t = t2 .
• An approximation can be obtained by slicing the area into rectangles of
width ∆t and summing over the areas of the rectangles.

• By taking the limit ∆t → 0 (equivalently, by sending the number of

rectangles to infinity), we obtain an exact expression for the area under
the graph and the distance covered. The resulting expression is called
the integral of the function v(t) between t = t1 and t = t2 , and is
CHAPTER 2. A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS 10

written as Z t2
v(t) dt.
t1

It is the “inverse operation of differentiation”, as we will see later on when

we study the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

2.1.3 Further readings

Section 1.2 in CLP1

2.2 Tangent lines and derivatives

In the previous section we introduced the concept of derivative through kine-
matics. Here we see that the derivative also has a deep interpretation in ge-
ometry, as calculating the slope of the tangent line to the graph of a function.
We study our first “tangent line problem”, which leads us to the question of
how to evaluate (and define) limits.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Describe and illustrate the connection between the velocity and tangent
problems.
• Explain the difference between the slope of a secant line connecting two
points on a curve and the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a point.

• Describe the limit process that arises in the calculation of the slope of a
tangent line.
• Use correct notation for the limit process, to represent the slope of a
tangent line as an appropriate limit of the slope of a secant line.

• Calculate the equation of the tangent line for simple functions.

2.2.1 Instructional videos

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8DNxR8jW2SU
CHAPTER 2. A PREVIEW OF CALCULUS 11

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6oAlqvUHjw

2.2.2 Key concepts

Concept 2.2.1 Secant line. Given two points P1 (c, f (c)) and P2 (x2 , f (x2 ))
on the graph of a function f , the slope of the secant line through P1 and
P2 is given by
f (x2 ) − f (c)
mP1 P2 = .
x2 − c
Equivalently, defining x2 = c + h, it can be written as

f (c + h) − f (c)
mP1 P2 = .
h
This is known as the difference quotient of the function f at x = c.
Concept 2.2.2 Tangent line. The slope of the tangent line to the
curve y = f (x) at P1 (c, f (c)) is obtained by taking the limit x2 → c or,
equivalently, h → 0:

f (x2 ) − f (c)
m = lim
x2 →c x2 − c
f (c + h) − f (c)
= lim .
h→0 h
Thus, m is precisely equal to the derivative of f at x = c; that is, m = f 0 (c).

2.2.3 Further readings

Section 1.1 in CLP1
Chapter 3

Limits

3.1 An informal definition of limits

Our brief overview of calculus convinced us that the study of limits is founda-
tional in calculus. In this section we give an informal definition of limits, and
show how the value of a limit can (sometimes, but not always) be estimated
using tables of values. We also define the notion of one-sided limits.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain and illustrate the concept of the limit of a function f (x) as x
approaches a.
• Construct examples of limits that exist and examples of limits that do
not exist.
• Identify a given limit (or conclude that it does not exist) from the graph
of a function.
• Explain the difference between left- and right-sided limits.

• Relate limits to one-sided limits.

• Estimate the value of a limit using a table of values.

3.1.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=07s1XkBToeU

12
CHAPTER 3. LIMITS 13

3.1.2 Key concepts

Concept 3.1.1 The informal definition of limits. We write

lim f (x) = L,
x→a

and say that the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is equal to L, if we

can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently close
to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.
Note that saying that lim f (x) = L is not the same as saying that f (a) =
x→a
L. The former is about the behaviour of f (x) for x near a, while the latter is
the value of the function f (x) at the point x = a.
Concept 3.1.2 Estimating the value of a limit using a table of values.
We can often estimate lim f (x) by writing down a table of values for the
x→a
function f (x) with x closer and closer to a (from both sides).
Concept 3.1.3 One-sided limits. We write

lim f (x) = L,
x→a−

if f (x) gets close to L when x approaches a from the left (from below), and

lim f (x) = L,
x→a+

if f (x) gets close to L when x approaches a from the right (from above).
Concept 3.1.4 Limits vs one-sided limits. Note that

lim f (x) = L
x→a

if and only if

lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.

x→a− x→a+

3.1.3 Further readings

Section 1.3 in CLP1

3.2 The formal definition of limits

The informal definition of limits given in the previous subsection is imprecise,
since we have not defined what it means to say “arbitrarily close” and “suffi-
ciently close”. The formal definition of limits makes such statements precise.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• State the formal definition of limits.

3.2.1 Instructional video

There is no instructional video on this particular topic. It will be covered
during the live lecture.
CHAPTER 3. LIMITS 14

3.2.2 Key concepts

Concept 3.2.1 The formal definition of limits. Let a ∈ R, and let f be
a function defined on some open interval that contains x = a, except possibly
at x = a itself. Then we write

lim f (x) = L,
x→a

and say that the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is L, if and only if for
every real number  > 0, there exists a real number δ > 0 such that:

if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .

Since  is an arbitrary positive number, what this says is that we can make the
distance between f (x) and L arbitrarily small, by taking the distance between
x and a sufficiently small.

3.2.3 Further readings

Section 1.7 in CLP1

3.3 Infinite limits and vertical asymptotes

So far we have studied limits that “exist”, in the sense that as x approaches
a, the value of the function f (x) gets arbitrarily close to a finite value L.
But there is another interesting case: sometimes the value of f (x) becomes
arbitrarily large (either positive or negative) as x → a. This is the concept
of “infinite limits”, which is what we study in this section. We also study the
related concept of vertical asymptotes.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Evaluate infinite limits.
• Explain and illustrate the connection between infinite limits and vertical
asymptotes.
• Determine whether a limit exists or not.
• Determine the vertical asymptotes of the graph of a function.

3.3.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t58_ahWlIB8
CHAPTER 3. LIMITS 15

3.3.2 Key concepts

Concept 3.3.1 Infinite limits. Let f (x) be a function that is defined near
x = a (but not necessarily at x = a).
We write
lim f (x) = ∞,
x→a

and say that the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is infinity if the values
of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large and positive by taking x sufficiently close
to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.
Similarly, we write
lim f (x) = −∞,
x→a

and say that the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is negative infinity

if the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large and negative by taking x
sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.
Concept 3.3.2 Vertical asymptotes. The line x = a is called a vertical
asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim f (x) = ±∞ or both.

x→a− x→a+

Note that the function f (x) does not have to blow up on both sides of x = a
for it to be a vertical asymptote; as long as the limit is infinite on one side of
x = a it is a vertical asymptote.
Concept 3.3.3 Existence of limits. We say that lim f (x) exists if
x→a
lim f (x) = L, with L a finite number (L = 0 is perfectly fine).
x→a
So there are two reasons why a limit may not exist:

1. The left-sided and right-sided limits may be different:

lim f (x) 6= lim f (x),

x→a+ x→a−

in which case we write that

lim f (x) DNE.

x→a

2. The limit may be infinite. In this case we write

lim f (x) = ±∞,

x→a

keeping in mind that the limit does not exist since ±∞ is not a finite
number.

3.3.3 Further readings

Section 1.3 in CLP1

3.4 How to evaluate limits

Well, now that we know everything about limits, why not evaluate them? Let
us now study various techniques to evaluate limits!
CHAPTER 3. LIMITS 16

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Evaluate a given limit (or conclude that it does not exist) using the limit
laws and algebraic manipulations such as factoring, making a common
denominator and/or rationalizing the numerator or denominator.
• For the limit of a quotient function f (x)/g(x), distinguish between three
possible outcomes (L, “A/0” where A is not equal to 0, and “0/0”).
• Explain, illustrate and apply the Squeeze Theorem.

3.4.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xdq7x-HjceA

3.4.2 Key concepts

Concept 3.4.1 Limit laws. Assume that lim f (x) and lim g(x) exist. Then:
x→a x→a
• Limit of a constant: lim c = c for any c ∈ R.
x→a

• Limit of x: lim x = a.
x→a

• Sum rule: lim (f (x) ± g(x)) = lim f (x) ± lim g(x).

x→a x→a x→a
  
• Product rule: lim (f (x) · g(x)) = lim f (x) lim g(x) .
x→a x→a x→a

f (x) lim f (x)

• Quotient rule: lim = x→a if lim g(x) 6= 0.
x→a g(x) lim g(x) x→a
x→a
 1/n
1/n
• Root rule: lim (f (x)) = lim f (x) , where n is a positive inte-
x→a x→a
ger. For n even we require that lim f (x) > 0 so that the root is real and
x→a
the limit is well defined.
Concept 3.4.2 Simplifying a function. If f (x) = g(x) for x 6= a, then

lim f (x) = lim g(x),

x→a x→a

provided the limits exist. In practice, what this means is that when you are
evaluating lim f (x), then you can manipulate f (x) by simplifying it using
x→a
things like factorization, rationalization, common denominator, etc., assuming
that x 6= a, and it will not change the limit.
CHAPTER 3. LIMITS 17

Concept 3.4.3 Flowchart. This flowchart is for calculating the limit

f (x)
lim
x→a g(x)

for simple enough functions f (x) and g(x) (not piecewise-defined, no absolute
values, etc.) such that both f (a) and g(a) are finite. This is the form of many
functions that we will encounter for the time being. If your function is not
of this form, you may first need to use algebraic techniques, such as common
denominator, to transform it into this form.

