Calculus (Math-141)

Abrar - CUET 24
July 27, 2025

Contents
1 Introduction to Functions 2
1.1 Representing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Domain Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Graph of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 The Vertical Line Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Piecewise-Defined Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Symmetry: Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions 4

2.1 Types of Functions for Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.1 Linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.2 Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.3 Power Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.4 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.1.5 Algebraic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.6 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.7 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 New Functions from Old Functions 7

3.1 Transformations of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Combinations of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3 Composition of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

4 Inverse Functions and Logarithms 9

4.1 One-to-One Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3.1 Natural Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

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1 Introduction to Functions
In mathematics, a function describes a relationship where one quantity depends uniquely on another.

Definition 1.1 (Function). A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly one
element, called f (x), in a set E.

For calculus, sets D and E are typically sets of real numbers. The set D is called the domain of the
function. The number f (x) is the value of f at x and is read “f of x.” The range of f is the set of all
possible values of f (x) as x varies throughout the domain. A symbol representing an arbitrary number in
the domain is an independent variable. A symbol representing a number in the range is a dependent
variable.
For instance, if A is the area of a circle and r is its radius, then A = πr2 . Here, r is the independent
variable and A is the dependent variable. The domain for r is (0, ∞), and the range for A is (0, ∞).

1.1 Representing Functions

Functions can be represented in four primary ways:

(a) Verbally: A description in words. (e.g., “The cost of postage depends on an envelope’s weight.”)
(b) Numerically: A table of values. (e.g., populations at specific times.)
(c) Visually: A graph. This provides an intuitive picture of the function’s behavior.
(d) Algebraically: An explicit formula or equation. (e.g., A(r) = πr2 ).

1.1.1 Domain Convention

If a function is given by a formula and its domain is not explicitly stated, the convention is that the domain
is the set of all real numbers for which the formula produces a real number value.
√
Example 1.1 (Finding the Domain). Find the domain of f (x) = x − 2. Solution: For f (x) to be a
real number, the expression under the square root must be non-negative: x − 2 ≥ 0 =⇒ x ≥ 2. The
domain is [2, ∞).

1.2 The Graph of a Function

The graph of a function f with domain D is the set of ordered pairs {(x, f (x)) | x ∈ D} plotted in the
coordinate plane. The y-coordinate f (x) represents the height of the graph above x.

y
(1, f (1))
3

−0.7 1 5

1.3 The Vertical Line Test

A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve
more than once. This is fundamental because a function assigns exactly one output for each input.

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1.4 Piecewise-Defined Functions
These functions are defined by different formulas on different parts of their domain.
Example 1.2 (Graphing a Piecewise Function).
(
1 − x if x < 1
f (x) =
x2 if x ≥ 1
The graph consists of a line for x < 1 and a parabola for x ≥ 1.
y

1
x
The absolute value function, f (x) = |x|, is a common piecewise function:
(
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0
y

x
Functions like postage cost are often step functions, whose graphs jump abruptly.

1.5 Symmetry: Even and Odd Functions

Definition 1.2 (Even Function). A function f is even if f (−x) = f (x) for all x in its domain. Its graph
is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
Definition 1.3 (Odd Function). A function f is odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in its domain. Its graph
is symmetric with respect to the origin (180◦ rotational symmetry).
Example 1.3. • f (x) = x2 is even: f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2 = f (x).
• g(x) = x3 is odd: g(−x) = (−x)3 = −x3 = −g(x).
• h(x) = x5 − x is odd: h(−x) = (−x)5 − (−x) = −x5 + x = −(x5 − x) = −h(x).

1.6 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Definition 1.4 (Increasing Function). A function f is increasing on an interval I if f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
whenever x1 < x2 in I.
Definition 1.5 (Decreasing Function). A function f is decreasing on an interval I if f (x1 ) > f (x2 )
whenever x1 < x2 in I.
Geometrically, an increasing function’s graph rises from left to right, and a decreasing function’s graph
falls from left to right.

3
2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions
A mathematical model is a mathematical description of a real-world phenomenon. The process involves
formulating, solving, interpreting, and testing models.

2.1 Types of Functions for Modeling

2.1.1 Linear Functions
A linear function is f (x) = mx + b. The slope m represents a constant rate of change.
Example 2.1 (Temperature Model). If temperature T decreases linearly with height h, from 20◦ C at
h = 0 to 10◦ C at h = 1 km, the linear model is T (h) = −10h + 20. The slope, −10◦ C/km, is the rate of
temperature change with height.