Figure 3.4.4 Flowchart for evaluating limits

Concept 3.4.5 Squeeze theorem. First, if f (x) ≤ g(x) for all x near
a (except possibly at x = a), and if the limits of both functions exist as x
approaches a, then
lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x).
x→a x→a

The Squeeze theorem states that, if g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x) for all x near a
(except possibly at x = a), and if

lim g(x) = lim h(x) = L, then lim f (x) = L.

x→a x→a x→a

3.4.3 Further readings

Section 1.4 of CPL1

3.5 Continuity
We encountered some functions whose values become arbitrarily large as x → a.
Those are examples of functions that are not “continuous”. Roughly speaking,
a function is continuous if you can draw the graph of the function without
lifting your pen. In this section we study the notion of continuity in more
detail.
CHAPTER 3. LIMITS 18

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain and illustrate the definition of continuity.

• Explain and illustrate infinite, jump, and removable discontinuities.

• Apply the definition of continuity to determine whether or not a function
is continuous at a point.

3.5.1 Instructional video

There is no instructional video on this particular topic. It will be covered
during the live lecture.

3.5.2 Key concepts

Concept 3.5.1 Continuity. A function f (x) is continuous at x = a if

lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Thus, for a function to be continuous, it must satisfy the three conditions:

1. f (a) exists;

2. lim f (x) exists;

x→a

3. lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

A function is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every point in

the interval. Practically, it is continuous over an interval if you can draw the
graph of the function over this interval without lifting your pen.
A function is continuous from the right at x = a if

lim f (x) = f (a),

x→a+

while it is continuous from the left at x = a if

lim f (x) = f (a),

x→a−

Concept 3.5.2 Combining continuous functions. Let a, c ∈ R, and

f (x), g(x) be functions that are continuous at x = a. Then the following
functions are also continuous at x = a:

f (x) + g(x),
f (x) − g(x),
cf (x),
f (x)g(x),
f (x)
provided g(a) 6= 0.
g(x)
Concept 3.5.3 Some continuous functions. The following functions are
continuous at every point in their domain: polynomials, rational functions,
root functions, trigonometric functions, exponential functions, and logarithmic
functions. Most functions that appear in physics are continuous.
CHAPTER 3. LIMITS 19

Concept 3.5.4 Composition of continuity. Let f (x) be a function that

is continuous at x = b, and lim g(x) = b. Then
x→a
 
lim f (g(x)) = f (b) = f lim g(x) .
x→a x→a

Thus, if g(x) is continous at x = a, we have that lim g(x) = g(a). Therefore

x→a

lim f (g(x)) = f (g(a)),

x→a

that is, the composition

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
is continuous at x = a.

3.5.3 Further readings

Section 1.6 in CLP1

3.6 Limits at infinity and horizontal asymptotes

We finally introduce one last type of limits, namely limits at infinity, and
the related concept of horizontal asymptotes. These concern the behaviour of
functions when you take the argument to be arbitrarily large (either positive
or negative).

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Evaluate limits at infinity.
• Explain and illustrate the connection between limits at infinity and hor-
izontal asymptotes.

• Find the horizontal asymptotes, if any, of a function.

3.6.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nlfLXbGAeEU

3.6.2 Key concepts

Concept 3.6.1 Limits at infinity. Let f (x) be a function defined on some
interval (a, ∞). Then
lim f (x) = L
x→∞

if the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by requiring x to

be sufficiently large.
CHAPTER 3. LIMITS 20

Similarly, for a function f (x) defined on some interval (−∞, a),

lim f (x) = L
x→−∞

if the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by requiring x to

be sufficiently large but negative.
In other words, we are looking at whether the function converges to a finite
number L as x becomes very large either on the positive or negative side.
Note that this definition can be generalized to include limits at infinity that
are infinite:
lim f (x) = ∞
x→∞

means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large for x suffi-
ciently large. A similar definition holds for −∞.
It can also happen that limits at infinity DNE, such as lim sin(x).
x→∞

Concept 3.6.2 Some useful limits. For all rational numbers r > 0,
1
lim = 0,
x→∞ xr
and for all rational numbers r > 0 such that xr is well defined for all x,
1
lim = 0.
x→−∞ xr
Concept 3.6.3 Tip to evaluate limits at infinity for rational functions.
To evaluate limits at infinity for rational functions (it also works for ratios of
functions involving roots), divide both numerator and denominator by the
largest power of x that occurs in the denominator.
Concept 3.6.4 Horizontal asymptotes. The horizontal line y = L is a
horizontal asymptote of y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = L, or lim f (x) = L.

x→∞ x→−∞

3.6.3 Further readings

Section 1.5 of CPL1
Chapter 4

Differentiation

4.1 The derivative of a function

In our overview of calculus, we realized that the derivative of a function was
a fundamental concept: given the position function of an object, it ouputs
its velocity function. Generally, it gives the instantaneous rate of change of a
function. Geometrically, the derivative of a function at a point gives the slope
of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point.
We have also seen that the derivative of a function is defined as a limit.
Now that we know how to evaluate limits, we can go back to the concept of
derivatives, and study it in more depth!

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain why the derivative of a function is itself a function.
• Calculate the derivative of simple functions (such as linear and quadratic
polynomials, square root function, and simple rational functions) from
the definition of the derivative of a function.

• Sketch the graph of the derivative of a function from the graph of the
function itself.

4.1.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qdiI1fzv2r8

21
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 22

4.1.2 Key concepts

Concept 4.1.1 The derivative of a function. The derivative of a
function f (x) is defined by

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim .
h→0 h
We can calculate the derivative of any function directly from the definition, by
evaluating the limit above.
Concept 4.1.2 Notation. The following are equivalent notations for the
derivative of a function y = f (x):

dy df d
f 0 (x) = y 0 = = = f (x).
dx dx dx
Concept 4.1.3 Interpretation of the derivative. The value of f 0 (x) of
x = a represents:
• The instantaneous rate of change of f (x) at x = a (instantaneous velocity
if f is a position function);

• The slope of the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x) at (a, f (a)).
Concept 4.1.4 Higher derivatives.
• The second derivative of f is denoted by f 00 (x) or

d2 f
.
dx2
It is the derivative of f 0 , that is, the derivative of the derivative of f . For
instance, if f is a position function, f 0 is the velocity function and f 00 is
the acceleration function.
• Similarly, the third derivative of f is denoted by f 000 (x) or

d3 f
.
dx3
Is it the derivative of f 00 .
• In general, the n’th derivative of f is denoted by f (n) (x) or

dn f
.
dxn
It is the derivative of f (n−1) , that is, it is obtained from f by differenti-
ating n times.

4.1.3 Further readings

Section 2.2 in CLP1Section 2.3 in CLP1Section 2.14 in CLP1

4.2 Differentiability
In the previous section we reviewed that the derivative of a function is defined
as a limit. But when we studied limits, we realized that sometimes limits do
not exist. What happens if the limit in the definition of the derivative of a
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 23

given function does not exist at a point? This is what we study in this section.
Basically, a function f (x) is “differentiable” at a point x = a if the limit in the
definition of its derivative f 0 (a) exists. Let us now study this in more detail!

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain and illustrate the definition of differentiability.

• Apply the definition of differentiability to determine whether or not a

function is differentiable at a point a.
• Visually identify where functions are not differentiable (corners, discon-
tinuities, vertical tangents), and explain why.
• Relate the notions of differentiability and continuity.

4.2.1 Instructional video

There is no instructional video on this particular topic. It will be covered
during the live lecture.

4.2.2 Key concepts

Concept 4.2.1 Differentiability. A function f is differentiable at x = a
if f 0 (a) exists (as a limit). It is differentiable on an open interval (a, b) if it is
differentiable at every point in the interval.
Concept 4.2.2 Relation between continuity and differentiability. A
function f that is not continuous at x = a is also not differentiable at x = a.
Equivalently, a function f that is differentiable at x = a must be continuous
at x = a.
The converse is not true: a function f that is continuous at x = a may
not be differentiable at x = a (think of f (x) = |x| at x = 0).
Concept 4.2.3 Where functions fail to be differentiable. A function
can fail to be differentiable at x = a in three different ways:
• It is not continuous at x = a;
• The left-sided limits and right-sided limits of the difference quotient are
not the same, in which case f has a corner or a kink at x = a;
• The limit of the difference quotient is infinite, in which case f has a
vertical tangent at x = a.