2.1.2 Polynomial Functions

Definition 2.1 (Polynomial). A polynomial is a function of the form P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · +
a1 x + a0 , where n is a non-negative integer and ai are constants. n is the degree if an ̸= 0.
The domain of any polynomial is (−∞, ∞).
• Degree 1: Linear functions (mx + b).
• Degree 2: Quadratic functions (ax2 + bx + c). Their graphs are parabolas.
• Degree 3: Cubic functions (ax3 + bx2 + cx + d).
y
y = x2 + x + 1

2.1.3 Power Functions

Definition 2.2 (Power Function). A power function is of the form f (x) = xa , where a is a constant.
• If a = n (positive integer): y = x√n . Graphs are√symmetric parabolas (even
√ n) or cubic-like (odd n).
• If a = 1/n (root function): y = n x. E.g., y = x (domain [0, ∞)), y = 3 x (domain (−∞, ∞)).
• If a = −1 (reciprocal function): y = 1/x. Graph is a hyperbola. Domain (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞).
y √ y
y= x
1 y = 1/x
1
−1
−1 1
1
x x

2.1.4 Rational Functions

Definition 2.3 (Rational Function). A rational function f (x) = P (x)
Q(x)
, where P (x) and Q(x) are poly-
nomials.
Its domain consists of all x where Q(x) ̸= 0.

4
2.1.5 Algebraic Functions
Definition 2.4 (Algebraic Function). An algebraic function is formed from polynomials using addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking roots.
√
All rational functions are algebraic. Examples: f (x) = x2 + 1, g(x) = x+1
x
.

2.1.6 Trigonometric Functions

In calculus, angles are measured in radians.

• Sine (sin x): Domain R, Range [−1, 1], Period 2π.

• Cosine (cos x): Domain R, Range [−1, 1], Period 2π.
• Tangent (tan x = sin x/ cos x): Domain {x | x ̸= π/2 + nπ, n ∈ Z}, Range R, Period π.

Their periodic nature makes them suitable for modeling repetitive phenomena.
y
y = cos
y =xsin x
1

−π π 2π 3π
−1
x

2.1.7 Exponential Functions

Definition 2.5 (Exponential Function). An exponential function is of the form f (x) = ax , where a is
a positive constant (a > 0).

The domain is (−∞, ∞) and the range is (0, ∞).

• If 0 < a < 1, f (x) = ax decreases.

• If a > 1, f (x) = ax increases rapidly.

All graphs pass through (0, 1).

y

y = (0.5)x y = 2x

Laws of Exponents: If a, b > 0 and x, y ∈ R: ax ay = ax+y , ax /ay = ax−y , (ax )y = axy , (ab)x = ax bx .
The Natural Exponential Function (ex ): The most important base is e ≈ 2.71828, chosen such
that the tangent line to y = ex at (0, 1) has a slope of 1.

5
 y

1
y = ex
x

ex grows extremely rapidly; e.g., e14 ≈ 1.2 × 106 .

6
3 New Functions from Old Functions
We can derive new functions by transforming existing graphs or combining functions.

3.1 Transformations of Graphs

Let y = f (x) be a given function, and c > 0 be a constant.

• Vertical Shifts:
– y = f (x) + c: Upward shift by c units.
– y = f (x) − c: Downward shift by c units.
• Horizontal Shifts:
– y = f (x − c): Right shift by c units.
– y = f (x + c): Left shift by c units.

Example 3.1. From y = x2 , y = (x + 3)2 + 1 is obtained by shifting left 3 units and up 1 unit.

• Vertical Scaling (c > 1):

– y = c · f (x): Vertical stretch by factor c.
– y = 1c · f (x): Vertical shrink by factor c.
• Horizontal Scaling (c > 1):
– y = f (x/c): Horizontal stretch by factor c.
– y = f (cx): Horizontal shrink by factor c.

Example 3.2. From y = sin x, y = sin(2x) is a horizontal compression by factor 2 (period changes
from 2π to π).
y
y = sin x
1
y = sin(2x)
π 2π
−1
x

• Reflections:
– y = −f (x): Reflection about the x-axis.
– y = f (−x): Reflection about the y-axis.
√ √ √
Example 3.3. From y = x, y = − x is an x-axis reflection, and y = −x is a y-axis reflection.
√ y √
y= −x y= x
2
1

1 4
−1
−2 √
y = x− x

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3.2 Combinations of Functions
Given functions f and g, we can form new functions:

• Sum: (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

• Difference: (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)
• Product: (f g)(x)
 = f (x)g(x)
• Quotient: g (x) = fg(x)
f (x)
(where g(x) ̸= 0)

The domain of these new functions is the intersection of the domains of f and g, with an additional
restriction for the quotient.

3.3 Composition of Functions

Definition 3.1 (Composite Function). The composite function f ◦ g is defined by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)).

The domain of f ◦ g includes x values such that x is in the domain of g and g(x) is in the domain of f .

Example 3.4. If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x − 3:

• (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x − 3) = (x − 3)2 .

• (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x2 ) = x2 − 3.

Note that f ◦ g ̸= g ◦ f .

Example 3.5 (Decomposing Functions). Express F (x) = (cos(x + 9))2 as a composition of simpler func-
tions. Solution: Let h(x) = x + 9, g(x) = cos x, and f (x) = x2 . Then F (x) = f (g(h(x))) = (f ◦ g ◦ h)(x).

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4 Inverse Functions and Logarithms
4.1 One-to-One Functions
Definition 4.1 (One-to-One Function). A function f is one-to-one if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) implies x1 = x2 .
Each output corresponds to exactly one input.
Horizontal Line Test: A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph
more than once.
Example 4.1. f (x) = x3 is one-to-one. g(x) = x2 is not one-to-one (e.g., g(2) = g(−2) = 4).

4.2 Inverse Functions

Definition 4.2 (Inverse Function). Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B. Its
inverse function f −1 has domain B and range A, and is defined by:

f −1 (y) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y

Cancellation Equations:
• f −1 (f (x)) = x for x ∈ A.
• f (f −1 (x)) = x for x ∈ B.
Finding f −1 :
1. Write y = f (x).
2. Solve for x in terms of y.
3. Interchange x and y to get y = f −1 (x).
√
Example 4.2 √ (Finding and Graphing an Inverse). Find and graph the inverse of f (x) = x. Solution:
√
1. Let y = x. 2. Square both sides: y = x. 3. Interchange x and y: x = y. Since f (x) = x
2 2

has domain [0, ∞) and range [0, ∞), f −1 (x) = x2 (for x ≥ 0). Graph: The graph of f −1 is obtained by
reflecting the graph of f about the line y = x.
y

y = x2 , x ≥ 0 y=x
√
y= x
2
1

1 4 x

4.3 Logarithmic Functions

For a > 0, a ̸= 1, the exponential function f (x) = ax is one-to-one, so it has an inverse.
Definition 4.3 (Logarithmic Function). The logarithmic function with base a, denoted loga x, is the
inverse of ax :
loga x = y ⇐⇒ ay = x

• Domain: (0, ∞), Range: (−∞, ∞).

9
 • Graph passes through (1, 0) (loga 1 = 0).
• Laws of Logarithms: For x, y > 0, r ∈ R:
– loga (xy) = loga x + loga y
– loga (x/y) = loga x − loga y
– loga (xr ) = r loga x

Example 4.3. log2 80 − log2 5 = log2 (80/5) = log2 16 = 4.

4.3.1 Natural Logarithms

The logarithm with base e is the natural logarithm, denoted ln x.

• ln x = y ⇐⇒ ey = x
• ln(ex ) = x (for all x), eln x = x (for x > 0)
• ln e = 1, ln 1 = 0

Example 4.4. Solve ln x = 5 =⇒ x = e5 . Solve e5−3x = 10 =⇒ 5 − 3x = ln 10 =⇒ x = (5 − ln 10)/3.

Change of Base Formula:

ln x
loga x =
ln a
This allows calculation of any logarithm using natural logarithms (e.g., log8 5 = ln 5
ln 8
).

4.4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions are not one-to-one. To define inverses, their domains are restricted.

• Inverse Sine (arcsin x or sin−1 x): Inverse of sin x restricted to [−π/2, π/2]. Domain: [−1, 1],
Range: [−π/2, π/2].
y
π/2

−1 1
−π/2
x

Example: sin−1 (1/2) = π/6.

• Inverse Cosine (arccos x or cos−1 x): Inverse of cos x restricted to [0, π]. Domain: [−1, 1], Range:
[0, π].
y
π

π/2

−1 1 x

• Inverse Tangent (arctan x or tan−1 x): Inverse of tan x restricted to (−π/2, π/2). Domain:
(−∞, ∞), Range: (−π/2, π/2).

10
y
π/2

−π/2
x

11