4.2.3 Further readings

Section 2.2.3 in CLP1

4.3 Differentiation rules

Even though in principle we can calculate the derivative of any differentiable
function from its definition as the limit of the difference quotient, in prac-
tice such limit calculations quickly become rather painful. We need to find a
better way of calculating derivatives. This is what we study in this section
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 24

and in the next few sections. We prove a number of rules, collectively called
“differentiation rules”, which allow us to drastically simplify the calculation of
derivatives of complicated functions. We prove these rules using the definition
of the derivative as a limit: but once the rules are proven, we can use them
directly to calculate derivatives of complicated functions.
We start in this section by studying the following foundational differentia-
tion rules: the power rule, the constant multiple rule, the sum and difference
rules, the product rule, and the quotient rule.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Derive foundational rules of differentiation (such as power rule, constant
multiple rule, sum rule, product rule, quotient rule) from the definition
of the derivative of a function.

• Recall foundational rules of differentiation (such as power rule, constant

multiple rule, sum rule, product rule, quotient rule), and use them to
calculate derivatives.

4.3.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jH3Jqz5-j4U

4.3.2 Key concepts

Concept 4.3.1 Power rule. For any real number a ∈ R,
d
(xa ) = axa−1 .
dx
Note that it follows from the power rule that the derivative of any constant c
is always zero.
Concept 4.3.2 Constant multiple rule. For any constant c and differen-
tiable function f ,
d
(cf (x)) = cf 0 (x).
dx
Concept 4.3.3 Sum and difference rules. For any two differentiable
functions f and g,
d
(f (x) ± g(x)) = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x).
dx
Concept 4.3.4 Product rule. For any two differentiable functions f and g,
d
(f (x)g(x)) = f 0 (x)g(x) + f (x)g 0 (x).
dx
Note that this is not equal to the product of the derivatives f 0 (x)g 0 (x).
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 25

Concept 4.3.5 Quotient rule. For any two differentiable functions f and
g,
f 0 (x)g(x) − f (x)g 0 (x)
 
d f (x)
= 2 .
dx g(x) (g(x))
Note that this is not equal to the quotient of the derivatives

f 0 (x)
.
g 0 (x)

An easy way to remember the quotient rule is to sing the song:

low d-hi minus hi d-low, draw the line and square below!
Finally, note that the quotient rule is actually a consequence of the product
rule and the chain rule, as we will see shortly.

4.3.3 Further readings

Section 2.4 in CLP1Section 2.5 in CLP1Section 2.6 in CLP1

4.4 Derivatives of trigonometric functions

In the previous section we proved a few foundational differentiation rules from
the definition of the derivative. In this section we use the definition of the
derivative and differentiation rules to calculate the derivatives of trigonometric
functions. We encounter along the way a few interesting and non-trivial limits
involving trigonometric functions.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Determine the derivatives of the primary trigonometric functions, sin x
and cos x, from the definition of derivatives, and recall the result.

• Calculate the derivatives of other trigonometric functions using the deriva-

tives of the primary trigonometric functions, the quotient rule and trigono-
metric identities.
sin x
• Evaluate certain limits involving trigonometric functions, such as lim
x→0 x
cos x − 1
and lim .
x→0 x

4.4.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DxG7qouILuw
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 26

4.4.2 Key concepts

Concept 4.4.1 Useful trigonometric limits.
sin x
lim =1
x→0 x
cos x − 1
lim =0.
x→0 x
The first one can be proved using the Squeeze Theorem; the second one then
follows using trigonometric identities and limit laws.
Concept 4.4.2 Derivatives of trigonometric functions.
d d
sin x = cos x, cos x = − sin x,
dx dx
d d
tan x = sec2 x, cot x = − csc2 x,
dx dx
d d
sec x = sec x tan x, csc x = − csc x cot x.
dx dx
The first two can be proved from the definition of the derivative; the other ones
then follow using the quotient rule.

4.4.3 Further readings

Section 2.8 in CLP1

4.5 Chain rule

We now study another differentiation rule, known as the “chain rule”. It is
useful to calculate the derivative of a “composite function”, namely a “function
of a function”. For instance, if f and g are differentiable functions, then the
chain rule can be used to calculate the derivative of the composite function
F (x) = f (g(x)).

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Recall the statement of the chain rule and identify when it is required to
calculate the derivative of function.
• Apply the chain rule to calculate derivatives of functions.

• Translate between different notations for the chain rule.

4.5.1 Instructional video

CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 27

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sbew3V0nxpI

4.5.2 Key concepts

Concept 4.5.1 The chain rule. Let f and g be two functions such that g is
differentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x). Then the composite function
F = f ◦ g defined by F (x) = f (g(x)) is differentiable at x, and its derivative is
given by
F 0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x).
This is known as the chain rule.
In Leibniz notation, if y = f (u) and u = g(x), then the chain rule can be
written as
dy dy du
= .
dx du dx
A tip: When using the chain rule, you work from the outside to the inside.
You first differentiate the outer function f (evaluated at the inner function
g(x) ) and then multiply by the derivative of the inner function.
Concept 4.5.2 Do we need the quotient rule? We derived previously
the quotient rule. But do we really need it? Instead of using the quotient rule,
you can always use the product rule and the chain rule instead. Indeed,
 
d f (x) d
f (x)(g(x))−1 ,


=
dx g(x) dx

and then you can calculate the right-hand-side by using the product rule and
the chain rule.

4.5.3 Further readings

Section 2.9 in CLP1

4.6 Implict differentiation

So far we have mostly dealt by functions that are given “explicitly”, as y =
f (x). But sometimes functions are defined “implicitly”: this happens when a
function y = f (x) is defined implicitly by a relation between y and x (which
you may or may not be able to solve explicitly for y). We study such implicit
functions in this section, and show how we can calculate their derivatives. The
resulting process is known as “implicit differentiation”.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain and illustrate the concept of implicit functions.

• Use the method of implicit differentiation to calculate the derivative of

implicit functions.
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 28

4.6.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fL7_6DrZcc0

4.6.2 Key concepts

Concept 4.6.1 Implicit functions. Given a relation

H(x, y) = 0,

we say that f is a function defined implicitly by this relation if

H(x, f (x)) = 0

for all x in the domain of f .

A relation H(x, y) = 0 defines a curve in the xy-plane, which implicitly
defines y as one or several functions of x.
Concept 4.6.2 Implicit differentiation. Implicit differentiation is the
process of calculating the derivative of a function defined implicitly by a relation
H(x, y) = 0.
To calculate the derivative y 0 of an implicit function:
1. Treat the variable y in the relation as an unknown but differentiable
function of x (like y = g(x)), and differentiate both sides of the relation
with respect to x, using the chain rule.
2. Collect the terms involving y 0 on one side of the equation and solve for
y0 .
Note that this will generally give y 0 as a function of x and y, where y is
understood as the function implicitly defined by the original relation.

4.6.3 Further readings

Section 2.11 in CLP1

4.7 Inverse functions

In this section we review the concept of inverse functions, and use implicit
differentiation to calculate the derivative of an inverse function. This will
helpful to study exponentials, logarithms, and inverse trigonometric functions
in the next few sections.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Determine whether a given function has an inverse.
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 29

• Relate the graph of a function and of its inverse.

• Relate the domain and the range of a function and of its inverse.
• Calculate explicitly the inverse of a function when possible.

• Calculate the derivative of an inverse function using implicit differentia-

tion.

4.7.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I1Qjo_WMWqk

4.7.2 Key concepts

Concept 4.7.1 One-to-one functions. A function is one-to-one (or in-
jective) if it never takes on the same value twice; that is,

f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2 .

Given the graph of a function, it is easy to see whether it is one-to-one: a

function is one-to-one if no horizontal line intersects its graph more than once.
This is sometimes known as the horizontal line test.
Concept 4.7.2 Inverse functions. Let f be a one-to-one function with
domain A and range B. Then its inverse function f −1 has domain B and
range A and is defined by

y = f (x) if and only if f −1 (y) = x.

The domain of f is the range of f −1 , while the range of f is the domain of

−1
f .
Inverse functions satisfy:

f −1 (f (x)) =x for x in the domain of f ,

−1
f (f (x)) =x for x in the domain of f −1 .

The graph of y = f −1 (x) can be obtained by reflecting the graph of y = f (x)

about the line y = x.
1
Note that f −1 (x) is not the same as the reciprocal [f (x)]−1 = .
f (x)
Concept 4.7.3 How to calculate f −1 from f .
1. Calculate the domain and the range of f (those will become the range
and the domain of f −1 ).

2. Check that f is a one-to-one function, or restrict its domain so that it is

one-to-one on this restricted domain.
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 30

3. Write y = f (x). Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible). This
gives you the inverse function x = f −1 (y) as a function of y.
4. To express f −1 as a function of x, interchange x and y, so that you get
y = f −1 (x).
Concept 4.7.4 The derivative of an inverse function. To calculate the
derivative of an inverse function y = f −1 (x), we use implicit differentiation.
We know that:

y = f −1 (x) if and only if x = f (y).

We differentiate both sides of the relation x = f (y) with respect to x, treating

y as an unknown but differentiable function of x. We get:
dy
1 = f 0 (y) · .
dx
We solve for y 0 to get
1 1
y0 = = .
f 0 (y) f 0 (f −1 (x))

4.7.3 Further readings

Section 0.6 in CLP1

4.8 Exponentials and logarithms

We now introduce exponentials and logarithms. Using what we learned about
inverse functions and implicit differentiation, we calculate their derivatives. We
also study logarithmic differentiation, which is a fancy application of implicit
differentiation.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Sketch the graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions, and recall
their main properties.
• Derive the derivative of exponential and logarithmic functions from the
definition of derivatives, inverse functions and implicit differentiation.

• Differentiate functions involving exponential and logarithmic functions.

• Differentiate functions involving products, quotients or powers by using
logarithms (logarithmic differentiation).
• Find the number e as a limit.
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 31

4.8.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uE-xbwImv-o

4.8.2 Key concepts

Concept 4.8.1 Exponential functions. Exponential functions are func-
tions of the form f (x) = ax for some positive constant a. The domain of
f (x) = ax , for any a, is R, while the range (for a 6= 1) is (0, ∞) (as ax is always
positive for any real number x).
For a and b positive numbers and x and y real numbers, exponential func-
tions satisfy:
• ax+y = ax ay ,
ax
• ax−y = ay ,

• (ax )y = axy ,
• (ab)x = ax bx .
Concept 4.8.2 The natural exponential function. The base e ' 2.71828
is such that the slope of the tangent line to y = ex at (0, 1) is exactly one. The
function f (x) = ex is so cool that is has its own name: it is called the natural
exponential function.
Concept 4.8.3 Logarithmic funcctions. The logarithmic function with
base a, denoted by f (x) = loga (x), is the inverse function of the exponential
function ax . That is,

x = ay if and only if loga (x) = y.

The domain of logarithmic functions (for a 6= 1) is (0, ∞), while the range is
R (as it is the inverse of the exponential function ax , and so the domain and
range are exchanged).
By definition of inverse functions, we have:

loga (ax ) =x for x ∈ R,

aloga (x) =x for x ∈ (0, ∞).

For x and y positive numbers, and r a real number, logarithmic functions

satisfy:

• loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y),

 
• loga xy = loga (x) − loga (y),

• loga (xr ) = r loga (x).

CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 32

Concept 4.8.4 The natural logarithm. Just as the natural exponential

function ex is very cool, so is its inverse. The logarithm with base e is called
the natural logarithm and is denoted by ln(x) := loge (x).
Concept 4.8.5 Change of base formula. For any positive number a 6= 1,

ln(x)
loga (x) = .
ln(a)
Concept 4.8.6 Derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions.

d x
(e ) =ex ,
dx
d x
(a ) =ax ln(a),
dx
d 1
(ln(x)) = ,
dx x
d 1
(loga (x)) = .
dx x ln(a)
Concept 4.8.7 Logarithmic differentiation. Suppose that you are given
a function y = f (x). The idea of logarithmic differentiation is to “take the
logarithm and then differentiate”. More precisely, we first take the absolute
value (as the argument of a logarithm must always be positive), and then take
the natural logarithm on both sides of the relation to get

ln |y| = ln |f (x)|.

Note that if the function f (x) is always positive, you can drop the absolute
value. We then use implicit differentiation, i.e. we differentiate both sides with
respect to x, considering that y is an arbitrary function of x. We get

y0 d
= ln |f (x)|.
y dx

We then solve for y 0 , and substitute back y = f (x), to get

d
y 0 = f (x) ln |f (x)|.
dx
We can get y 0 by evaluating the remaining derivative on the right-hand-side,
for a specific choice of f (x).
This method is useful when it is easier to evaluate the derivative of ln |f (x)|
than of f (x): for instance, for functions f (x) such that both the base and the
exponent depend on x (for instance, consider the function f (x) = xx with
x > 0, in which case ln f (x) = ln(xx ) = x ln x), or for functions f (x) that
are complicated products or quotients of functions (in which case logarithmic
differentiation is faster than product and quotient rules).

4.8.3 Further readings

Section 2.7 in CLP1Section 2.10 in CLP1
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 33

4.9 Inverse trigonometric functions

Having studied the inverse functions to exponential functions, we now in-
troduce the inverse functions to trigonometric functions, known as “inverse
trigonometric functions”. Their definition requires restricting the domain of
trigonometric functions, to make them one-to-one (so that their inverse func-
tions can be defined unambiguously). We also study their derivatives, using
implicit differentiation.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Determine the domain, the range and the graph of inverse trigonometric
functions.
• Evaluate the value of inverse trigonometric functions at certain points.
• Calculate the derivative of inverse trigonometric functions using implicit
differentiation.

• Simplify expressions involving trigonometric and inverse trigonometric

functions.

4.9.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5EgndoksPcM

4.9.2 Key concepts

Concept 4.9.1 Inverse trigonometric functions.
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 34

We remark here that there is no universal convention for the choice of principal
domain for sec x and csc x to define their inverse functions. For instance, in
Section 2.12 of CLP1, a different choice is made (see Definition 2.12.4). The
principal domain of sec x is chosen to be x ∈ [0, π/2) ∪ (π/2, π], while the
principal domain of csc x is chosen to be x ∈ [−π/2, 0) ∪ (0, π/2]. The domains
of both inverse functions sec−1 y and csc−1 y remain y ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).
Those choices may look simpler than ours, but there is a price to pay.
With this choice of principal domains, the derivatives of the inverse secant and
cosecant functions look a bit more complicated. Using implicit differentiation,
we would then obtain:
d 1
sec−1 x = √ ,
dx |x| x2 − 1

and
d 1
csc−1 x = − √ .
dx |x| x2 − 1
(See Theorem 2.12.8 in CLP1.) Note the appearance of absolute values here,
which are not present with our choice of conventions.
In the end, it does not matter which choice of convention is used to define
the inverse secant and cosecant functions. But one must be consistent. In this
course we will use the choice of conventions presented in the main text, which
results in derivatives without absolute values.
• Inverse sin function:
y = sin x ⇔ x = sin−1 y for x ∈ [−π/2, π/2],
y ∈ [−1, 1].

• Inverse cos function:

y = cos x ⇔ x = cos−1 y for x ∈ [0, π],
y ∈ [−1, 1].

• Inverse tan function:

y = tan x ⇔ x = tan−1 y for x ∈ (−π/2, π/2),
y ∈ R.

• Inverse cotan function:

y = cot x ⇔ x = cot−1 y for x ∈ (0, π),
y ∈ R.

• Inverse sec function:

y = sec x ⇔ x = sec−1 y for x ∈ [0, π/2) ∪ [π, 3π/2),
y ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).

• Inverse cosec function:

y = csc x ⇔ x = csc−1 y for x ∈ (0, π/2] ∪ (π, 3π/2]
y ∈ (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞).
Concept 4.9.2 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions.
Note that inverse trig functions are also denoted by arcsin(x), arccos(x), etc.,
d
which is often preferred. And, d
1 very importantly, remark that 1
sin−1 (x) = √ , cos−1 (x) = − √ ,
dx 2
1 − x −1 dx1 1 − x2
sin (x) 6= !
sin(x)
CHAPTER 4. DIFFERENTIATION 35

d 1 d 1
tan−1 (x) = , cot−1 (x) = − ,
dx 1 + x2 dx 1 + x2
d 1 d 1
sec−1 (x) = √ , csc−1 (x) = − √ .
dx x x2 − 1 dx x x2 − 1

4.9.3 Further readings

Section 2.12 in CLP1
Chapter 5

Integration

5.1 Antiderivatives and indefinite integrals

We are now masters of differentiation. Given a function, we know how to
calculate its derivative. Great! But what about the inverse process? Suppose
that you are given a function f (x): what other functions F (x) are such that
their derivatives F 0 (x) are equal to the original function f (x)? From the point
of view of kinematics: suppose that you know the velocity function of an object,
can you determine its position function? From the point of view of geometry:
suppose that you know the slope of the tangent lines to the graph of a function
at all points, can you determine what the original function is?1
This is the idea behind integration. In this section we take the first steps.
We define the concept of “antiderivatives”: an antiderivative of a function f
is another function F such that its derivative is equal to the originalZ function
f . We also introduce the idea of “indefinite integral”, denoted by f (x) dx,
which represents the most general antiderivative of a function f .

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain the meaning of an antiderivative and an indefinite integral.
• Use correct notation for antiderivatives and indefinite integrals.
• Recall the antiderivatives of elementary functions.

• Evaluate indefinite integrals of simple functions.

1 The answer to these last two questions is: almost. As we will see, you would also need

one more piece information to answer unambiguously these questions: either the position of
the object at a certain time, or the coordinates of a point that the graph of the function
passes through. This would unambiguously fix the appropriate antiderivative, or, in other
words, fix the “constant of integration”, as we will see.

36
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 37

5.1.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5-xjQZdYmus

5.1.2 Key concepts

Concept 5.1.1 Antiderivatives. A function F is called an antiderivative
of f on an interval I if F 0 (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ I.
If F is an antiderivative of f on I, then the most general antiderivative of
f on I is
F (x) + C,
where C ∈ R is an arbitrary constant.
Concept 5.1.2 Indefinite integrals. We use the notation
Z
f (x) dx = F (x) + C

to denote the most general antiderivative of f ; this expression is called the

indefinite integral
Z of f .
The notation f (x) dx means “finding the general antiderivative of f (x),”
d
just as f (x) means “finding the derivative of f (x).”
dx
Concept 5.1.3 Table of indefinite integrals. First, we note the following
two important properties of indefinite integrals:
Z Z
c f (x) dx =c f (x) dx for c a constant,
Z Z Z
(f (x) + g(x)) dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx.

Next, we list below a few well known indefinite integrals. These formulae can
be verified by differentiating the right-hand-side and obtaining the integrand
on the left-hand-side (the thing inside the indefinite integral, without the dx).
Z
1
xn dx = xn+1 + C (n 6= −1)
n+1
Z
1
dx = ln |x| + C
x
Z
ex dx =ex + C
ax
Z
ax dx = +C
ln(a)
Z
sin x dx = − cos x + C
Z
cos x dx = sin x + C
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 38
Z
sec2 x dx = tan x + C
Z
csc2 x dx = − cot x + C
Z
sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
Z
csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C
Z
1
dx = tan−1 x + C
x2 + 1
Z
1
√ dx = sin−1 x + C
1 − x2
Z
1
√ dx = sec−1 x + C
x x2 − 1

5.1.3 Further readings

Section 4.1 in CLP1

5.2 Area, displacement and Riemann sums

We now go back to the beginning. In our preview of calculus (Section 2.1), we
saw that we can estimate the area under a curve by replacing it with a finite
number of rectangles of appropriate heights and widths. In this section we
study this approach more rigourously; it gives rise to the concept of “Riemann
sums”. We introduce the “summation notation”, study some of its properties,
and use it to calculate a few simple Riemann sums. We also explore how taking
the limit of a Riemann sum where the number of rectangles becomes infinite
(in which case their widths go to zero) gives rise to a precise definition of the
area under a curve.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Describe and illustrate how to approximate the area under a curve using
approximating rectangles and a Riemann sum.
• Construct a Riemann sum to approximate the area under the curve of a
given function over a given interval [a, b] using n subintervals, with either
left endpoints, right endpoints, or mid endpoints.
• Calculate the value of a Riemann sum for a given function over a given
interval for a given value of n.
• Describe the limit process that arises in the calculation of the precise
area under a curve using Riemann sums.
• Calculate the area under a curve using limits of Riemann sums.
• Evaluate simple finite sums using the summation notation.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 39

5.2.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FffzDjY8Hiw

5.2.2 Key concepts

Concept 5.2.1 Summation notation. For {ai } a set of numbers indexed
by the integers, and for integers k ≤ n we have
n
X
ai = ak + ak+1 + · · · + an−1 + an .
i=k

Concept 5.2.2 Properties of sums.

n
X n
X n
X n
X n
X
cai = c ai , (ai ± bi ) = ai ± bi ,
i=k i=k i=k i=k i=k

and for any integer k with a < k < b,

b
X k
X b
X
ci = ci + ci .
i=a i=a i=k+1

Concept 5.2.3 Four useful finite sums.

n n
X X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
1 = n, i2 = ,
i=1 i=1
6
n n  2
X n(n + 1) X
3 n(n + 1)
i= , i = .
i=1
2 i=1
2

Concept 5.2.4 Riemann sums. For f (x) ≥ 0 on the interval [a, b], to
calculate the approximate area bounded by y = f (x), y = 0, x = a and x = b
using n intervals of equal width and the right endpoints of each interval we
define the Riemann sum:
n
X
Rn = ∆x · f (a + i∆x), where ∆x = (b − a)/n.
i=1

When n is increased the number of rectangles used is increased and the

approximation is improved.
Concept 5.2.5 Right endpoints, left endpoints, and mid endpoints.
This is the Riemann sum for “right endpoints”, meaning that the rectangles ap-
proximating the area under the curve have heights f (xi ) with xi corresponding
to the right endpoints of the rectangles. We can also define similarly Riemann
sums Ln for “left endpoints”, and Mn for “mid endpoints”.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 40

Concept 5.2.6 Limit of infinite number of rectangles of zero width.

If we let n → ∞, in whic case ∆x → 0, then the limit of all the Riemann
sums Rn , Ln , and Mn (right endpoint, left endpoint, and mid endpoint) are
all equal:
A = lim Rn = lim Ln = lim Mn .
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

This limit defines the exact area under the curve A .

Concept 5.2.7 Interpretation in kinematics. If f (t) ≥ 0 is a velocity
function then the Riemann sum Rn (or Ln or Mn ) can be used to approximate
the distance traveled during the interval of time from t = a to t = b, and
lim Rn becomes the exact distance traveled.
n→∞

5.2.3 Further readings

Section 1.1 in CLP2

5.3 Definite integrals

We now study in more detail the limit of Riemann sums as the number of
rectangles go to infinity. The result is known as a “definite integral”. We in-
troduce appropriate notation for definite integrals, and study their properties.
In particular, we clarify the relation between the definite integral and the area
under the curve in the case where the function f (x) is not necessarily positive.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Use correct notation for the definite integral and the limit process to
represent the area under a curve.
• Calculate the value of a definite integral using an appropriate limit of a
Riemann sum.

• Calculate the value of a definite integral using the interpretation of the

definite integral as a net area and the properties of the definite integral.
• Generate and/or explain properties of the definite integral based on the
interpretation of the definite integral as a net area (example: the integral
of an odd function over an interval that is symmetric about the origin is
zero).

5.3.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rJ3JX5V8Z24
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 41

5.3.2 Key concepts

Concept 5.3.1 Definite integrals. Let f (x) be a function defined for
x ∈ [a, b]. We divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal width
∆x = b−an . We let x0 = a, x1 = a + ∆x, . . . , xn = b be the right endpoints of
these intervals. The Riemann sum Rn is defined by
n
X
Rn = f (xi )∆x.
i=1

Rb
The definite integral of f from a to b, denoted by a
f (x) dx, is the n → ∞
limit of Rn :
b n
b−a
Z X
f (x) dx = lim f (xi )∆x, with ∆x = and xi = a + i∆x,
a n→∞
i=1
n

provided that the limit exists. If it exists, we say that f is integrable on [a, b].
In the definition above we used the right-point rule to write down the
Riemann sum Rn . But in fact we can use any point x∗i ∈ [xi−1 , xi ] in the
subintervals to define the Riemann sum:
n
X
Sn = ∆xf (x∗i ).
i=1

The definite integral is still obtained as the n → ∞ limit of Sn , and it is equal

to the definition above, regardless of the choice of x∗i .
Rb
In the notation a f (x) dx, f (x) is called the integrand, and a and b are
called the limits of integration: a is the lower limit while b is the upper
limit. Rb
Note: the definite integral a f (x) dx is a number; it is not a function of x.
Concept 5.3.2 Integrable functions. Many functions are integrable. More
precisely, if f is continuous on [a, b], or if f has only a finite number of jump
discontinuities on [a, b], then it is integrable on [a, b].
Concept 5.3.3 Definite integrals and areas. If f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b], then
Rb
a
f (x) dx calculates the area bounded by y = f (x), y = 0, x = a and x = b.
Rb
If f (x) ≤ 0 on [a, b], then a f (x) dx calculates minus the area bounded by
y = f (x), y = 0, x = a and x = b.
In general, if f (x) is partly positive and partly negative over [a, b], then
Rb
a
f (x) dx calculates the net area, which is the area above the x-axis minus
the area below the x-axis.
Accordingly, the true area (as opposed to the net area) between y = f (x),
y = 0, x = a and x = b is given by
Z b
A= |f (x)| dx.
a

Concept 5.3.4 Properties of definite integrals. Many properties of

definite integrals can be proved from the geometric interpretation:
Z b Z a
1. f (x) dx = − f (x) dx,
a b
Z a
2. f (x) dx = 0,
a
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 42

Z b Z b
3. c f (x) dx = c f (x) dx,
a a
Z b Z b Z b
4. (f (x) ± g(x)) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx,
a a a
Z b
5. dx = b − a,
a
Z b Z c Z b
6. f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx,
a a c
Z a Z a
7. If f (x) is even, then f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx,
−a 0
Z a
8. If f (x) is odd, then f (x) dx = 0,
−a
Z b
9. If f (x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ [a, b], then f (x) dx ≥ 0,
a
Z b Z b
10. If f (x) ≥ g(x) for x ∈ [a, b], then f (x) dx ≥ g(x) dx,
a a

11. If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for x ∈ [a, b], then

Z b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a),
a

12. Z b Z b
f (x) dx ≤ |f (x)| dx.
a a

5.3.3 Further readings

Section 1.1 in CLP2Section 1.2 in CLP2

5.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

We are now getting into the truly amazing core of calculus. We mentioned
a number of times that “differentiation and integration are inverse processes”.
But what does this mean precisely? This is the meat of the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus. Z
In fact, in previous sections, we used pretty much the same symbol, ,
to first denote the indefinite integral of a function (which is its most general
antiderivative - this was the symbol without limits of integration), and second
the definite integral of a function (which is the limit of a Riemann sum -
this was the symbol with limits of integration). A priori, those are two very
different concepts. Why do we use the same symbol for both? This is because
they are very intimately related: it turns out that we can evaluate definite
integrals in terms of arbitrary antiderivatives. Again, this is encapsulated into
the all-important Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. So let’s dive right into
it!
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 43

Objectives
You should be able to:
• State the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC).

• Sketch the main lines of the proof of the FTC.

• Explain in which sense the FTC is saying that differentiation and inte-
gration are inverse processes.
• Use the FTC Part 1, in conjunction with the chain rule and properties
of definite integrals, to evaluate the derivatives of functions presented as
integrals.
• Use the FTC Part 2 to evaluate integrals in terms of antiderivatives.

5.4.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C7Z_wET0blY

5.4.2 Key concepts

Concept 5.4.1 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC). Let
f (x) be a continuous function on [a, b]. Then:
Z x
1. If g(x) = f (t) dt, for a ≤ x ≤ b, then g 0 (x) = f (x);
a
Z b
2. f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a), where F is an arbitrary antiderivative of f .
a

The FTC gives a precise meaning to the statement that integration and differ-
entiation are inverse processes.
Concept 5.4.2 Some uses of the FTC.
1. The FTC part 1 can be used to evaluate derivatives of functions that are
given in integral form. Note that in part 1 above, g(x) is a function of x,
not of the dummy variable t that is integrated over.
2. The FTC part 2 can be used to evaluate definite integrals, by first finding
an antiderivative of the integrand.

5.4.3 Further readings

Section 1.3 in CLP2
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 44

5.5 Substitution
Now the we understand a bit more about integration, we can start address-
ing the problem of evaluating integrals. Using the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, we know that to evaluate definite integrals, we need to find an an-
tiderivative of the integrand. But finding antiderivatives is not always obvious.
In fact, it is a highly non-trivial problem in general; finding an antiderivative
of a function is much more difficult than finding the derivative of a function,
as the former is not algorithmic, while the latter is. To find the derivative of
a function, you just need to apply repeatedly differentiation rules; but there
is no precise recipe that I can give you to find antiderivatives of functions in
general.
However, all is not lost. There is a number of techniques that we can
develop to help find antiderivatives of complicated functions. In this section
we explore our first technique of integration, known as “substitution”. Other
techniques of integration will be covered in MATH 146. Note that substitution
is by far the most useful technique of integration: one that you will use over
and over again in your mathematical life.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Evaluate indefinite integrals using substitution.
• Evaluate definite integrals using substitution and the Fundamental The-
orem of Calculus.

• Explain in what sense substitution undoes the chain rule.

5.5.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vZbBbNyYfbg

5.5.2 Key concepts

Concept 5.5.1 The substitution rule. If u = g(x) is a differentiable
function and f (x) is continuous over the range of g(x), then
Z Z
0
f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du.

In other words, the substitution u = g(x), with du = g 0 (x)dx, “undoes” the

chain rule
In practice, what this means is that you can do a substitution u = g(x),
du = g 0 (x)dx inside an integral. This will be useful if you can then rewrite
the integrand as a function of u that is easier to integrate than the original
integrand as a function of x.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 45

Concept 5.5.2 Substitution for definite integrals. Substitution also

works for definite integrals, but one has to be careful with the limits of integra-
tion. There are two methods to evaluate definite integrals using substitution.
The first one is often the preferred method.
1. The idea is to transform the limits of integration from x-values to u-values
as you perform the substitution:
Z b Z g(b)
0
f ((g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du, with u = g(x), du = g 0 (x)dx.
a g(a)

Then you can evaluate the resulting definite integral in u directly using
the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (i.e. by finding an antiderivative
of f (u)).
2. The second method is to first find an antiderivative of the integrand
using substitution, rewrite it in terms of the original variable x, and
then evaluate at the limits of integration x = a and x = b using the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. This works as well, but you have to
be careful with notation and make sure that you rewrite everything in
terms of the x-variable before you evaluate at the limits of integration.

5.5.3 Further readings

Section 1.4 in CLP2

5.6 Areas between curves

We introduced Riemann sums in Section 2.1 and Section 5.2 as approxima-
tions of the area under the graph of a positive function. Then, we argued in
Section 5.3 that by taking the limit where the number of rectangles becomes
infinite, we obtain a precise calculation of the area. This is the fundamental
idea behind Riemann sums and definite integrals.
In this section we study in more detail the intimate connection between def-
inite integrals and areas between curves. In particular, we drop the assumption
that the curve is given by the graph of a positive function. This is our first
application of integration, in this case to geometry. We will see many more
applications of integration in MATH 146.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Describe why the area bounded by the graphs of two functions can be
written as a definite integral.
• Write down and evaluate the definite integral representing the area of a
given planar region.
• Differentiate between geometrical situations where integration in y is
more appropriate than integration in x to calculate the area of a given
planar region.
• Determine when it is necessary to split a given planar region into sub-
regions and use more than one integral to evaluate the area.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 46

5.6.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGJ6aM87mCI

5.6.2 Key concepts

Concept 5.6.1 Definite integrals and areas between curves. The area
A of the region S between the curves y = f (x), y = g(x), and the vertical lines
x = a and x = b, with a ≤ b, is given by the definite integral
Z b
A= |f (x) − g(x)| dx.
a

This expression can be obtained by slicing the region into n rectangles of equal
width ∆x. The Riemann sum then gives an approximation of the area S, and
the limit n → ∞ calculates A. To recover the integral expression directly, draw
a typical rectangle, with width dx and height |f (x) − g(x)|: the area is given
by integrating over typical rectangles from x = a to x = b.
If f (x) ≥ g(x) over the interval [a, b], the integral simplifies to
Z b
A= (f (x) − g(x))dx.
a

In the general case, where f (x) ≥ g(x) for some values of x but g(x) ≥ f (x)
for other values of x, to evaluate the integral above we split the region S into
smaller subregions S1 , S2 , . . . , Sn where either f (x) ≥ g(x) or g(x) ≥ f (x) over
a given subregion. Then we can use the fact that
(
f (x) − g(x) if f (x) ≥ g(x),
|f (x) − g(x)| =
g(x) − f (x) if g(x) ≥ f (x),

to evaluate the area Ai of each subregion Si , and add them up to get the area
A = A1 + A2 + . . . + An .
Concept 5.6.2 Vertical vs horizontal slicing. Sometimes it is better to
calculate the area of a region by slicing it with horizontal rectangles. If the
region S is bounded by the curves x = f (y), x = g(y), y = c and y = d,
with c ≤ d, then a typical horizontal rectangle will have height dy and width
|f (y) − g(y)|, and the area will be given by integrating from y = c to y = d:
Z d
A= |f (y) − g(y)| dy.
c

If f (y) ≥ g(y) over the interval y ∈ [c, d] (that is, the curve x = f (y) is the
right boundary of the region, while the curve x = g(y) is the left boundary),
then you can drop the absolute value in the expression above.
CHAPTER 5. INTEGRATION 47

5.6.3 Further readings

Section 1.5 in CLP2
Chapter 6

Functions and curves

6.1 The Intermediate Value Theorem

After our brief exploration of integrals, we now go back to our study of functions
and their properties. In Section 3.5 we introduced the concept of “continuous
functions”. In this section we explore a fundamental property that is satis-
fied by all continuous functions, known as the “Intermediate Value Theorem”
(IVT). While the statement of theorem may seem rather obvious, its proof is
quite involved, and its applications are far-reaching, in fact even surprising, as
we will see! In particular, one application of the IVT is to locate the roots
of complicated functions: repeated applications of the IVT gives rises to a
numerical root finding method, known as the “bisection method”.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain and illustrate the Intermediate Value Theorem.
• Apply the Intermediate Value Theorem to locate the roots of a function.
• Solve simple problems using the Intermediate Value Theorem.

6.1.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EqcBS56nYbg

6.1.2 Key concepts

Concept 6.1.1 Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT). Let f be a contin-
uous function over the interval [a, b], and let N be any number between f (a)
and f (b), with f (a) 6= f (b). Then the Intermediate Value Theorem states
that there must exist a c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = N .

48
CHAPTER 6. FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 49

Equivalently, for any N between f (a) and f (b), the horizontal line y = N
must intersect the graph of f at least once.
Two things to note:

• c may not be unique;

• If f is not continuous, then the statement of the Intermediate Value
Theorem may not hold.
Concept 6.1.2 Using the IVT to locate roots of functions. To locate
the roots of a continuous function f using the Intermediate Value Theorem,
pick two values of x, say x = a and x = b, such that f (a) is negative and f (b)
is positive. Then the Intermediate Value Theorem implies that f must have at
least one root between x = a and x = b.
You can repeat the process using the midpoint of the previous interval to
get a better numerical approximation for the location of the root: this is known
as the bisection method.

6.1.3 Further readings

Section 1.6.3 in CLP1

6.2 The Mean Value Theorem

Continuous functions satisfy the Intermediate Value Theorem; well, differen-
tiable functions also satisfy their own, nice, theorem, known as the “Mean
Value Theorem” (MVT). This is what we explore in this section. While it
may seem daunting at first, the statement of the MVT is in the end fairly
obvious. However, it has fundamental consequences. For instance, it follows
from the MVT that any function whose derivative vanishes over some interval
must be constant over that interval. As a consequence, it follows that two
antiderivatives of a given function can only differ by the addition of a con-
stant: a statement that we have used repeatedly! Using the MVT, we can now
understand why this statement must be true.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain and illustrate the Mean Value Theorem.

• Relate the Mean Value Theorem to the notions of average and instanta-
neous velocities.
• Solve simple problems using the Mean Value Theorem.

6.2.1 Instructional video

CHAPTER 6. FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 50

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oobkaTO9Vmo

6.2.2 Key concepts

Concept 6.2.1 Mean Value Theorem (MVT). Let f be a function that is
continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and differentiable over the open interval
(a, b). Then the Mean Value Theorem states that there is a number c ∈
(a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = .
b−a
Geometrically, the Mean Value Theorem is saying that there must be a
c ∈ (a, b) such that the tangent line to y = f (x) at x = c is parallel to the
secant line between (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)).
It can also be understood as saying that there must be a c ∈ (a, b) at which
the instantaneous rate of change of f is equal to its average rate of change
between a and b.
Note that as for the Intermediate Value Theorem, c need not be unique;
there may be more than one c satisfying the statement of the Mean Value
Theorem.
Concept 6.2.2 Rolle’s Theorem. In the special case where f (a) = f (b)
(the secant line is horizontal), then the statement becomes that there must be
a c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0 (the tangent line is horizontal), which is called
Rolle’s Theorem.
Concept 6.2.3 Important consequences of the Mean Value Theorem.
The following statements are consequences of the Mean Value Theorem:
• If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in some interval (a, b), then f must be constant on
(a, b).

• If f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) for all x in some interval (a, b), then f − g must be
constant on (a, b). That is, f (x) = g(x) + C for some constant C.

6.2.3 Further readings

Section 2.13 in CLP1

6.3 Maxima and minima

In this section we study how to find maxima and minima of functions. We
distinguish between local and absolute extrema of a function. We study the
Extreme Value Theorem, which provides a simple approach to finding the ab-
solute max and min of a function on a closed interval. Overall, the content of
this section is very useful to sketch the graph of complicated functions (Sec-
tion 6.4), but also to solve optimization problems, which are very common in
science, economics, etc. (Section 7.2)

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain and illustrate the definition of local and absolute extrema.
• Explain and illustrate the definition of critical numbers of a function.

• Relate critical numbers of a function to its local extrema.

CHAPTER 6. FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 51

• Find the critical numbers of a function.

• Explain and illustrate geometrically the Extreme Value Theorem.
• Find the absolute minimum and maximum of a function on a closed
interval.

6.3.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wEUjRKOeTyo

6.3.2 Key concepts

Concept 6.3.1 Min and max of a function. Let c ∈ D where D is the
domain of f . Then f (c) is:
• The absolute maximum of f on D if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ D;

• The absolute minimum of f on D if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ D;

• The local maximum of f on D if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x near c;
• The local minimum of f on D if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x near c.
Near c means “for all x in some open interval containing c.”
In general, absolute minima and maxima can occur either at local minima
or maxima, or, if D is a closed interval, at the endpoints of the interval.
Concept 6.3.2 Extrema and critical numbers. A critical number of
f is a number c in the domain D of f such that either f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does
not exist.
If f has a local minimum or maximum at c, then c is a critical number
of f (Fermat’s Theorem). However, the converse is not true: not all critical
numbers are local minima or maxima.
Concept 6.3.3 Extreme Value Theorem. If f is continuous on [a, b], then
f must attain an absolute maximum f (c) and an absolute minimum f (d) at
some numbers c, d ∈ [a, b].
Concept 6.3.4 How to find the absolute extrema of a continuous
function f on a closed interval [a, b].
1. Find the critical numbers of f in (a, b), and evaluate f at the critical
numbers;
2. Evaluate f at the endpoints a and b;

3. Compare the values. The largest of these values is the absolute maximum,
while the smallest is the absolute minimum.
CHAPTER 6. FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 52

6.3.3 Further readings

Section 3.5 in CLP1

6.4 Curve sketching

We now have all the information needed to sketch the graph of complicated
functions by hand. In this section we provide a ten-step method for sketching
the graph of a function f , using the information provide by f , its derivative
f 0 , and its second derivative f 00 .

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Find the domain of a function.
• Find the intercepts of a function.
• Determine the intervals where a function is positive or negative.

• Determine whether a function is even, odd, or periodic.

• Find the vertical, horizontal and slant asymptotes of a function.
• Find the intervals where a function is increasing and decreasing by study-
ing the first derivative of the function.

• Find the local minima and maxima of a function (determine whether a

function has a local min or max at a given critical number using the First
Derivative Test and Second Derivative Test).
• Find the intervals where a function is concave up and concave down by
studying the second derivative of the function.

• Find the inflection points of a function.

• Sketch a detailed graph of a given function using information as deter-
mined in the 9 steps above.

6.4.1 Instructional videos

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vyhui3AV8FA
CHAPTER 6. FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 53

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H1ENyjqn3Tw

6.4.2 Key concepts

Concept 6.4.1 Increasing/Decreasing Test. Given a function f , one
can find the intervals where the function is increasing and decreasing using
information from f 0 :
• If f 0 (x) > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.
• If f 0 (x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.
Concept 6.4.2 First Derivative Test. The first derivative test is useful
to determine whether a critical number of a function f is a local min or max,
using information from f 0 .
Let c be a critical number of a continuous function f .
• If f 0 changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local max at c.

• If f 0 changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local min at c.

• If f 0 does not change sign at c, then f has no local extremum at c.
Concept 6.4.3 Concavity Test. Given a function f , one can find the
intervals where the function is concave up or down using information from f 00 :
• If f 00 (x) > 0 on an interval, then f is concave up on that interval (happy).
• If f 00 (x) < 0 on an interval, then f is concave down on that interval
(unhappy).

A point where the graph of a function is continuous and where the concavity
changes is called an inflection point of f .
Concept 6.4.4 Second Derivative Test. The second derivative test is
useful to determin whether a critical number of a function f is a local min or
max, using information from f 00
Suppose f 00 is continuous near c:
• If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a local min at c.
• If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a local max at c.

Note that if f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) = 0, then the test is not conclusive: f may
have a local max, a local min, or neither.
Concept 6.4.5 Vertical asymptotes. The vertical line x = a is a vertical
asymptote of y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = ±∞ or lim f (x) = ±∞.

x→a+ x→a−

Concept 6.4.6 Horizontal asymptotes. The horizontal line y = L is a

CHAPTER 6. FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 54

horizontal asymptote of y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = L, or lim f (x) = L.

x→∞ x→−∞

Concept 6.4.7 Slant asymptotes. Slant asymptotes occur when a function

y = f (x) approaches a line (that is not horizontal) as x goes to ±∞.
The line y = mx + b, m 6= 0, is a slant asymptote of y = f (x) if either

lim (f (x) − (mx + b)) = 0 or lim (f (x) − (mx + b)) = 0.

x→∞ x→−∞

This says that the vertical distance between the graph of y = f (x) and the line
y = mx + b approaches 0 as x → ∞ or x → −∞.
Slant asymptotes are commonly found when f (x) is a rational function, and
the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the denominator.
Then, it can be found by performing long division for the rational function.
Concept 6.4.8 Summary of curve sketching. Ten step method:
Information from f (x):
1. Domain: find the domain of f .
2. Intercepts: Find the y-intercepts (0, f (0)) and x-intercepts (the points
where f (x) = 0).
3. Positivity: Find where f is positive and negative.
4. Symmetry: Is f even or odd? Is f periodic?
5. Asymptotes: Find the vertical, horizontal and slant asymptotes of f if
any exist.
Information from f 0 (x):
6. Intervals of increase and decrease: Find f 0 (x) and determine when f 0 (x) >
0 (f is increasing) and when f 0 (x) < 0 (f is decreasing).

7. Local max and min points: Find the critical points of f , if any, and
identify the local max and min.
Information from f 00 (x):
8. Concavity: Find f 00 (x), determine when f 00 (x) > 0 (f is concave up) and
when f 00 (x) < 0 (f is concave down).
9. Inflection points: Find the inflection points of f , if any.
And finally...
10. Sketch the graph: Plot key points (intercepts, critical points, local max
and min, points of inflection), and sketch the curve together with its
asymptotes.

6.4.3 Further readings

Section 3.6 in CLP1
Chapter 7

Applications of differentiation

7.1 Related rates

We now study a few applications of differentiation. This is fun stuff! Our first
application concerns problems involving relationships between quantities that
are changing in time. Such problems are called “related rate” problems, and
can usually be solved via differentiation.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Introduce notation to express a written problem involving rates of change
in terms of derivatives.
• Solve various problems from physics, chemistry, biology, etc., involving re-
lationships between changing quantities by applying differentiation tech-
niques (related rates problems).

7.1.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=goTaQeHmzoI

7.1.2 Key concepts

Concept 7.1.1 Strategy to solve related problems.
1. Read the problem carefully.
2. Draw a picture if possible.
3. Introduce notation. Assign symbols to all quantities that are functions
of time.
4. Express the given information and the desired rate of change in terms of

55
CHAPTER 7. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 56

derivatives.
5. Write an equation that relates the various quantities of the problem.
If necessary, use the geometry of the situation to eliminate one of the
variables by substitution.
6. Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to t.
7. Substitute the given information into the new equation and solve for the
desired rate of change.

7.1.3 Further readings

Section 3.2 in CLP1

7.2 Optimization
Our next application concerns “optimization problems”. Suppose that you are
interested in maximizing (or minimizing) a certain quantity, which may depend
on a number of factors. How can you determine how these factors should be
adjusted so that the quantity of interest is maximized (or minimized)? It turns
out that differentiation is the tool of choice for answering questions of this type.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Introduce notation to transform an optimization problem into a calculus
question about finding the extremum of a function.
• Solve various optimization problems from physics, chemistry, economics,
population dynamics, etc. by applying calculus techniques to find the
extremum of a function.

7.2.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fzflFNwp5GQ

7.2.2 Key concepts

Concept 7.2.1 Strategy to solve optimization problems.
1. Read the problem carefully.
2. Draw a picture if possible.
3. Introduce notation. Assign a symbol (say Q) to the quantity that is to be
maximized or minimized, and symbols to the other unknown quantities
relevant to the problem.
CHAPTER 7. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 57

4. Write an equation for Q in terms of the other unknowns of the problem. If

Q is expressed in terms of more than one variables, use the information of
the problem to find relationships between these variables, and eliminate
all but one the variables in the expression for Q. Then Q will be expressed
as a function of a single variable, say Q = f (x).
5. Find the absolute maximum or minimum value of f (x) over the range of
x allowed by the problem. If this is a closed interval in x, you can use
the closed interval method, otherwise, you need to find the local min or
max and justify why a given local min or a max is the absolute max or
min of f (x).

7.2.3 Further readings

Section 3.5 in CLP1

7.3 Linear approximation

When we introduced the concept of derivative in Chapter 2 and Section 4.1,
we studied how the derivative can be understood geometrically as calculating
the slope of the tangent line to the graph of a function at a point. Moreover,
we mentioned that if we zoom in on the graph of the function near this point,
the tangent line becomes closer and closer to the graph of the function. In
other words, it provides a fairly good approximation of the function near that
point. This is the idea of “linear approximations”.
In fact, calculus could be understood as a theory of approximations: the
derivative is a machinery that allows us to construct polynomial approxima-
tions of functions. The linear approximation, which corresponds to the tangent
line, is the degree one polynomial approximation of a function at a point.
In this section we study the idea of linear approximations in more detail,
and explore how it can be applied in various problems in the physical sciences.

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Find the linear approximation of a function at a given point.

• Illustrate the relation between the function and its linear approximation.
• Use the linear approximation of a function at a point to approximate the
value of the function near this point.
• Deduce whether a linear approximation over- or under-estimates the ex-
act value of a function from information about concavity of the function.

7.3.1 Instructional video

CHAPTER 7. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 58

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sgbPy_tkfwA

7.3.2 Key concepts

Concept 7.3.1 Linear approximation and linearization. Recall that
the tangent line of a differentiable function f (x) at point (a, f (a)) is

y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a).

For x values very close to a the graph of f (x) is very close to the graph of the
tangent line. Then, we can use the tangent line to obtain the approximation

f (x) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a);

this is called the linear approximation of f (x) at a.

The function
L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)
is called the linearization of f at a.

7.3.3 Further readings

Section 3.4 in CLP1

7.4 Taylor polynomials

In the previous section we studied the linear approximation of a function at a
point. But why stop at linear polynomials? Wouldn’t we be able to achieve
better approximations if we looked for higher degree polynomials?
The answer is yes, and the result is what is called the “Taylor polynomials”
of a function at a point. The degree d Taylor polynomial of a function at a point
approximates that function near this point by a degree d polynomial. It turns
out that the Taylor polynomials of a function at a point can be fully calculated
using differentiation. I told you that calculus was a theory of approximations!

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Calculate the Taylor polynomials of a function, and compute its corre-
sponding higher degree approximation at a given point.
• Illustrate the relation between the function and its higher degree approx-
imations.

• Use the higher degree approximations of a function at a point to approx-

imate the value of the function near this point.
CHAPTER 7. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 59

7.4.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=anEgFWVe1vQ

7.4.2 Key concepts

Concept 7.4.1 Taylor polynomials. The idea of Taylor polynomials is to
approximate a function f (x) at a point x = a by higher degree polynomials.
The polynomial

f 00 (a) f (d) (a)

Td (x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)d ,
2! d!
where k! = 1 · 2 · 3 . . . k, is called the degree d Taylor polynomial of f (x) at
x = a.
It satisfies the properties:
(k)
Td (a) = f (a) and Td (a) = f (k) (a)

for all k = 1, 2, . . . , d.
Concept 7.4.2 The degree d polynomial approximation of a function
at a point. The degree d approximation of f (x) at x = a is

f (x) ≈ Td (x),

where Td (x) is the degree d Taylor polynomial of f (x) at x = a. When d = 1

we get the linear approximation of f at x = a,

f (x) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a).

When d = 2 we get the quadratic approximation of f at x = a,

f 00 (a)
f (x) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 .
2
Concept 7.4.3 The Taylor series. In fact, we could try to send d → ∞;
that would give an “approximation” of f (x) at x = a by an “infinite degree
polynomial”. This can be made rigorous using sequence and series; namely,
taking d → ∞ means taking the limit of the sequence of Taylor polynomials
Td (x), and the result is the Taylor series of f (x) at x = a. Reversing the
process, one can think of the Taylor polynomials above as truncations (so-called
“partial sums”) of the Taylor series of f (x) at x = a.

7.4.3 Further readings

Section 3.4 in CLP1
CHAPTER 7. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 60

7.5 Newton’s method

Our final application of differentiation is a very cool application of linear ap-
proximations. We study how repeated applications of linear approximations
give rise to a very efficient numerical algorithm for finding roots of functions,
known as “Newton’s method”. We have already seen in Section 6.1 another
method for finding roots of a function, namely the bisection method, which re-
sulted from repeated applications of the Intermediate Value Theorem. It turns
out that Newton’s method is a much more efficient algorithm for finding roots
of a function (however, Newton’s method may sometime fail for some choices
of initial conditions).
√ In fact, one can use Newton’s method to calculate square
roots, such as 42, to fairly good accuracy, in your head!

Objectives
You should be able to:
• Explain and illustrate Newton’s method.
• Apply Newton’s method to find approximations of all roots of a given
function correct to a given number of decimal places.

• Explain and illustrate why Newton’s method may fail for certain choices
of initial conditions.

7.5.1 Instructional video

YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZrATWBLLdk

7.5.2 Key concepts

Concept 7.5.1 Newton’s method. To find a root r of a differentiable
function f (x) near an x-value of x1 , we apply Newton’s Method. The idea
is to replace the function by its linearization at x1 , and then find the x-intercept
x2 of the linearization, which is a first approximation of the root of f (x). We
then repeat the process at x2 , and so on, until we reach a desired numerical
precision for the root of f (x). More precisely:
1. First we calculate x2 , the x-intercept of the tangent line of f at (x1 , f (x1 ))
(the linearization of f at x1 ). We get

f (x1 )
x2 = x1 − .
f 0 (x1 )

2. Then we find x3 , the x-intercept of the tangent line of f at (x2 , f (x2 )),
and get
f (x2 )
x3 = x2 − 0 .
f (x2 )
CHAPTER 7. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION 61

3. We can repeat this process as many times as desired. At each step, the
x-intercept of the tangent line of f at (xn , f (xn )) is given by

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn − .
f 0 (xn )

4. If we want an answer valid for k decimal places, we stop the process when
two successive values xn and xn+1 have the exact same first k decimals.
We conclude that xn+1 is then a root of f (x), up to a precision of k >
decimal places.
Note that Newton’s method may sometimes converge very slowly. In fact, it
can also fail, for a number of reasons, for instance if the starting point x1 is
not chosen appropriately.